Post on 04-Apr-2018
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Hoorcollege1(H1)
OrganizationalBehavior:behaviorofpeopleinorganizations,whichaffectsorganizational
performance.
Formalvs.informalapproachtoorganizing:
Roleidentification
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Hoorcollege2(SkillsheetsE6)
Perception:
-Aprocessbywhichindividualsorganizeandinterprettheirsensoryimpressionsinorderto
givemeaningtotheirenvironment.-Peoplesbehaviorisbasedontheirperceptionofwhatrealityis,notonrealityitself.
-Theworldasitisperceivedistheworldthatisbehaviorallyimportant.
Factorthatinfluenceperception:
-Factorsintheperceiver:attitudes,motives,interests,experienceandexpectations.
-Factorsinthetarget:novelty,motion,sounds,size,background,proximity,similarity.
-Factorsinthesituation:time,work,socialsettings.
Perceptionsandindividualdecision-making:
-Problem:aperceiveddiscrepancybetweenthecurrentstateofaffairsandadesiredstate.
-Decisions:choicesmadefromamongalternativesdevelopedfromdata.
-Perceptionlinkage:allelementsofproblemidentificationandthedecisionmakingprocess
areinfluencedbyperception(problemsmustberecognized,datamustbeselectedand
evaluated).
Decision-makingmodelsinorganizations:
1.Rationaldecision-making(perfectworldmodel:assumescompleteinformation,all
optionsknown,andmaximumpayoff).Six-stepdecision-makingprocess:1.Definethe
problem.2.Identifythedecisioncriteria.3.Allocateweighttothecriteria.4.Develop
alternatives.5.Evaluatethealternatives.6.Selectthebestalternative.
2.Boundedreality(realworldmodel:seekssatisfactoryandsufficientsolutionsfromlimited
dataandalternatives).Thisisthemostusedmodel.
3.Intuition(anon-consciousprocesscreatedfromdistilledexperiencethatresultsinquick
decisions).
Commonbiasesanderrorsindecision-making:
-Overconfidencebias(believingtoomuchinorownability)
-Anchoringbias(usingearly,firstreceivedinformationasthebasisformakingsubsequent
judgments)
-Confirmationbias(selectingandusingonlyfactsthatsupportourdecision)
-Availabilitybias(emphasizinginformationthatismostreadilyathand)
Managerialimplications:
-Boundedreality:makingdecisionsbyconstructingsimplifiedmodelsthatextractthe
essentialfeaturesfromproblemwithoutcapturingalltheircomplexity.
-Combinetraditionalmethodswithintuitionandcreativityforbetterdecisions.
Howtomakegooddecisions:
-Focusongoals.
-Lookforinformationthatdisconfirmsyourbeliefs.
-Donttrytocreatemeaningoutofrandomevents,lookforcause-and-effectrelationships.
-Increaseyouroptions.
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Hoorcollege3(H9+H14)
ImplicitassumptionsoftheworkerroleinBA:workersfulfilltheir(professional)role
expectations:
1.Focusoncontent.2.Leaveemotions,instinctsandirrationalityatthedoorstep.
3.Actrationally(profitmaximization).
Socialanimalcharacteristics(evolutionaryview):
-Nothingismoreimportantthan:sexualreproductionandfamilyandin-grouprelations.
-Lifelosesmeaningif:onenolongerbelongstothesocialgrouporoneisnotappreciated
bythegroup.
-Strongawarenessofsocial/hierarchicalstatus.
Counterproductiveworkbehavior(CWB):voluntarybehavioroforganizationalmembers
thatviolatessignificantorganizationalnorms,andinsodoing,threatensthewell-beingof
theorganizationand/oritsmembers.
Interpersonal:bullying,sexualharassment,ridicule,andjealousy.
Organizational:stealing,politicalgames,withholdingcompany-relevantinformation.
Overt:bullying,sexualharassment,stealing.
Undertheradar:jealousy,underminingofauthority,politicalgames.
CWBoccurs:asreactionstoexperiencesatwork,asreflectionsofemployeespersonalities
orprimalinstincts,orasadaptiontothesocio-hierarchicalorinstitutionalcontext.
Groupconformity:ourinstinctsdictatethatbeinginpeacewiththegroupismore
importantthanreportingaccurateinformation.
Evilbehavior:theexerciseofpowertointentionallyharm(psychologically),hurt(physically)
and/ordestroy(mortallyorspiritually).
10stepstodestructiveobedience:
1.Anideologytojustifymeans->goodends.
2.Smallfirststeps,minoraction.
3.Successivelyincreasesmallactions.
4.Seeminglyjustauthorityincharge.
5.Compassionateleaderchangesgraduallytobecomeanauthoritarianmonster.
6.Rulesarevague,changing.
7.Situationre-labelsactorsandactions(teacherhelpingaggressorhurting).
8.Providesocialmodelsforcompliance.
9.Allowverbaldissent,butinsistoncompliance.
10.Makeexitingdifficult.
Howcanpowercorruptordinarypeople?
-De-individuation(displacementofresponsibility).
-Anonymityofplace.
-De-humanization.
-Roleplayingandsocialmodeling.
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-Moreldisengagement.
-Groupcamaradoryandemergentnorms.
-Powerdifferentialsbetweenin-groupandout-group.
-Theevilofinactions:passivityofgoodguards.
-Putpeopleinanewcontextwhereinstitutionalpowerispittedagainstindividualwillto
resist.
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Hoorcollege4(H3+H8)
Thestructureofmood:
Affectatwork:
-Affect:abroadrangeoffeelingsthatpeopleexperience(e.g.emotions,moods).
-Emotions:intenseemotionsthataredirectedatsomeoneorsomething.Emotionsare
criticalforrationalthinkingandgooddecision-makingandprovideuswithcriticalinformationabouttheworld.
-Moods:feelingsthattendtobelessintensethanemotionsandthatlackacontextual
stimulus.
Morefacts:
1.Emotionsmotivateustoengageinactionsthatareimportantforsurvival.
2.Emotionsallowustosolvecooperativeproblems.
3.Ourabilitytoreadintootherpeoplesemotionsisthebasisofempathy.
4.Bewareofleaderswholackhappiness,fear,andempathy.
5.Ourabilitytoreadotherpeoplesemotionandmanagethemisanindispensiblesocialskill
andacharacteristicofsuccessfulbusinessmen.
Howdoemotions/moodsinfluencethebottomline?
-Selection(e.g.wewantemotionallycompetentsalesmen).
-Decision-making(e.g.split-seconddecisions).
-Creativity(positivemood->morecreative).
-Motivation(positivemood->workharder).
-Leadership(positivemood->socialmagnet).
-Negotiation(unemotional=goodnegotiator).
-Customerservice(positivemood->socialmagnet).
-Counterproductiveworkbehavior.
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Organizationalcitizenshipbehavior(OCB):positive,volitionalemployeebehavior,not
directlyorexplicitlyrecognizedbytheformalrewardsystem,thatservesandenhancesthe
functioningofanorganization.
FacetsofOCB:altruism;courtesy;acceptanceofrules,regulationandprocedures;civic
virtue(deepconcernandactiveinterestintheorganization);sportsmanship(toleranceof
lessthanidealcircumstanceswithoutcomplaining).
AntecedentsofOCB:jobattitudes,organizationaljustice/fairness,personality.
Attitude:anattitudeisapsychologicaltendencythatisexpressedbyevaluatingaparticular
entitywithacertaindegreeoffavorordisfavor.
Organizationalcommitmentis:
-Affect:emotionalattachment,belongingness,andpride.
-Cognition:positiveassociations,identification.
-Actionreadiness:abindingpromise,behavioralinclination.
Well-establishedjobattitudes:
Howdojobattitudesaffectthebottomline:
Causesoffavorablejobattitudes:workexperiences,personalityandpersonalhistory.
Organizationaljustice/fairness:comparewithdistributivejustice(outcomefairnessandfavorability),proceduralfairnessandinteractional(treatedwithdignityandrespect).
Absenteeism
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Hoorcollege5(H4)
Personality:thedynamicorganizationwithintheindividualofthosepsychophysicalsystems
thatdeterminehisunique
adjustmentstohisenvironments.
Myers-Briggstypeindicator:
Personalitytraits,TheBigFivemodel(Costa&McCrea):OCEAN
Opennesstoexperience
Conscientiousness
Extroversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
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Othertypologies:
-TypeA/Bpersonality(A=alwaysinahurry,ambitious,highNA.B=relaxed,lowneedfor
achievement,lowNA).
-Pro-activepersonality.
-Coreself-evaluations.
-DarkTriadpersonality:disagreeableness,highextraversionandopenness,low
conscientiousnessandemotionalempathy,higherprobabilityforantisocialbehavior.
Narcissism,Machiavellianism,and(non-clinical)psychopathy.
-Self-monitoring.
-Regulatoryfocus.
Values:desirable,transsituationalgoals,varyinginimportance,thatserveasguiding
principlesinpeopleslives.
Schwartzvaluesdiagram:
Choiceswemake:
Opennesstochange vs. Conservation
Agency vs. Communion
-Achievement vs. Pro-socialorientation
-Self-enhancement vs. Self-transcendence
Personalsafety vs. Adventure
Mypleasure vs. Ourpleasure
-Pleasure vs. Devoutness
-Individual vs. Collective
Timeperspective:isapredispositionatthecross-roadsofpersonality,valuesandculture.
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Hofstedesculturalvaluedimensions:
-Individualismvs.collectivism
-Masculinity(performance)vs.feminity(humane)
-Powerdistance
-Uncertaintyavoidance
-Long-termorientation
Culturemattersinleadershipthroughimplicitleadershiptheoriesandleadership
prototypes,whichareculturallybound.
Theroleofpowerdistanceinrelationtotransformationalleadership,fairnessandOCBs.
Transformationalleadercharacteristics:settinghighexpectations,vision,encouraging,
intellectualstimulation,recognizingindividualdifferences,empowering,dynamicetc.
Universallyendorsedinleaders:trustworthiness,just,honest,foresight,planningahead
(vision),encouraging,motivating,positive,dynamic,buildingconfidence,communicative,
informed,coordinator,teamintegrator.
Universallydislikedinleaders:loner,anti-social,irritable,non-cooperative,dictatorial,
autocratic.
Watchoutifyouare:individualistic(autonomous),status(un)conscious,risktaking.
Cultureaffectstheworkplace:
-Howpeopleprefertocooperate,communicate.
-Howpeoplewishtobecompensated.
-Whichbusinessdecisionsaretaken.
-Informalnorms/rulesintheworkplace.
-Reactionstoleadershipstyles.
-Propensitiestotrustothers.
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Hoorcollege6(H6)
Motivation:processesthataccountforanindividualintensity,directionandpersistenceof
efforttowardattainingan(organizational)goal.
Weareinstinctivelymostinterestedin:avoidingdeath,money,gainingpowerandsex.
Moneyishighlyassociatedwithinstinctualdriveslikesurvival(e.g.food),self-reliance,
statusandpower.
Monetaryincentivesworkgreatforsimpletasks,buthasalotofnegativesides:
-Worseperformanceforcognitivelycomplextasks.
-Strategicbehavior(e.g.short-termgains,minimalistic).
-Lesspro-socialbehavior(bypromotingselfishnessandmentalaccounting).
-Itdecreasesintrinsicmotivation(cognitiveevaluationtheory).
-Weareinsatiable,andmoneyboostssatisfactiononlytemporarily(max3months).
-Inpractice,policiesareeasilyseenasprerogatives,notasrewards(notgettingthebonusisseenaspunishment).
Extrinsicvs.intrinsicmotivation:
Howtofosterintrinsicmotivation:getthemoneyissueoffthetableandgetouttheway;
allowouremployeestofollowtheirpassionsandletthemfocusonthetask.
Overtime,extrinsicmotivationcantransformintointrinsicmotivationthroughtheprocess
ofinternalization(self-determinationtheory).
Basicphysiologicalneeds->intrinsicmotivation.
-Autonomy(self-identity,self-consistency,self-direction,freedomtomakeownchoice,
workunderowndiscretion).-Competence(growth,progressmotive,self-enhancement,self-efficacy).
-Relatedness(communion,goodrelationshipswithothers).
Thereisnoevidenceforthepropositionthatneedstructuresareorganizedalong
dimensionsproposedbyMasloworERGTHEORY.Thereisnoevidencefortheclaimthat
unsatisfiedneedsmotivate,orthatsatisfiedneedsactivatesmovementtoanewlevelof
needs.
TheoryX/Y:thistheoryisservedtoopenoureyestomentalmodelsusedbymanagers.
However,ifthereisnoevidencefortheclaimthatifmanagersswitchfromtheoryXto
theoryY,thistooimpactsonemployeemotivation.Thereisnoevidencefortheclaimthatonepairofassumptionsisbetterthantheother.
CriticstoHertzbergshygiene/motivatingfactorstheory:self-servingbiasfunctionsas
alternativeexplanation(thingsgowell->peoplecreditthemselves,thingsgobad->people
creditexternalcauses).Nometricinthemethodology.Positiveaspectsmaycompensatefor
negativeaspects.
McClellandstheoryofneeds:needforachievement,needforpower,needforaffiliation
(verysimilartoSchwartzvaluediagram).
Self-efficacyandsociallearningtheory:competenceandmotivationareassociated.
Sociallearningtheory:Banduraarguesthattherearefourwaysself-advocacycanbeincreased:enactivemastery,vicariousmodeling,verbalpersuasion,andarousal.
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Goalsettingtheory(Locke&Latham,2000):
Equitytheory(Adams):reciprocityvs.equity.
-Reciprocity:allpeopleseektogetanacceptableamountofreturnsfortheirinvestmentsin
socialexchangerelationships.-Equity:peoplecomparetheirratiosofinputs/outcomestorelevantothersinorderto
judgewhethertheirexchangerelationshipisacceptable.
Expectancytheory(Vroom):expectancy-valuemotivation.
Self-regulationtheory:
Definition1:theselectiveallocationofpersonalenergytofacilitategoalstrivingovertime
andacrosschangingcircumstances.
Definition2:theexerciseofcontroloveroneself,especiallywithregardtobringingtheself
intolinewithpreferred(thus,regular)standards.
Includes:regulatoryfocustheory(Riggins),self-determinationtheory(Ryan&Deci),andgoal
orientationtheory(learningvs.performancegoals).
Jobcharacteristicsmodel(Hackman&Oldhem):
1.Skillvariety.
2.Taskidentity.
3.Tasksignificance.
4.Autonomy.
5.Feedback.
Pro-socialmotivation:employeesarentasselfish
asisoftenassumed.Thus,beyondself-centered
motivators,pro-socialmotivatorsshouldbe
consideredformanagerialpurposes.
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Hoorcollege7(H9+H10)
Socialstatus:asociallydefinedpositionorrankgiventogroupsorgroupmembersbyothers
Statuscharacteristicstheory:statuscomesfromthreesources:
1.Thepowerofpersonwieldsoverothers.2.Apersonsabilitytocontributetogroupgoals(ELT).
3.Anindividualspersonalcharacteristics(extraversion,impressionmanagement,humor,
physicalattractiveness,money,intelligence,friendlinessandsoforth).
French&Raven(1959):poweristhatstateofaffairswhichholdsinagivenrelationship,
A-B,suchthatagiveninfluenceattemptbyAoverBmakesAsdesiredchangeinBmore
likely.Therearesixbasesofpower:
Formalpowerbases -Positional(orlegitimate)power
-Rewardpower
-CoercivepowerPersonalpowerbases -Referentpower(identification,attraction,loyalty
(pathos/ethos-based))
-Expertpower(knowledge,skills,orexpertise)
-Informationalpower(rationalargument,persuasion,
factualdata(logos-based))
Leadership:theabilitytoinfluenceagrouptowardtheachievementofavisionorasetof
goals.Managersvs.leaders:
Managers... Leaders
arecopingwithcomplexity arecopingwithchangehaveformalauthoritytobeincharge influenceotherstofollow
haveatechnocraticfunctioninorganization areanemergentstateinasocialnetwork
accomplishsomething,haveresponsibility influence,andguide
havelegitimate(institutional)orrewardpower leadershipispersonalandnon-sanctioned
EvolutionaryLeadershiptheory:intheanimalworld,theleadersis:
-Themostactive(toenergize/entertainme).
-Thebesthunter(whenImhungry).
-Thetallest,thestrongest(whenImindanger).
-Themostexperienced(whenIminsecure).-Themostintelligent(whensituationsarecomplex).
Typesoffollowers(Kelly):
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Theoreticalapproachesofleadership:TheBigManapproach;psychoanalyticalapproach
(Freud,Jung);traitapproaches;behavioralapproaches;contingencyapproaches;charismatic
leadership;transformationalandtransactionalleadership;authenticandethicalleadership;
servantleadership;evolutionarytheoryofleadership.
Theearlyclassicsofleadership:traitapproach;behavioralapproach;contingencytheory.
Traitapproaches:focusontraits/characteristicsofleaders(personality,social,physical,
intellectual),assumesleadersareborn,goalistoselectleaders.
Behavioralapproaches:focusonspecificbehaviorsofleaders,assumeleaderscanbe
trained,goalistodevelopleaders.Task(initiatingstructure,productionoriented,concern
forproduction)vs.social(consideration,employeeoriented,concernforpeople)approach.
Contingencyapproaches:focusonsituationalleadership,assumethateffectivenessofstyle
dependsonthesituationandthatleadershipstyleisfixedorchangeable.
Fiedlermodel:fixedleadershipstyle(taskvs.relationship),situationfactorsdetermine
effectiveness(leader-memberrelationship,taskstructure,positionspower).
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Hoorcollege8(H7+H12)
Twoperspectivesonstudyingteams:
1.Individualoffocalunitofstudy,thegroup/teamasacontextinwhichindividualsoperate.
Group/teamasmicro-organizationalcontext.2.Thegroup/teamasawhole,asfocalunitofstudy.
Workteam:agroupofthreeormoreindividuals,who:sociallyinteract,possesoneormore
commongoals,aredeliberatelybroughttogethertoperformorganizationallyrelevanttasks
(formalgroup),exhibitinterdependencieswithrespecttoworkflow,goalsandoutcomes,
havedifferentrolesandresponsibilitiesandaretogetherembeddedwithinan
organizationalsystem.
IPOmodelofteameffectiveness:
Organizationalcontext:organizationalcultureandstructure;rewardsystems,HRM
practices;resources(time,money,equipment),trainingandconsultation;leadership.
Leadershipfunctionswithinteams:
-Intransitionphase:composeteam,definemission,establishexpectationsandgoals,
structureandplan,trainanddevelopteam,sensemaking,providefeedback.
-Inactionphase:monitorteam,manageteamboundaries,challengeteam,performteam
task,solveproblems,provideresources,encourageteamself-management,supportsocial
climate.
Differentneedsfordifferentiation/integration:lowdiff/lowintegration(adviceteam)low
diff/highintegration(productionteam),highdiff/lowintegration(projectteam),highdiff
/highintegration(actionteam).
Teamworkdesign:threetypesoftasks:aggregatetasks(teamperformanceissumof
individualperformance),conjunctivetasks(teamperformancedeterminedbylowest
performer)anddisjunctivetasks(teamperformancedeterminedbyhighestperformer).
Teamcomposition:demographic,attitudinalandtask-relateddiversity;spatialseparation.
Opportunitiesofdiversity/separation:broaderrangeofknowledge,perspectives,expertise;
high-qualitydecision-makingandproblemsolving;lowercosts.
Risksofdiversity/separation:poorsocialintegration,lackofcohesion;interpretative
barriers,cognitivedistance;coordinationproblems,dysfunctionalconflict;subgroup
formation,majority-minorityinfluence.
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Whentousehomogenousorheterogeneousteams:
Homogenous:simpletasks,sequentialtasks,tasksthatrequirecooperation;tasksthatmust
bedonequickly.
Heterogeneous:complextasks,collectivetasks,tasksthatrequirecreativity;tasksthatneed
notbedonequickly.
Individualcharacteristics:KSAs(knowledge,skillsandabilities),teamworkrequiresalso
socialskills(conflictresolutionskills,collaborativeproblemsolvingskills,communication
skills,goalsetting/performancemanagementskills,planning/taskcoordinationskills.
Characteristicsofteamworkprocesses:interdependentactsamongteammembers,
interdependentactsmayinvolvecognitive,verbalandbehavioralactivities,directed
towardsachievingacollectivegoal.Threetypesofteamworkprocess:
Actionphaseprocesses:e.g.missionanalysis&goalsetting,taskperformancestrategy&
planning)
Transitionphaseprocesses:e.g.monitoringprogresstowardsgoals,coordination&backup
behavior.
Interpersonalprocesses:e.g.conflict&trustmanagement,motivationandconfidence
building.
Actualteamproductivity:potentialproductivity-processlosses(+processgains).
Processlossesandgainsespeciallyprominentinself-managedteams(SMTs)becauseof
littlesupervision.
Brightsideofteams Darksideofteams
SMTs:autonomyinhowtoorganizework Adoptingdysfunctionaltaskstructures
Increasedgroupcohesion/solidarity Strongpressurestowardsconformity
SMTs:senseofcollectiveaccountability Diffusionofresponsibility
Increasedmotivationandeffort Increasedsocialloafing
Virtuesofdiversityinteams Tendencytowardspolarization
Identificationwithandcommitmenttoteam Escalationofcommitment,disidentification
withorganization,goal-displacement
Increasedautonomyofteamasawhole Lossofindividualautonomy,morecontrol
Betterdecision-making Groupthink
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Hoorcollege9(H13+H14)
Approachestoleadershipeffectiveness:
-Internal/externalfocusofleadership.
-Transformationalandtransactionalleadership.-Charismaticleadership.
-Authenticleadership.
-Servantleadership.
Internal/externalfocusofleadership:
Componentsoftransformationalleadership:
1.Idealizedinfluence(attribute).
2.Idealizedinfluence(behavior).
3.Inspirationalmotivation.
4.Intellectualstimulation(think/bedifferent).
5.Individualizedconsideration(smallsteps).
Elementsofagreatspeech:speaktopeoplesemotions,speaktopeoplesdesirefor
togetherness,emphasizesmallsteps,howdothesesmallstepsfitintoagreatvision?
Elementsofconnectingwithothers:co-evolution(simultaneouscreation),inclusive
understanding(sensemaking,belonging/openness/transparency/equality),attraction.
Outcomesofconnecting:(affiliative)needsatisfaction(foritsownsake),enrollment(bi-
directionalinfluence),inspiration/epiphanies/intellectualstimulation.
Componentsofcharisma:
-Appealingvision.
-Sensitivetofollowersneeds.
-Highleaderidentificationinfollowers.
-Unconventionalbehavior,whichdemonstratescourageandconviction.
-Personalmagnetism,emotionalcontagion(AmirErez).
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-Highpositiveenergy,confident,powerfulpresence.
-Expertsincreatingrapport&socialconnection.
Charismaandfollowerseffect:
-Transferofemotions(emotionalcontagion).
-Mechanisms:charismaticareextraverted,higherself-esteem,lowneuroticism,positive
affectivity.Interpretingcuesfromaudience,goodself-monitorsandexhibitthosebehaviors.
-Charismaticleadersmakeothershappierthroughpositivebehaviors.
-Positiveaffectisrelatedtohighercreativity,highmotivation,betterdecisions,better
performanceandbetternegotiation.
Transactionalleadership:
-Contingentreward:providesrewardsforsatisfactoryperformancebyfollowers.
-Managementbyexception(active):tendstofollowmistakesandfailurestomeet
standards(faultfinder).
-Managementbyexception(passive):waitsuntilproblemsbecomeseverebeforeattending
tohimandintervening(firefighter).
Authenticleadership:
-Importantfor:figureheadrole,instillingtrust,corporateethicalbehavior.
-Characteristics:actinguponvaluesandbeliefs(oppositetoopportunism),word-deed
congruence,leaderintegrity(honestyandtruthfulness).
Servantleadership:notforonesownaggrandizement,other-oriented,humble,sacrificial
forthesakeofthosetheyareserving.
Aspects:generalattitudehumblenessandservitude,inspiration,coaching,listening,empathy,awareness,persuasion,foresight,stewardship(sustainable),humanisticemphasis,
buildingcommunity.
Learysrose:
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Alphamaleattitude/behavior:highstatus->lowconformity
-Attractive,likable,relaxedcomposure,eyecontact,lowneedtoconformtogroupnorms,
strongsenseofselfandinnerpurpose.
-Highstatusgroupmembersareoftengivenmorefreedomtodeviatefromnorms
comparedtoothergroupmembers(e.g.feetonthetable,thekindofjokes).
Approach/inhibitiontheoryofpower:
-Powerfulpeoplearerelativelyfreetobehaveastheywish,encounterfewersocial
constraints,andmoreresource-richenvironments.
-Lessfearfulofnegativeconsequencesofbehavior(forabsenceofpunishments).
Explanationsforwidespreadsupervisoryabuse:
Proximateexplanations: -Approachinhibitiontheoryofpower.
-Disproportionatedistributionofsex,status,wealthattracts
DarkTriadofpersonalities.
Ultimateexplanations: -DarkTriadpersonalitiespersistbecausetheyareattractive
(evolutionaryarguments) short-termmates.
-Instinctivelywechoosehightestosteroneleaders(hawks)
asanacuteassetincaseofexternalthreat.
-Lackofstopmechanismsamongfollowersbecauseour
brainsarenotusedtodaysbusinessrealities.
Abusivesupervision:
-Workplacedeviance(organizational/personal):retaliatoryhostilebehaviortowardabusive
supervisor,displacedaggression.
-Thechainofabuse:abusivebehaviorishighlycontagious,socialmodeling(Milgrams
study),victimsbecomeperpetrators,cultureofabuse.
Putstopmechanisminplace:
-Institutional:democracyistheleastevilamongevils;maximumtermsofservice(e.g.4
years);proceduresforcomplaints,correctability;emphasizedistributedleadershipand
participativedecision-making;de-emphasizeshort-termprofitmaximizationandreward
long-termsustainability;impeachmentprocedures(integritychecks).
-Attitudinal/cultural:regardassholebehaviorasjustanotherformofincompetence.
-Usethereinforcementprincipleonleaderstoo:makesuremailbehaviorhasnopositive
consequences(stoprewardingit)anddirectnegativeconsequences(putswiftpunishments
inplace).
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Hoorcollege10(H2)
Whatexplainsemployeeperformance:
-Intelligence.
-Ability-jobfit.-Learning:isachangeinbehaviorasaresultofexperience.Itoccurswhenonereceives
information,internalizesit,andmakesaconsciousattempttoactontheinformation.
Classicalconditioning(Pavlov):
Lawofassociation:
-Contiguity:eventsthatoccurtogetherbecomeassociated(timeintervalbetweenevents;
consistencyofpairings).
-Frequency(numberoftrails).
-Intensityofthestimuli.
Operantconditioning(Skinner):referstovoluntarybehaviorincontrasttoreflexiveor
unconsciousbehavior.
Unlearning:
-Extinction(onlyconditionedstimulus,withoutassociatedunconditionedstimulus).
-Spontaneousrecovery(younevercompletelyunlearn).
-Thepartialreinforcementeffect:ifbehaviorXwasonlyrewardedeverynowandthen,the
processofextinction(unlearning)willtakelonger.
-IfthetimeintervalbetweenbehaviorXandtherewardwaslarge,extinctionwilltake
longer.
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Theoreticalcritiquestooperantconditioning:
-Circularreasoninginthereinforcementidea:aresponseincreasesifitisfollowedbya
satisfyingresult,buttheonlywaytoknowwhethertheresultissatisfying,isthatwe
observeincreasesintheresponse.
-Learningisnotalwaysobservableinovertbehaviors.
-Onecanalsolearnfromotherpeoplesbehaviors(copycat).
Extrinsicrewardstendtodecreaseintrinsicmotivation.
Preferably,donotusenegativereinforcement(onlyinlife/firm-threateningsituations).
Iftherewardisperceivedasmanipulative,itislesseffective.
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Hoorcollege11(H17)
Culture:thesystemofsharedbeliefs,values,customs,behaviorsandartifactsthatthe
membersofsocietyusetocopewiththeirworldandwithoneanother,andthatare
transmittedfromgenerationtogenerationthroughlearning.Ferraro:cultureiseverythingthatpeoplehave,thinkanddoasmembersoftheirsociety.
Thisdefinitionincludesthreemajorcomponents:
-Have:referstomaterialobjects.
-Think:referstoideas,valuesandattitudes.
-Do:referstopatternsofbehavior.
Fourcomponentsofculture:
1.Systematicpattern:
-Patterned:peopleinasocietyliveandthinkinwaysthatformdefinitepatterns.
-Structural:cultureconsistsofpatternedandinterrelatedideas,symbolsorbehaviors.-Behavioral:cultureissharedlearnedhumanbehavior,awayoflife.
-Normative:cultureisideals,values,orrulesforliving.
2.Symboliccomposition:
-Historical:cultureissocialheritage,ortradition,thatispassedonfromgenerationto
generation.
-Shared:cultureissharedbythemembersofasociety.Nocultureofone.
-Mental:cultureisacomplexofideas,orlearnedhabits,thatinhibitimpulsesand
distinguishpeoplefromanimals.
-Learned:theprocessoflearningonescultureiscalledenculturation.
-Internalized:habitual,takenforgranted,perceivedasnatural.
3.Learnedtransmission:
-Functional:cultureisthewayhumanssolveproblemsofadaptingtotheenvironmentor
livingtogether(sensemaking).
-Mutuallyconstructed:mutuallyconstructedthroughaconstantprocessofsocial
interaction.
-Arbitrary:notbasedonnaturallaws,externaltohumans,butcreatedbyhumansaccording
tothewhimsofsociety.
4.Societalgrounding:
-Symbolic:cultureisbasedonarbitrarilyassignedmeaningsthataresharedbyasociety.
-Symbolic:culture,languageandthoughtarebasedonsymbolsandsymbolicmeanings.
Howcultureevolves:
-Throughtheevolutionofmen:themembersofvarioussocietieshadtocopewiththeir
specificenvironmentandwithoneanother.
-Contactwithothers:throughtrade,conquest,(cultural)imperialism,geographic
discoveries,colonialism,forcedmigration,travel,internationalbusiness.
-Rolemodels:thedesiretodistinguishourselfand/ortoresembleothers:theroyalty,the
upper-class,successfulpeople,bycivility,behavior,clothing,language,symbols,etc.
-Technologyinfluencesculture:theuseoffire,cultivationofplants,domesticationof
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animals.Philosophyandthedevelopmentofmodernscience.Theinventionofthewheel,
thebook,money,gunpowder,automobile,television,jetplane,internet.
Categorizingglobalization:
-Economics:internationalcommerce,industry,enterprise.
-Politics:empire,systemsofglobalgovernance,UN,OAS.
-Social:migration,travel,NGOs.
-Cultural:sharedmeaningacrossnationalboundaries.
TrompenaarsandHampden-Turnersmodelofculturewithsevendimensions:
Universalismvs.particularism(whatismoreimportant,rulesorrelationship?)
Individualismvs.collectivism(dowefunctioningrouporasindividuals?)
Neutralvs.emotional(dowedisplayouremotions?)
Specificvs.diffuse(howseparatewekeepourprivateandworkinglives)
Achievementvs.ascription(wehavetoproveourselvestoreceivestatusorisitgiventous?)
Sequentialvs.synchronic(dowedothingsoneatatimeorseveralthingsatonce?)
Internalvs.externalcontrol(dowecontrolourenvironmentorarewecontrolledbyit?)
Organizationalculture:referstoasystemofsharedmeaningheldbyamemberthat
distinguishestheorganizationfromotherorganizations.
Mintzberg:Cultureisthesouloftheorganization-thebeliefsandvalues,andhowtheyare
manifested.
Hofstede:Cultureisthecollectiveprogrammingofthemind.Thefirstlevel,Human
Nature,isthedeepestandmostdifficulttochange.Theotherlayers,cultureand
personality,areprogrammedinthecourseofeducationthroughlife.
Functionsoforganizationalculture:
-Culturecomplementsrationalmanagerialtools.
-Culturesupports(orresists)strategicchanges.
-Culturehelpssocializenewmembers.
-Culturepromotesexpectedbehaviors.
-Subculturesfacilitateorganizationaldiversity.
-Organizationaldiversityisthetriggerforthecreationofnewmeaning(sensemaking).
AccordingtoDaft(1998)corporatecultureservestwocriticalfunctionsonorganizations:
internalintegrationandexternaladaption.
Corporateculture:isapatternofbasicassumptions,invented,discoveredordevelopedbya
givengroupasitlearnstocopewithitsproblemsofexternaladaptionandinternal
integration,thathasworkedwellenoughtobeconsideredvaluableand,therefore,tobe
taughttonewmembersasthecorrectwaytoperceive,thinkandfeelinrelationshipwith
thoseproblems.
Coreideologyconnectspurposeandvalues:combinesessentialcorevaluesasasetof
guidingprincipleswithapurposethatuniquelydefinesthefundamentalreasonsforthe
organizationsexistence(beyondmakingmoney).
Values:aretheenduringbeliefsandexpectationsthatapersonorgroupholdtobe
importantguidestobehavior.
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Organizationalvaluesystem:acoresetofvaluessharedbythemajorityoforganizational
members,typicallydifferentiatedbytheoriginandcontentofthoseenduringvalues.
Elementsthatinfluenceorganizationalbehavior:
Managersdevelopaculture:firstgenerationmanagersdevelopaculture(theyfunctionas
rolemodel,whattheyvalue,measureandcontrol,andhowtoreacttocriticaleventand
crisis)--->secondgenerationadaptsaculture--->growthpromptsrevolutionaryshiftsin
culture--->newleadership,newteachingpractices.
Strongculture:achievedwhenmostmembersaccepttheinterrelatedassumptionsthat
formaninternallyconsistentculturalsystemthatenduresovertime.Lookforconsistencies
andvarietiesinwhatpeopletellyou.Thegreatertheconsistency,thestrongertheculture.
Prosofstrongculture:commitment,lessformalization,loweremployeeturnover.
Consofstrongculture:lessdiversity,lessflexibletochangesinenvironment,lesscreativity,
tunnelvision,difficultinmergesandacquisitions.
Dimensionsoforganizationalculture(OReilly,Chatman&Caldwell,1991):
Innovationandrisktaking(willingtoexperiment,takerisks,encourageinnovation).
Attentiontodetail(payingattentiontobeingprecisevs.sayingitsgoodenoughfor
choppedsalad).
Outcomeorientation(orientedtoresultsvs.orientedtoprocess).
Peopleorientation(degreeofvalueandrespectforpeople).
Individualvs.teamorientation(individualshighlynotedvs.collectiveefforts).
Aggressiveness(takingaction,dealingwithconflict.
Stability(opennesstochange).
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Hofstedesdimensionsoforganizationalculture:
Processorientedvs.resultoriented.
Job&taskorientedvs.employeeoriented.
Professionalvs.parochial.
Closedsystemvs.opensystem.
Tightcontrolvs.Loosecontrol.
Pragmaticvs.normative.
CulturalOrientationModel(TMC,Princeton):
-Environment:howindividualsviewandrelatetopeople,
objectsandissuesintheirsphereofinfluence.
-Time:howindividualsperceivethenatureoftimeandits
use.
-Action:howindividualsconceptualizeactionsand
interactions.
-Communication:howindividualsexpressthemselves.
-Space:howindividualsdemarcatetheirphysicaland
psychologicalspace.
-Power:howindividualsdefinetheiridentity.
-Competitiveness:howindividualsaremotivated.
-Structure:howindividualsapproachchange,risk,
ambiguityanduncertainty.
-Thinking:howindividualsconceptualize.
Tencomponentsoforganizationalculture
1.Characteristics:
-Innovation&risktaking.
-Attentiontodetail.
-Outcomeorientation.
-Peopleorientation.
-Teamorientation.
-Aggressiveness.
-Stability.
2.Types:
-Powerculture.-Roleculture.
-Taskculture.
-Peopleculture.
3.Intensity:
-Strongculture.
-Weakculture.
4.Functions:
-Boundaryofdefinition.
-Senseofidentity.
-Commitment.
-Stability.
-Sensemaking&control
5.Liability:
-Barrierstochange.
-Barrierstodiversity(xenophobia).
-Barrierstomergers&acquisitions.
6.Formation:
-Selection.
-Topmanagement.
-Socialization(pre-arrivalstage->
encounterstage->metamorphosisstage).7.Culturelearning:
-Stories.
-Rituals.
-Symbols.
-Language.
8.Ethicalculture:
-Beavisiblerolemodel.
-Communicateethicalexpectations.
-Provideethicaltraining.
-Visiblerewardethicalacts(punish
unethicalacts).
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-Proveprotectivemechanisms.
9.Positiveculture:
-Buildingonemployeestrengths(empowerment).
-Rewarding>punishing.
-Vitality&growth.
10.Spiritualculture:
-Strongsenseofpurpose.
-Trust&respect.
-Humanisticworkpractices.
-Toleranceemployeeexpressions.
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Hoorcollege12(H19)
Stress(Selye,1936):anunpleasantstateofarousalinwhichpeopleperceivethedemands
ofaneventastaxingorexceedingtheirabilitytosatisfyoralterthosedemands.
Increasedriskofchronicbackpain,diabetes,respiratoryinfections,arthritis,herpes,gumdisease,commoncoldsandsomeformsofcancer.Weakeneddefenses.
Pathwaysfromstresstoillness:
Consequencesofstress:
-Physiological:ulcers,immunesystemdeteriorates,increasedbloodpressure,headaches.
-Psychological:dissatisfaction,irritability,tension,alwayswiredup,unabletocalmdown,
anxiety,procrastination.
-Behavioral:lossofappetite,withdrawalbehavior,smoking,alcohol,rapidspeech,fidgeting,
sleepdisorders.
Antecedents:
-Individualfactors:socialsupport,attribution,experience,traithostility,self-efficacy.-Organizationalfactors:jobdemands,control,support(KaraseksJDC-model)(toxicleaders
andtoxicorganizations).
-Environmentalfactors:economiccrises->insecurity.
Burnoutdimensions/diagnostics:
-Extremeexhaustion(andextremelyslowrecovery).
-Cynicism(psychologicaldistancing).
-Lackofprofessionalefficacy.
Sixwarningsignstoburnout:1.Workload2.Control.discretion3.Feedback,reward,
cognition.4.Communityatwork(includingprocessforresolvingconflict).5.Fairness.6.Valueincongruence,dissonancebetweenvaluesandrequiredbehaviors.
Predictingburnout:ifemployeesreporttoexhaustionorcynicismincombinationwithat
leastonofthesixareasofmismatch,burnoutcouldbepredictedoneyearlater.Butif
employeesreportexhaustionorcynicismwithoutoneofthesixwarningsigns,therewillbe
noburnout.
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Waystocopewithstress:
-Problem-focusedcoping:e.g.removestressor.
-Emotion-focusedcoping:e.g.humor.
-Pro-activecoping:e.g.re-arrangeyourenergyhousehold(work-homebalance).
Work-homeconflict:processwherebyanindividualsbehaviorandfunctioninginone
domain(e.g.work)isinfluencedbythedemandsoftheotherdomain(e.g.home).
Consequencesofwork-homeconflicts(Byron,2005):physicalandmentalhealthcomplaints(e.g.distress,burnout);negativeworkdomainconsequences(e.g.turnoverintention);
negativehomedomainconsequences(e.g.maritalconflicts).
Threeclassicaltheories:
-Segmentation(Dubin,1956).
-Compensation(Wilensky,1960).
-Spillover(Wilensky,1960)->Rolestresstheory(Greenhaus&Beutell,1985).
Thereisincompatibilityofrolesfromdifferentdomainswithregardto:time,strainand
behavior.
Conflictsfromthehomedomaincanalsospilloverintotheworkdomain(Gutek,Searle&
Kepla,1991).
Positiveinfluencesbetweenwork&home(Greenhouse&Powell2006):additiveeffect;
buffering/compensation;spillover.
Ingeneral,individualsreporthigherlevelsofwork-homeconflictthanofhome-workconflict
(Eby,Casper,Lockwood,Bordeayx&Brinley,2005).
Prevalenceofhome-workenrichmentishigherthanthatofwork-homeenrichment(Geurts
&Demerouti,2003).
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Theglassceilingforwomenexists(JennyHoobler):leadershippositionsareassociatedwith
agenticcharacteristics;managersthinkwomenhavemorehome-workconflictsevenif
womenhavenuactualfamilyresponsibilities(lowerperceivedperson-job,person-
organizationfit);womenneetohavehigherperformanceratingsthanmenforthesame
position.
Jobapplications(Heilman&Okimoto,2008):parentsareperceivedaslesscommitted,
dependableandlessachievementoriented.Mothersareperceivedaslesscompetent.
Supervisorsperceptionsoftheiremployees(King,2006):fewdifferencesbetweenmen
andwomensperceptions.Supervisorsperceivemothersasmoredisruptedatwork,less
productiveinpublishing,lessinvolvedandlessflexible.
Somebasiclessons:
-Employeesactoutroles,butwillonlypartiallysucceedatit(webringourpersonalities,
values,instincts,emotionsandtheymatter).
-Wearepro-social,communalbeings(organizationalcitizenshipbehavior,pro-social
motivation,wehavetheabilitytoconnect,empathizeandimitate).
-Bewareof(cynical)rational-actormodels(emotionshaveserveduswell,itsnotallabout
themoney->intrinsicmotivesworkbestonthelongrun).
-Wecanallbeheroes:charisma,vision,servitude,bedifferent.
-Orvillains:normalpeoplecandohorrificthingsincertainsocio-hierarchalcontext.Power
corrupts.
-Itpaysofftotakeemployeewell-beingseriously.