V . .' i ..;•

FREDERICK K. LUTGENSEDWARD J. TARBUCKILUS'OIS CESTRAL COLLEGE

ILLUSTRATED BY

DENNIS TASAV

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WSmA PRENTICE JIALL, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

PREFACE xii

A VIEW OF EARTH 1THE EARTH SCIENCES 3RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUESTHE NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY 7STUDYING EARTH SCIENCE 8

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MINERALS: BUILDING BLOCKS OF ROCKS 11Focus on Learning 11MINERALS VERSUS ROCKS 13COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF MINERALS 14PROPERTIES OF MINERALS 16MINERAL GROUPS 19MINERAL RESOURCES 22J7»e Chapter In Review 24/Cey Terws 25Questions For Review 25Testing What You Have Learned 26

ROCKS: MATERIALS OF THE LITHOSPHERE 29Focus on Learning 29THE ROCK CYCLE 30IGNEOUS ROCKS: "FORMED BY FIRE" 32WEATHERING OF ROCKS TO FORM SEDIMENT 37SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: COMPACTED AND CEMENTED SEDIMENT 41METAMORPHIC ROCKS: CHANGED IN FORM 47The Chapter In Review 52Key Terms 53

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CONTENTS V

Questions For Review 53Testing What You Have Learned 54

LANDSCAPES FASHIONED BY WATER 59Focus on Learning 59MASS WASTING 60THE WATER CYCLE 62RUNNING WATER 63BASE LEVEL 66WORK OF STREAMS 66STREAM VALLEYS 69DRAINAGE BASINS AND PATTERNS 72STAGES OF VALLEY DEVELOPMENT 73WATER BENEATH THE SURFACE 75DISTRIBUTION AND MOVEMENT OF GROUNDWATER 76SPRINGS 80HOT SPRINGS AND GEYSERS 80WELLS 80ARTESIAN WELLS 81ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GROUNDWATER 83THE GEOLOGIC WORK OF GROUNDWATER 83The Chapter In Review 88Key Terms 89Questions For Review 89Testing What You Have Learned 90

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GLACIAL AND ARID LANDSCAPESFocus on Learning 93

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TYPES OF GLACIERS 94HOW GLACIERS MOVE 95GLACIAL EROSION 97GLACIAL DEPOSITS 100GLACIERS OF THE PAST 104SOME INDIRECT EFFECTS OF ICE AGE GLACIERSDESERTS 107DISTRIBUTION AND CAUSES OF DRY LANDS 107THE ROLE OF WATER IN ARID CLIMATES 108

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THE GREAT BASIN: THE EVOLUTION OF A DESERT LANDSCAPE 110WIND EROSION 111WIND DEPOSITS 112The Chapter In Review 115Key Terms 116Questions For Review 116Testing What You Have Learned 111

PLATE TECTONICS: A UNIFYING THEORY 121Focus on Learning 121CONTINENTAL DRIFT: AN IDEA BEFORE ITS TIME 122THE GREAT DEBATE 126PLATE TECTONICS: A MODERN VERSION OF AN OLD IDEA 127PLATE BOUNDARIES 127TESTING THE PLATE TECTONICS MODEL 137THE DRIVING MECHANISM: STILL UNDER INVESTIGATION 145The Chapter In Review 147Key Terms 147Questions For Review 147Testing What You Have Learned 148

RESTLESS EARTH:EARTHQUAKES, GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES, AND MOUNTAIN BUILDING 151

Focus on Learning 151WHAT IS AN EARTHQUAKE? 153EARTHQUAKE WAVES 155FINDING WHERE EARTHQUAKES OCCUR 158EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE 159DESTRUCTION FROM EARTHQUAKES l6lEARTHQUAKES EAST OF THE ROCKIES 164PREDICTING EARTHQUAKES 166EARTHQUAKES AND EARTH'S INTERIOR 168GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES 171MOUNTAIN BUILDING 175The Chapter In Review 180Key Terms 181Questions For Review 181Testing What You Have Learned 182

CONTENTS V l l

FIRES WITHIN: IGNEOUS ACTIVITY 185Focus on Learning 185THE NATURE OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS 187WHAT IS EXTRUDED DURING ERUPTIONS? 189VOLCANO TYPES 191VOLCANIC LANDFORMS 198INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ACTIVITY 200IGNEOUS ACTIVITY AND PLATE TECTONICS 203The Chapter In Review 207Key Terms 207Questions For Review 207Testing What You Have Learned 208

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GEOLOGIC TIME 213Focus on Learning 213SOME HISTORICAL NOTES ABOUT GEOLOGY 215RELATIVE DATING—KEY PRINCIPLES 216CORRELATION OF ROCK LAYERS 222FOSSILS 222RADIOACTIVITY AND RADIOMETRIC DATING 225THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE 230DIFFICULTIES IN DATING THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE 230The Chapter In Review 233Key Terms 234Questions For Review 234Testing What You Have Learned 235

OCEANS: THE LAST FRONTIER 239Focus on Learning 239THE VAST WORLD OCEAN 240COMPOSITION OF SEAWATER 241

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THE OCEAN'S LAYERED STRUCTURE 243EARTH BENEATH THE SEA 243CONTINENTAL MARGINS 247THE OCEAN BASIN FLOOR 249MID-OCEAN RIDGES 250CORAL REEFS AND ATOLLS 251SEAFLOOR SEDIMENTS 251The Chapter In Review 255Key Terms 256Questions For Review 256Testing What You Have Learned 257

THE RESTLESS OCEAN 259Focus on Learning 259SURFACE CURRENTS 260DEEP-OCEAN CIRCULATION 263TIDES 265WAVES 266WAVE EROSION 268WAVE REFRACTION 269MOVING SAND ALONG THE BEACH 271SHORELINE FEATURES 272SHORELINE EROSION PROBLEMS 274EMERGENT AND SUBMERGENT COASTS 277The Chapter In Review 279Key Terms 280Questions For Review 280Testing What You Have Learned 281

HEATING THE ATMOSPHERE 285Focus on Learning 285WEATHER AND CLIMATE 286COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE 287HEIGHT AND STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE 288EARTH-SUN RELATIONSHIPS 292MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER 297

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PATHS TAKEN BY INCOMING SOLAR RADIATION 300HEATING THE ATMOSPHERE: THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT 301GLOBAL WARMING 303TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND DATA 304CONTROLS OF TEMPERATURE 304WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 306The Chapter In Review 308Key Terms 309Questions For Review 310Testing What You Have Learned 310

CLOUDS AND PRECIPITATION 313Focus on-Learning 313CHANGES OF STATE 314HUMIDITY: WATER VAPOR IN THE AIR 316THE BASIS OF CLOUD FORMATION: ADIABATIC COOLING 319STABILITY OF AIR 322PROCESSES THAT LIFT AIR 325CONDENSATION AND CLOUD FORMATION 327FOG 329PRECIPITATION 333The Chapter In Review 338Key Terms 339Questions For Review 339Testing What You Have Learned 340

isTHE ATMOSPHERE IN MOTION 343

Focus on Learning 343MEASURING AIR PRESSURE 344FACTORS AFFECTING WIND 345CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES 349GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE 351CIRCULATION IN THE MID-LATITUDES 354LOCAL WINDS 354HOW WIND IS MEASURED 356The Chapter In Review 358Key Terms 359Questions For Review 359Testing What You Have Learned 360

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WEATHER PATTERNS AND SEVERE WEATHER 363

Focus on Learning 363AIR MASSES 364FRONTS 367THE MID-LATITUDE CYCLONE 369THUNDERSTORMS 373TORNADOES 376HURRICANES 380The Chapter In Review 384Key Terms 385Questions For Review 385Testing What You Have Learned 386

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THE NATURE OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM 391Focus on Learning 391ANCIENT ASTRONOMY 392THE BIRTH OF MODERN ASTRONOMY 393THE PLANETS: AN OVERVIEW 400ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM 403EARTH'S MOON 404THE PLANETS: A SHORT TOUR 407MINOR MEMBERS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM 421The Chapter In Review 426Key Terms 427Questions For Review AT7Testing What You Have Learned 428

CONTENTS XI

BEYOND THE SOLAR SYSTEM 431Focus on Learning 431PROPERTIES OF STARS 432HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSELL DIAGRAM 435INTERSTELLAR MATTER 437STELLAR EVOLUTION 438STELLAR REMNANTS 444THE MILKY WAY GALAXY 446GALAXIES 449RED SHIFTS 451THE BIG BANG 452The Chapter In Review 452Key Terms 454Questions For Review 454Testing What You Have Learned 455

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