VAN HHHFNC BiPAP - draeger.com CPAP.pdf · Stiller dan de meeste andere methoden ... Inmiddels ook...

Do’s & don’ts 22.02.17

Henry Blom

HHHFNC BiPAP VAN NAAR EN TERUG

Zeker, maar hoe & wanneer ?

Niet invasieve Respiratoire Ondersteuning ?

Niet-Invasieve Respiratoire

Ondersteuning

Doel:

Verbeteren van zuurstofsaturatie

Verminderen van ademhalingsarbeid

Voorkomen van beademing

Preventie van CLD (BPD)

Verminderen post-extubatie falen

Behandelen van apneu’s (AoP)

Ligdagduur & -prijs verminderen

Werking:

Levert zuurstof

Vermindert ademhalingsarbeid

Recruteert alveoli (verbetering FRC)

Verbetert ‘closing volume’

Optimaliseert longcapaciteit

Begeleidt ventilatie, minder oxygenatie

Minder risico VAP


Ondersteuning


Ondersteuning

Indicatie:

Zuurstofnood

Respiratoir Distress Syndroom (RDS)

Transiënte Tachypneu van de Neonaat (TTN)

Apneu van de Prematuur (AoP)

Post-extubatie

Chronisch Longlijden (CLD/BPD)

Ondersteuning tijdens de transitie-fase


Ondersteuning

Contra-indicatie:

Weinig observatie van ervaren personeel

Geen spontane ademhaling of uitputtingsverschijnselen

Geen vrije BLW (bijv. epistaxis, choanale atresie, …)

Ernstige acidose

Multi-orgaan falen (en/of hemodynamische instabiliteit)

Pneumothorax

Agitatie


Ondersteuning

Soorten:

Observatie

O2 (bijv. in couveuse)

Low flow neusbril

High flow neusbril

CPAP

BiPAP

NIPPV

Zuurstof

Low Flow Neusbril

FiO2 1.0 met

variabele zeer lage

flow

FiO2 variabel met

lage flow (<2 Lmin-1)

Low Flow Neusbril (NC)

Geleverde zuurstof is niet de ingestelde

x kg lichaamsgewicht

y Lmin-1 flow (y(z-21)/x)+21

z % zuurstof

2,1 kg; 0,2 Lmin-1; 65% effectief 25,2 % zuurstof

Koude & droge gassen (meer indien hogere

flow)

Warme, vochtige lucht & RDS

Humidified-Heated High Flow

Neusbril

FiO2 variabel

Hoge flow (>2 Lmin-1)

Warme, bevochtigde lucht

High Flow Neusbril (HHHFNC)

Geleverde zuurstof is gekend

Geleverde warmte en bevochtiging is gekend

Beter voor de ontwikkeling ?

Minder schade thv mond & neus

Stiller dan de meeste andere methoden

Gemakkelijker voor verzorging

Gemakkelijker voor ouders (kangoeroeën, BV)

Betere interactie tussen patiënt en hun omgeving

Veroorzaakt minder energieverbruik tijdens ademen


Werking is niet duidelijk Reduceert nasopharyngeale dode ruimte

Reduceert Rins (nasopharynx)

Verbetert conductie (bronchi) ademhalingsarbeid

Verbetert compliantie bij verhoging flow

Verbetert ventilatie en oxigenatie

Positieve druk long ‘recruitment’ & voorkomt alveolaire collaps

‘Flush’ effect

prongs <50% neusgatdiameter lek mogelijk belangrijk tijdens uitademing van CO2


Continue positieve distentie druk is afhankelijk van:

Grootte baby

Grootte van interface (de neusbril)

Ademhalingspatroon

Ingestelde flow

Druk is evenwel niet gekend

Baro- & volutraumata

Adequate druk vereist gesloten mond


Andere bezorgdheden

Zuurstofintoxicatie

Mechanische of thermotraumata

Teveel lucht in abdomen

Teveel water in luchtweg

Infectierisico

Subcutane scalp emphyseem & pneumo-orbitus

Thoraxwand vervorming

Continue Positieve Luchtweg Druk

FiO2 variabel

Druk continu


Negatieve druk genereert een intrekkende

beweging van de thoraxwand bij spontane

ademhaling

Verzwakt inspiratie kracht en capaciteit

Vertraagt longexpansie

Inefficiënte ventilatie en arbeidsverspilling



(CPAP)

Best gekende Niet-Invasieve Respiratoire

Ondersteuning (NIRO)

Initieel ontwikkeld als secundair device

Inmiddels ook primaire methode voor

ondersteuning

Interface

Endotracheale tube

Prongs

Unilateraal

Kort (tot in neuscaviteit)

Lang (tot in nasopharynx)

Bilateraal

Kort (tot in neuscaviteit)

Lang (tot in nasopharynx)

Masker (neus)


(CPAP)

Geleverde zuurstof is gekend

Geleverde warmte en bevochtiging is gekend

Beter voor de ontwikkeling ?

Veroorzaakt minder energieverbruik tijdens ademen

Minder obstructieve apneu’s


(CPAP)

Werking is niet volledig duidelijk Reduceert nasopharyngeale dode ruimte

Reduceert Rins (nasopharynx)

Verbetert conductie (bronchi) ademhalingsarbeid

Verbetert compliantie bij verhoging flow

Verbetert ventilatie en oxigenatie

Positieve druk long ‘recruitment’ & voorkomt alveolaire collaps

Stabiliseert thoraxwand

Vermindert obstructieve apneu’s

Minimaliseert longoedeem (low-level nCPAP)


(CPAP)

Continue positieve distentie druk is afhankelijk van:

Ademhalingspatroon

Ingestelde druk

Adequate druk vereist gesloten mond en juiste aansluiting interface

Neusseptum schade, neus irritatie

Impressie letsels (aangezicht & hoofd)


(CPAP)

Andere bezorgdheden

Zuurstofintoxicatie

Baro- & volutraumata

Mechanische of thermotraumata

Teveel lucht in abdomen

Teveel water in luchtweg

Infectierisico

Veneuze retour van hart gecompromitteerd


(CPAP)

Apneu van de Prematuur

Bilevel Positieve Luchtweg Druk

FiO2 variabel

Druk wisselend

Frequentie ingesteld

Synchroon

Asynchroon


Voor- en nadelen van CPAP

Verbetering van patente bovenste luchtweg

door (intermittente) gestegen pharyngeale

drukken

Intermittente inflatie van de pharynx activeert

mogelijk de respiratoire ‘drive’


(BiPAP)

Synchronisatie

Abdominaal device

Pneumotachograaf Flow-trigger

Druk-trigger

Respiratoir ‘inductance’ plethysmografie

‘Neurally Adjusted Ventilator Assist (NAVA)

sBiPAP versus nsBiPAP geen verschil qua apneu’s


(BiPAP)

Falen

BiPAP/CPAP/HHHFNC/LFNC

NIPPV of beademing

Falen


Afgevlakt diaphragma & horizontale ribben

limiteren inspiratoire reserve volume sneller

ademen om minuut volume te verbeteren

eerder uitgeput

Thoraxwand deformatie diaphragma moet dit

compenseren

Weinig type 1 oxidatieve spiervezels in

diaphragma & intercostale spieren eerder

uitgeput

Falen


Primaire surfactant deficiëntie Atelectase

Onevenwicht tussen compliante thoraxwand

en non-compliante long met immature

elastische vezels luchtwegcollaps

inflammatie secundaire surfactant

deficiëntie

Centrale & obstructieve apneu’s

compromiteren ademhaling

Falen


pH<7.25; PaCO2 > 60 mmHg

Apneu waarvoor T-piece met masker nodig

>3 apneu of bradycardie/uur (bij caffeine

onderhoud)

> 3 saturatiedalingen (<85%)/uur die niet

reageren op verhoogde respiratoire

ondersteuning instellingen

BiPAP versus CPAP

Primair support

Secundair support

Mech. Vent. na InSurE

Ademhalingsfrequenti

e

Primair support

Secundair support

Mech. Vent. na InSurE

Ademhalingsfrequenti

e

BiPAP CPAP

BiPAP versus CPAP

Oxygenatie

Ventilatie

Pro-inflam. Cytokines

CLD/BPD

Oxygenatie

Ventilatie

Pro-inflam. Cytokines

CLD/BPD

BiPAP CPAP

BiPAP versus CPAP

Centrale apneu’s

Obstructieve apneu’s

Mortaliteit

Hospitalisatieduur

Centrale apneu’s

Obstructieve apneu’s

Mortaliteit

Hospitalisatieduur

BiPAP CPAP

CPAP versus HHHFNC

Ervaring

Primair support

Secundair support

Ademhalingsarbeid

Ervaring

Primair support

Secundair support

Ademhalingsarbeid

CPAP HHHFNC

CPAP versus HHHFNC

Comfort

Duur zuurstoftherapie

Weaning

Duur tot volledig PO

Comfort

Duur zuurstoftherapie

Weaning

Duur tot volledig PO

CPAP HHHFNC

CPAP versus HHHFNC

RDS

Pneumothorax

Neustraumata

ELBW Mortaliteit

RDS

Pneumothorax

Neustraumata

ELBW Mortaliteit

CPAP HHHFNC

CPAP versus HHHFNC

CLD/BPD

ELBW CLD/BPD

Hospitalisatieduur

ELBW

Hospitalisatieduur

CLD/BPD

ELBW CLD/BPD

Hospitalisatieduur

ELBW

Hospitalisatieduur

CPAP HHHFNC

HHHFNC versus LFNC

Ervaring

Oxygenatie

Ademhalingsarbeid

Neustraumata

Ervaring

Oxygenatie

Ademhalingsarbeid

Neustraumata

HHHFNC LFNC

Succes afhankelijk van:

Succesvolle transitie en extra-uteriene adaptatie Prematuriteit, Infectie, Persisterende pulmonale

hypertensie

Goede patiënt selectie

Juiste device met juiste interface

Ervaring zorgverleners

Adequate observatie

Zelfstandige ademhaling


Ondersteuning

VRAGEN ?

Niet invasieve Respiratoire Ondersteuning

Aghai ZH, et al: Synchronized nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation (SNIPPV) decreases work of breathing (WOB) in premature infants with respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) compared to nasal continuous positive airway pressure (NCPAP). Pediatr Pulmonol 2006; 41: 875-81.

Alexiou S, Panitch HB: Physiology of non-invasive respiratory support. Semin Fetal Neonat Med 2016; 21: 174-80.

Ali N, et al: Effects of non-invasive pressure support ventilation (NI-PSV) on ventilation and respiratory effort in very low birth weight infants. Pediatr Pulmonol 2007; 42: 704-10.

Ancora G, et al: Role of bilevel positive airway pressure in the management of preterm newborns who have received surfactant. Acta Paediatr 2010; 99: 1807-11.

Barrington KJ, Bull D, Finer NN: Randomized trial of nasal synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation compared with continuous positive airway pressure after extubation of very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2001; 107: 638-41.

Beck J, et al: patient-ventilator interaction during neurally adjusted ventilatory assist in low birth weight infants. Pediatr Res 2009; 65: 663-8.

Bhandari V, et al: A randomized controlled trial of synchronized nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation in RDS. J Perinatol 2007; 27: 697-703.

Bisceglia M, et al: A comparison of nasal intermittent versus continuous positive pressure delivery for the treatment of moderate respiratory syndrome in preterm neonates. Minerva Pediatr 2007; 59: 91-5.

Chang HY, et al: Effects of synchronization during nasal ventilation in clinically stable preterm infants. Pediatr Res 2011; 69: 84-9.

Clarke P: Norfolk and Norwich University Hospitals Guideline .Nasal high flow therapy (Vapotherm) Use for non-invasive respiratory support in neonates. 2013.

Colaizy TT, et al: Nasal high-frequency ventilation for premature infants. Acta Paediatr 2008; 97: 1518-22.

Collins CL, Holberton JR and Konig K: Comparison of pharyngeal pressure provided by two heated, humidified high-flow nasal cannulae devices in premature infants. J Paediatr Child Health 2013; 49: 554-6

Courtney SE, Barrington KJ: Continuous positive airway pressure and noninvasive ventilation. Clin Perinatol 2007; 34: 73–92, vi.

Craft AP, Bhandari V, Finer NN: The sy-fi study: a randomized prospective trial of synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation versus a high-frequency flow interrupter in infants less than 1000 g. J Perinatol 2003; 23: 14-9.

Dani C, Pratesi S, Migliori C et al: High flow nasal cannula therapy as respiratory in the preterm infant. Pediatr Pulmonol 2009; 44: 629-34.

Davis PG, Henderson-Smart DJ: Nasal continuous positive airways pressure immediately after extubation for preventing morbidity in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003. Issue 2.

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De Jongh BE, Locke R, Mackley A et al: Work of breathing indices in infants with respiratory insufficiency receiving high-flow nasal cannula and continuous positive airway pressure. J Perinatol 2014; 34: 27-32.

De Medeiros SK, Carvalho WB, Soriano CF: Practices of use of nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) in neonatology in northeastern Brazil. J Pediatr (Rio J) 2012; 88: 48-53.

De Paoli AG, Davis PG, Faber B, Morley CJ: Devices and pressure sources for administration of nasal continuous positive airway pressure (NNCPAP) in preterm neonates. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008. Issue 1.

Referenties

De Paoli AG, et al: In vitro comparison of nasal continuous positive airway pressure devices for neonates. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2002; 87:F42-5.

De Winter JP, de Vries MA, Zimmermann LJ: Clinical practice: noninvasive respiratory support in newborns. Eur J Pediatr 2010; 169: 777-82.

Dumas De La Roque E, et al: Nasal high frequency percussive ventilation versus nasal continuous positive airway pressure in transient tachypnea of the newborn: A pilot randomized controlled trial (NCT00556738). Pediatr Pulmonol 2011; 46: 218-23.

Dunn MS, Kaempf J, de Klerk A, et al: Randomized trial comparing 3 approaches to the initial respiratory management of preterm neonates. Pediatrics 2011; 128: e1069-76.

Dysart K, Miller TL, Wolfson MR et al: Research in high flow therapy: Mechanisms of action. Respir Med 2009; 103: 1400-5.

Dysart K: Physiologic Basis for Nasal Continuous Positive Airway Pressure, Heated and Humidified High-Flow Nasal Cannula, and Nasal Ventilation. Clin Perinatol 2016; 43: 621-31.

Finer NN, et al: Early CPAP versus surfactant in extremely preterm infants. N Engl J Med, 2010; 362: 1970-9.

Fischer HS, et al: Is volume and leak monitoring feasible during nasopharyngeal continuous positive airway pressure in neonates? Intensive Care Med 2009; 35: 1934-41.

Friedlich P, et al: A randomized trial of nasopharygeal-synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation versus nasopharyngeal continuous positive airway pressure in very low birth weight infants after extubation. J Perinatol 1999; 19: 638-41.

Gizzi C, et al: Flow-synchronized nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation for infants <32 weeks’ gestation with respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Res Pract 2012; 2012: 301818.

Glackin SJ, O'Sullivan A, George S, Semberova J, Miletin J: High flow nasal cannula versus NCPAP, duration to full oral feeds in preterm infants: a randomised controlled trial. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2016; 0: F1-4.

Holleman-Durray D, Kaupie D and Weiss MG: Heated humidified high-flow nasal cannula: use and a neonatal early extubation protocol. J Perinatol 2007; 27: 776-81.

Hutchison AA, Bignall S: Non-invasive positive pressure ventilation in the preterm neonate: reducing endotrauma and the incidence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2008; 93: F64-8.

Jackson HD, et al: Mask versus prongs for CPAP delivery: Incidence of bradycardia, apnoea and desaturation (BAD) events. J Paediatr Child Health 2013; 49(suppl 2):21, abstr A072.

Jackson JK, et al: Evidence-based approach to change in clinical practice: introduction of expanded nasal continuous positive airway pressure use in an intensive care nursery. Pediatrics 2003; 111:e542-7.

Jaslin LR, Kern S, Thompson S: Subcutaneous scalp emphysema, pneumo-orbitus and pneumocephalus in a neonate on high humidity high flow nasal cannula. J Perinatol 2008; 28: 779-81.

Johnson AH, et al: High-frequency oscillatory ventilation for the prevention of chronic lung disease of prematurity. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 633-42.

Khalaf MN, et al: A prospective randomized, controlled trial comparing synchronized nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation versus nasal continuous positive airway pressure as modes of extubation. Pediatrics 2001; 108: 13-7.

Khorana M, et al: A randomized trial of nonsynchronized nasopharyngeal intermittent mandatory ventilation (nsNIMV) vs. nasal continuous positive airway pressure (NCPAP) in the prevention of extubation failure in pre-term <1,500 grams. J Med Assoc Thai 2008; 91(suppl 3):S136-42.

Kiciman NM, et al: Thoracoabdominal motion in newborns during ventilation delivered by endotracheal tube or nasal prongs. Pediatr Pulmonol 1998; 25: 175-81.

Referenties

Kieran EA, et al: Randomized trial of prongs or mask for nasal continuous positive airway pressure in preterm infants. Pediatrics 2012; 130:e1170-6.

Kieran EA, Walsh H, O’Donnell CP: Survey of nasal continuous positive airways pressure (NCPAP) and nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) use in Irish newborn nurseries. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2011; 96: F156.

Kirpalani H, et al: Nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) does not confer benefit above nasal CPAP (nCPAP) in extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants <1000 g BW – The NIPPV International Randomised Controlled Trial. E-PAS 2012: 1675.1.

Klingerberg C, pettersen M, Hansen EA et al: Patient comfort during treatment with heated humidified high flow nasal cannulae versus nasal continuous positive airway pressure: a randomised cross-over trial. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2014; 99: F134-7.

Kugelman A, Durand M: A comprehensive approach to the prevention of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatr Pulmonol 2011; 46: 1153–65.

Kugelman A, et al: Nasal intermittent mandatory ventilation versus nasal continuous positive airway pressure for respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized, controlled, prospective study. J Pediatr 2007; 150: 521–6, 526 e1.

Kugelman A, Riskin A, Said W et al: A randomised pilot study comparing heated humidified high-flow nasal cannulae with NIPPV for RDS. Pediatr Pulmonol 2015; 50: 576-83.

Lavizzari A, Colnaghi M, Ciuffini F, et al: Heated, Humidified High-Flow Nasal Cannula vs Nasal Continuous Positive Airway Pressure for Respiratory Distress Syndrome of Prematurity. A Randomized Clinical Noninferiority Trial. JAMA Pediatr 2016; E1-7.

Lemyre B, Davis PG, de Paoli AG: Nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) versus nasal continuous positive airway pressure (NNCPAP) for apnea of prematurity. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002. Issue 1.

Lemyre B, et al: Nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) versus nasal CPAP (nCPAP) post-extubation in preterm infants: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. E-PAS 2013: 4515.245.

Lin C, et al: Efficacy of nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation in treating apnea of prematurity. Pediatr Pulmonol 1998; 26: 349-53.

Lista G, et al: Nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) versus bi-level nasal CPAP in preterm babies with respiratory distress syndrome: a randomised control trial. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2010; 95:F85-9.

Mahmoud RA, Roehr CC, Schmalisch G: Current methods of noninvasive ventilatory support for neonates. Paediatr Respir Rev 2011; 12: 196-205.

Manley BJ, Owen LS, Doyle LX, et al: High-flow nasal cannulae in very preterm infants after extubation. N Engl J Med 2013; 369: 1425-33.

Manley BJ, Owen LS: High-flow nasal cannula: Mechanisms, evidence and recommendations. Semin Fetal Neonat Med 2016; 21: 139-45.

Meneses J, Bhandari V, Alves JG: Nasal intermittent positive-pressure ventilation vs nasal continuous positive airway pressure for preterm infants with respiratory distress syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2012; 166: 372-6.

Meneses J, et al: Noninvasive ventilation for respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics 2011; 127: 300-7.

Migliori C, Motta M, Angeli A, Chirico G: Nasal bilevel vs. continuous positive airway pressure in preterm infants. Pediatr Pulmonol 2005; 40: 426-30.

Miller SM & Dowd SA: High-flow nasal cannula and extubation success in the premature infant: a comparison of two modalities. J Perinatol 2010; 30: 805-8.

Moretti C, et al: Comparing the effects of nasal synchronized intermittent positive pressure ventilation (nSIPPV) and nasal continuous positive airway pressure (nCPAP) after extubation in very low birth weight infants. Early Hum Dev 1999; 56: 167-77.

Referenties

Moretti C, et al: Nasal flow-synchronized intermittent positive pressure ventilation to facilitate weaning in very low-birth-weight infants: unmasked randomized controlled trial. Pediatr Int 2008; 50: 85-91.

Morley CJ, Davis PG, Doyle LW, Brion LP, Hascoet JM, Carlin JB: Nasal NCPAP or intubation at birth for very preterm infants. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 700-8.

Narasimhan R, Krishnamurthy S: A review of non-invasive ventilation support in neonates. Paediatr Child Health 2014; 24: 7-11.

O’Brien K, Campbell C, Brown L, Wenger L, Shah V: Infant flow biphasic nasal continuous positive airway pressure (BP-NNCPAP) vs. infant flow NNCPAP for the facilitation of extubation in infants’ ≤ 1,250 grams: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Pediatr 2012; 12: 43.

Ojha S, Grdley E, Dorling J: Use of heated humidified high-flow nasal cannula oxygen in neonates: a UK wide survey. Acta Paediatr 2013; 102: 249-53.

Owen L, Morley C, Davis P: Bench-top accuracy of SiPAP-generated nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation. Acta Paediatr 2013; 102:e385-8.

Owen LS, et al: Effects of non-synchronised nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation on spontaneous breathing in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2011; 96: F422-8.

Owen LS, Morley CJ, Davis PG: Do the pressure changes of neonatal non-synchronised NIPPV (NS nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation) confer advantages over CPAP, or are high CPAP pressures as effective? Pediatr Res 2011; 70: 16.

Owen LS, Morley CJ, Davis PG: Neonatal nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation: a survey of practice in England. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2008; 93: F148-50.

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Referenties

Shah PS, et al: Outcomes of preterm infants <29 weeks gestation over 10-year period in Canada: a cause for concern? J Perinatol 2012; 32: 132-8.

Shoemaker MT, Pierce MR, Yoder BA & Di Geronimo RJ: High flow nasal cannula versus nasal CPAP for neonatal respiratory disease: a retrospective study. J Perinatol 2007; 27: 85-91.

Soonsawad S, Tongsawang N, Nuntnarumit P: Heated Humidified High-Flow Nasal Cannula for Weaning from Continuous Positive Airway Pressure in Preterm Infants: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Neonatology 2016; 110: 204-9.

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Sreenan C, Lemke RP, Hudson-Mason A et al: High-flow nasal cannulae in the management of apnoea of prematurity: A comparison with conventional nasal continuous positive airway pressure. Pediatrics 2001; 107: 1081.

Stein H, Beck J, Dunn M: Non-invasive ventilation with neurally adjusted ventilatory assist in newborns. Semin Fetal Neonat Med 2016; 21: 154-61.

Stevens TP, Harrington EW, Blennow M, Soll RF: Early surfactant administration with brief ventilation vs. selective surfactant and continued mechanical ventilation for preterm infants with or at risk for respiratory distress syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007. Issue 4.

Stoll BJ, et al: Neonatal outcomes of extremely preterm infants from the NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Pediatrics 2010; 126: 443-56.

Taha DK, Kornhauser M, Greenspan JS, Dysart KC, Aghai ZH: High Flow Nasal Cannula Use Is Associated with Increased Morbidity and Length of Hospitalization in Extremely Low Birth Weight Infants. J Pediatr 2016; 173: 50-55.

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Vakharia B: Guidelines for use of humidified high flow nasal cannula therapy in neonate. Luton and Dunstable University Hospitals. 2013.

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Wheeler KI, et al: Volume-targeted versus pressure-limited ventilation for preterm infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neonatology 2011; 100: 219-27.

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Wood FE, et al: Randomised controlled trial of synchronised intermittent positive airway pressure (SiPAP) versus continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) as a primary mode of respiratory support in preterm infants with respiratory distress syndrome. E-PAS 2013: 3500.8.

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