Steekproeven

8/13/2019 Steekproeven

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Steekproeven in International Journal of Business and Globalization (IJBG)2011,

(hoofdstuk 7 in het proefschrift The New Urban World van Karima Kourtit, )

Voorbeeld 1, gebruik van paper van Tzin Baycan-Levent en Nijkamp uit 2007,

waarvan grote delen ook zijn gepubliceerd in het boek The Sustainability of CulturalDiversity: Nations, Cities and Organizations:

Tzin Baycan-Levent en Nijkamp, 2007, p. 5/6

The literature shows that the impact of migration on welfare in the receiving and sending

countries depends heavily on the flexibility of labour markets. The labour market impact of

migration has been examined in a large number of econometric studies in Europe. These

studies rely on a cross-section of either regions or branches, and use variations in the

migrant density in order to identify the impact of migration on wages and employment. The

results of these studies show that migration is neutral for wages and employment of natives

in the receiving countries (see for details Longhi et al., 2005, 2007).On the other hand, as many studies show, migration provides many benefits and

contributes to economic growth and the creation of new jobs. Economic growth and the

creation of new jobs are strongly associated with the willingness to take up chances across

regions and the supply of jobs regulates the flow of people seeking work. Regional labour

mobility in the EU-15 is low only about 1 out of 200 workers chang

, 2005). Hence, immigration from outside the European Unionhas become a potentially very crucial role for the creation of a higher level of labour

mobility in Europe. If there is labour mobility, it is largely due to international migration

(Zimmermann, 2005). Europe is a place where migration is especially useful from an

economic perspective. In the context of (2005) shows that international migration can significantly increase income per capita in

Europe. They have estimated that at the given wage and productivity gap between Western

and Eastern Europe, migration of 3% of the Eastern population to the West could increase

total EU GDP by up to 0.5%. The contributions of migrants to the economic growth as well

as to the creation of new jobs will be further examined in the next section.

Kourtit en Nijkamp in International Journal of Business and Globalization (IJBG)2011,

(hoofdstuk 7 in het proefschrift), p. 173/174:

The wealth of literature shows that the impact of migration in particular, labour migration

on welfare in the receiving and sending countries depends heavily on the flexibility of

labour markets. As shown above, the labour market impact of migration has been examined

in a large number of qualitative often econometric

, 2005). These studies rely on a cross-section of either regions orbranches, and use variations in migrant density in order to identify the impact of migration

on wages and employment. The results of these studies show that, on average, migration


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has only a marginal impact on wages and employment of natives in the receiving countries

(see Longhi et al., 2010).

It is noteworthy that many studies also show that migration provides many benefits and

contributes to economic growth and the creation of new jobs. Economic growth and the

creation of new jobs are strongly associated with the willingness to take-up chances across

regions, while the supply of jobs regulates the flow of people seeking wor -

, 2005). Hence,immigration from outside the European Union potentially has very crucial role for the

creation of a higher level of labour mobility in Europe. If there is labour mobility, it is

largely due to international migration (Zimmermann, 2005).

Europ

(2005) shows that

international migration can significantly increase income per capita in Europe. They have

estimated that, given the wage and productivity gap between Western and Eastern Europe,a migration flow of 3% of the Eastern European population to the West could increase total

EU GDP by up to 0.5%. The contributions of migrants to economic growth, and to a wide

array of socio-economic benefits, will be examined further in the present section.

p. 176:

In the context of an ageing population and a need for certain skills, migrants may make an

important economic contribution.

Voorbeeld 2, omgang met tekst Strutt

Kourtit/Nijkamp, IJBG:

In addition, greater labour mobility helps to facilitate trade, and increases the cross-border

demand for domestic output (see Strutt et al., 2008).

Strutt (2008):http://www.waikato.ac.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/74173/dp-68.pdfIn

addition, greater labour mobility helps to facilitate trade and increases the cross-border

demand for domestic output.

Kourtit/Nijkamp IJBG: They foster international trade through their demand for home

country outputs, and through their ability to facilitate trade between the host and homecountries (e.g., cost differences, pr al., 2008). Migrant networks are important in this context.

Strutt, 2008: Immigrants foster international trade through their demand for home country

outputs and through their ability to facilitate trade between the host and home countries.

Migrant networks are important in this context.
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Kourtit/Nijkamp, IJBG: Migrants often have a social or business network in their home

country which may be used in the host country (e.g., to reduce transaction costs, which may

increase both exports and imports) (see Strutt et al., 2008).

Strutt: Migrants often have a social or business network in their home country which maybe used in the host country.

Voorbeeld 3, omgang met tekst Mnz, 2006

Kourtit/Nijkamp, IJBG: Most countries could improve their competitiveness relative to the

migrant-sending countries through the devaluation effect on the exchange rate and through

the additional spending capacity generated in the migrant-sending countries. (Mnz et al.,

2006).

Mnz, 2006: The EU countries could improve their competitiveness relative to the migrantsending countries through the devaluation effect on the exchange rate and through the

additional spending capacity generated in the migrant sending countries.

Voorbeeld 4, omgang met tekst Dustman 2009

Kourtit/Nijkamp, IJBG: This is because they have a higher labour force participation rate,

pay proportionately more in indirect taxes and social security contributions, and make

much less use of benefits and public services.

Dustman: This is because they have a higher labour force participation rate, payproportionately more in indirect taxes and make much less use of benefits and public

services.

Op p. 191 van het IJBG-artikel schrijven Kourtit/Nijkamp:

Immigration could remedy shortages of labour and skills that are unrelated to demographic

processes. However, immigration is not a solution for tackling the consequences of

demographic ageing in Europe. The level of net migration required to keep the old-age

dependency ratio constant would entail increases of inflows well beyond socially desirable

and politically sustainable levels.

Onderstaande tekst staat in Peter Nijkamp, Review of Economic Analysis 4 (2012),

Migration Impact Assessment: A Review of Evidence-Based Findings, zonder verwijzing:

Immigration could also be a remedy to shortages of labour and skills that are unrelated to

demographic processes. However, immigration is not a solution for tackling the

consequences of demographic ageing in Europe. The level of net migration required to keep

the old-age dependency ratio constant would entail increases of inflows well beyond

socially desirable and politically sustainable levels.


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In dit artikel in Review of Economic Analysis staan ook de volgende zinnen:

In addition, greater labour mobility helps to facilitate trade and increases the cross-border

demand for domestic output. The nurturing of cultural diversity may further enhance

trade. However, social cohesion and the accumulation of social capital are not natural

outcomes in increasingly diverse societies, but require resources to be allocated to thepromotion of desirable social outcomes. Thus, the social evaluation of greater cross-border

mobility resulting from greater international economic integration must go hand in hand

with the economic assessment.

Deze blijken gekopieerd uit Strutt, 2006 (Strutt wordt wel genoemd aan het begin van de

paragraaf, maar dat is onvoldoende):

In addition, greater labour mobility helps to facilitate trade and increases the cross-border

demand for domestic output. The nurturing of cultural diversity may further enhance trade.

However, social cohesion and the accumulation of social capital are not natural outcomes in

increasingly diverse societies, but require resources to be allocated to the promotion of

desirable social outcomes. Thus, the social evaluation of greater cross-border mobilityresulting from greater international economic integration must go hand in hand with the

economic assessment.


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Steekproeven in proefschrift Road traffic incident management and situational

awarenessvan John Steenbruggen, die op 7 oktober 2013 promoveerde bij hoogleraar

Rietveld.

Nijkamp is coauteur van diverse hoofdstukken van dit proefschrift, die eerder in iets anderevorm zijn gepubliceerd in wetenschappelijke tijdschriften.

Voorbeeld hoofdstuk vijf, dat Steenbruggen en Nijkamp in 2012 publiceerden in Transport

Policy. Dit bevat diverse tekstblokken uit een artikel dat Nijkamp in 2012 in zijn eentje ook

publiceerde in Quaestiones Geographicae:

http://geoinfo.amu.edu.pl/qg/archives/2012/QG312_007-019.pdf

De artikelen bevatten geen verwijzing naar elkaar.

Tekstblok uit hoofdstuk vijf, p. 111/112:The history of quantitative data analysis in transport geography now already spans several

decades. In the 1980s, the need for a more appropriate behavioural underpinning of spatial

interaction models led to the emergence and popularity of discrete utility (or choice)

models, in particular multinomial logit and probit models, later on followed by conjoint

analysis modelling. Such individually-based models were proven to be consistent with

aggregate-oriented spatial interaction models, and were widely accepted in the transport

research community. They also turned out to be eminently suitable for actor-based policy

simulation experiments, for instance, in the context of micro-simulation models and agent-

based models.

All such models were widely used for prediction purposes, evaluation experiments and

policy analyses in the planning and transportation science field: for example, to trace thesystem-wide effects of road pricing on the behaviour of car drivers. With the advent and

introduction of ICT (Information and Communication Technology), the computing capacity

in quantitative research showed a dramatic increase, so that spatial dynamics could also be

captured in a statistically more satisfactory way. In recent years, complexity theory has

made a remarkable contribution to a better understanding of the sensitivity of spatial

systems evolution to endogenous non-linear space-time behaviour. Space-time dynamics

(e.g. in the cellular automata domain) became an important ingredient of advanced

transportation research and spatial analysis, and prompted a new departure, viz. the use of

data mining methods for large data sets. The current use of computational neural networks

and genetic algorithms demonstrates convincingly the great potential of more sophisticated

data collectio q 97 (all things in space are related to each other, but nearby things are more related than distant

things), was taken up in a new strand of the literature addressing spatial - and spatio-

temporal - autocorrelation, either as testing devices or as design mechanisms for spatial

(dynamic) models (see also Tobler, 2004). Cellular automata, spatial filtering techniques,

and self-z K interaction analysiswere a logical follow-up and complement to the above-mentioned trends (see, e.g., Codd,
http://geoinfo.amu.edu.pl/qg/archives/2012/QG312_007-019.pdfhttp://geoinfo.amu.edu.pl/qg/archives/2012/QG312_007-019.pdfhttp://geoinfo.amu.edu.pl/qg/archives/2012/QG312_007-019.pdf


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1968; Couclelis, 1997; Kohonen, 2000; Kulkarni et al. 2002; Patuelli et al., 2010; Arribas et

al., 2010).

In recent years, we have witnessed the increasing popularity of Location-Based Services

(LBS) and data using various kinds of electronic identification systems, so that at an

individual level (a traveller, a container, a truck, or a taxi) the geographical position of a unit

can be traced with great precision. Many applications are available both for purchase andfor

Mobilephonedatatosupporttrafficincidentmanagement free to cell phone and other wireless

device users. For example, Japanese parents are using location-based tracking devices to

monitor the spatial movement of their children. This new approach will certainly generate

many new applications in space-time geography.

An interesting source of individually-based information on the space-time position and

behaviour of persons is in principle available from mobile (or cell) phone data derived from

the GSM network. The penetration rate of mobile phones is rapidly reaching a saturation

point in most OECD14 countries, so that a system-wide coverage does in principle exist,

almost in continuous space-time format. Such data - as very accurate representations of the

individual space-time location - are in principle available from telephone operators. If suchdata - in anonymous form - could be made available to the research community, an

unprecedented source of information on the space-time geography of individuals could be

used in applied research (for an overview, see Steenbruggen et al., 2011).

It is noteworthy that this idea of a continuous space-time map at an individual scale was

already put fo 1967. He

- -space model to provide a

description of both individual space-time patterns and the resulting spatial interactions, if

many indi universal limited supply of daily time resources. His work was regarded as a new

perspective in social- behavioural geography, as it highlighted so clearly the essence of

interaction and congestion phenomena in space (see Pred, 1977). Three constraints appear

to act on the daily mobility pattern of individuals, viz. capability constraints, coupling

constraints, and authority constraints. He also laid the foundation for activity-based

transport geography, but, unfortunately, lack of data and the technology available to

implement this framework often precluded a full operational application of his path-

breaking ideas. Now with the potential availability of large-scale continuous space-time

information databases on the spatial movements of individuals, a really interesting novel

approach might be developed, which could have great implications for spatial modelling.

Two such approaches can be found in the literature. The first incorporates elements of

Gibson (1979). Cognitive constraints, e.g. choice behaviour, were not given explicit

attention in the original time-geography framework. These constraints can help personalize

LBS, providing the possibility to collect more detailed information about the choices

individuals make. The second approach adjusts the space-time prism concept to support

interactions and activities between physical and virtual spaces (Yu and Shaw, 2008). This

approach would help to model and understand how, in the age of mobile computing where

a variety of activities and services can be carried out on the go, individuals are allocating

their space and time resources.


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Tekstblok uit Nijkamp, Questiones, p. 8/10:

The history of quantitative data analysis in geography spans already several decades. The

need for a more appropriate behavioural underpinning of spatial interaction models led in

the 1980s to the emergence and popularity of discrete utility (or choice) models, in

particular multinomial logit and probit models, later on followed by conjoint analysismodelling. Such individually-based models were proved to be consistent with aggregate-

oriented spatial interaction models and got widely accepted in the transport research com-

munity. They also turned out to be well suited to actor-based policy simulation

experiments, for instance in the context of micro-simulation models and agent-based

models. In this vein, modern geography increasingly exhibits the methodol- ogy of the

natural sciences based on advanced statistical analysis and testable models (for a review,

see Pagliara & Timmermans 2009).

All such models were widely used for prediction purposes, evaluation experiments and

policy analyses in the field of planning and transportation science, for example to trace the

system-wide effects of road pricing on the behaviour of car drivers. With the advent and

introduction of ICT, the computing capacity in quantitative research showed a dramaticincrease, so also spatial dynamics could be captured in a statistically more satisfactory way.

Complex- ity theory has in recent years offered a remarkable contribution to a better

understanding of the sensitivity of the evolution of spatial systems to endogenous non-

linear space-time behaviour. Space-time dynamics (e.g. in the cellular automata domain)

has become an important ingredient of advanced transportation research and spatial

analysis, and prompted a new departure, viz. the use of data mining methods for large data

sets (see also Batty 2005). The current use of computational neural networks and genetic

algorithms demonstrates convincingly the great potential of more sophisticated data col-

lecti q 97 things in space are related to each other, but nearby things are more related than distant

and spatio-temporal autocorrelation, either as testing devices or as design mechanisms for spatial(dynamic) models (see also Tobler 2004). Cellular automata, spatial filtering techniques

and self- K al interaction analysishave been a logical follow-up and complement to the above-mentioned trends (e.g. Arribas

et al. 2010, Codd 1968, Couclelis

1997, Kohonen 2000, Kulkarni et al. 2002 and Patuelli et al. 2010).

In the recent years, we have witnessed an increasing popularity of location-based services

(LBS) and data using various kinds of electronic identification systems, so that at an

individual level (a traveller, a container, a truck, or a taxi) the geographic position of a unit

can be traced with great precision. Many applications are available for purchase and free

to cell-phone and other wireless-device users. For example, Japanese parents use location-based tracking devices to monitor the spatial movement of their kids. This new approach

will certainly prompt many new applications in space-time geography.

An interesting source of individually-based information on the space-time position and be-

haviour of persons is in principle available from mobile (or cell) phone data, derived from

the GSM network. The penetration rate of mobile phones is rapidly reaching a full

saturation level in most OECD countries, so a system-wide coverage does in principle exist,

almost in continuous space-time format. Such data as very accurate representations of an


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Steekproeven in proefschrift Sahin (2012), Studies on Migrant Entrepreneurship in

Dutch Cities

Hoofdstuk 2 van het proefschrift van Mediha Sahin uit 2012 is in 2007 met coauteurs

Nijkamp en Baycan-Levent gepubliceerd in Handbook of Research on Ethnic MinorityEntrepreneurship. Dit hoofdstuk/artikel heeft overlap met een artikel dat Nijkamp in 2003

publiceerde in Regional Studies (en als paper in 2000). Verwijzing ontbreekt weer.

Het artikel van Nijkamp staat

hier:http://dare.ubvu.vu.nl/bitstream/handle/1871/1596/20000042.pdf?sequence=1

Sahin, p. 38/39:

These four attributes of an entrepreneur show up with varying intensities in the literature

on the essence of entrepreneurship. There are scientific contributions on entrepreneurship

offered by Cantillon, Say, Marshall, Schumpeter, Knight and Kirzner, respectively. The

pioneering study of Cantillon (1931) on the role of entrepreneurship made a main

distinction between the following economic agents: i) land owners who were financially

with a view to profit- ; C -

q C

entrepreneurship, the mediating role of the economic actor, who needs to anticipate

uncertain future events and to see uncertainty as an economic opportunity, is more

by those entrepreneurs who know how to handle risk situations properly.

Nijkamp 2000, p. 5:These four attributes of an entrepreneur show up with varying intensities in the literature

on the essence of entrepreneurship. We will address concisely here the scientific

contributions on entrepreneurship offered by Cantillon, Say, Marshall, Schumpeter, Knight

and Kirzner, respectively.

The pioneering study of Cantillon (193 1) on the role of entrepreneurship made a main

distinction between the following economic agents: (i) land owners who were financially

independent, (ii) who were involved in risk- taking activitieswith a view to profit-making, and (iii) who were ensured of a fairly stable income

by means of a labour contract. In Cantillons view, the market economy was a self-

regulating network of reciprocal exchange arrangementswhich were able to produce

equilibrium prices through free entry and exit of business firms. In Cantillons perception

of entrepreneurship, the mediating role of the economic actor, who needs to anticipate

uncertain future events and to see uncertainty as an economic opportunity, is more

important than his innovative attitude. The survival of the fittestwould be best

guaranteed by those entrepreneurs who know how to handle risk situations properly.
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Dit is slechts een steekproef. Dit hoofdstuk is niet systematisch gecheckt. Dat geldt ook voor

de andere hoofdstukken.

In hfst 9 komen passages voor uit een artikel dat Enno Masurel andPeter Nijkampin 2002

publiceerden inGrowth and Change,onder de titel 'Motivations and PerformanceConditions for Ethnic Entrepreneurship'. Dit is eerder gepubliceerd als working paper op de

site van de VU, toen nog met de namen van twee extra auteurs erbij (Enno Masurel, Peter

Nijkamp, Murat Tastan, Gabriella Vindigni).

Aan het eind van hfst 9 staat dit artikel wel bij de bronnen, maar in de tekst zelf is niet

aangegeven dat die bron op die plek is gebruikt. Bovendien staan er geen aanhalingstekens

om aan te geven dat deze tekst letterlijk is overgenomen.

In hoofdstuk 11 (in 2011 ook gepubliceerd in een boek met als coauteur onder meer

Nijkamp; Sahin, M., Todiras, A., and Nijkamp, P., Neuts, B., and Behrens, C. (2011), A

Structural Equations Model for Assessing the Economic Performance of High-Tech EthnicEntrepreneurs. In: Tomaz Dentinho and Roberta Capello (eds), Globalization Trends and

Regional Development: New Directions in FDI and Human Capital Flows, Edward Elgar,

Cheltenham UK) wordt de econome Dafna Kariv aan het begin van een alinea wel genoemd,

maar daarna volgt een letterlijke overname van haar tekst, zonder aanhalingstekens.

Op p. 330 staat de volgende tekst:

In the last decade, a number of empirical studies have suggested that differences between

the genders in managerial performance can be explained by cultural factors, such as

nationality. Managerial performance has been found to differ across nationalities, both in

terms of perceptions of what determines managerial performance, and in terms ofmanagement practices (Atuahene-Gima and Ko, 2001; Neelankavil et al., 2000; Steensma et

al., 2000).

The existing literature has revealed positive relationships between managerial functions

related to innovation, business longevity (Gagnon et al., 2000) and turnover from sales

(Chakrabarti, 1990; Deeds and Rothaermel, 2003); and that a greater focus on leading

change (Chakrabarti, 1990; Deeds and Rothaermel, 2003) has also stimulated business

turnover from sales.

Deze tekst komt vrijwel letterlijk overeen met de tekst van Dafna Karif, gepubliceerd in: The

Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy (JEC), 2(4),

300-331, 2009, Managerial Performance and Business Success: Gender Differences in

Canadian and Israeli Entrepreneurs

http://expertise.hec.ca/chaire_entrepreneuriat/wp-content/uploads/2009-03-managerial-
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Steekproeven in Nijkamp als solo-auteur

In 2006 publiceerde Nijkamp een hoofdstuk in het boek Infrastructure: the glue of megacities.

Dit hoofdstuk heeft grote overlap met een artikel dat Nijkamp in 2008 publiceerde in

Romanian Journal of Regional Science. Opnieuw ontbreekt enige verwijzing naar het eerdere

werk. In 2009 baatte Nijkamp zijn aanvankelijke publicatie nog verder uit door eenhoofdstuk met veel overlap te publiceren in het boek Innovation for development. Weer

ontbreken verwijzingen naar de eerdere publicaties.

Tekstblok uit Glue of Megacities:

W W 976

she meant to say that cities are the natural habitat for the human species in the post-

industrial period, provided cities would offer favourable living and working conditions as a

result of density externalities. Nevertheless, the phenomenon of modern large cities has

sometimes prompted contrasting viewpoints and arguments. A clear illustration can befound in the following two quotations which convincingly exemplify diverging perspectives

Cities have always been the fireplace of civilisation, where light and heat radiated out into

the dark (Theodore Parker).

Id rather wake up in the middle of nowhere than in any city on earth (Steve McQueen).

The simple fact that the majority of the world population is living in cities (with an

urbanization degree world-wide moving towards 70 percent) does not prove that cities are

the human settlements par excellence. There are simply too many negative voices on the

functioning and the future of our cities.

Tekstblok uit Romanian Journal of Regional Science:When Barbara Ward (1976) held a passionate plea for a positive view on modern cities as

the home of man, she meant to say that cities are the natural habitat for the human

species in the post-industrial period, provided cities would offer favourable living and

working conditions as a result of density externalities. Nevertheless, the phenomenon of

modern large cities has sometimes prompted contrasting viewpoints and arguments. A

clear illustration can be found in the following two quotations which convincingly exemplify

diverging perspectives on the urban way of life (see OSullivan, 2000):

Cities have always been the fireplace of civilisation, where light and heat radiated out into

the dark(Theodore Parker).

I

d rather wake up in the middle of nowhere than in any city on earth

(SteveMcQueen).

The empirical fact that the majority of the world population is living in cities does not prove

that cities are the human settlements par excellence. There are simply too many negative

voices on the functioning and the future of our cities.

Tekstblok uit Innovation for development:


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When Barbara Ward (1976) held a passionate plea for a positive view on modern cities as

in the post-industrial period, provided cities would offer favourable living and working

conditions as a result of density externalities. Nevertheless, the phenomenon of modern

large cities has sometimes prompted contrasting viewpoints and arguments. A clear

illustration can be found in the following two quotations which convincingly exemplify O

Cities have always been the fireplace of civilization, where light and heat radiated out into

the dark (Theodore Parker).

Id rather wake up in the middle of nowhere than in any city on earth(Steve McQueen).

The empirical fact that the majority of the world population is living in cities does not prove

that cities are the human settlements par excellence. There are simply too many negative

voices on the functioning and the future of our cities.

Dit is maar een voorbeeld; er is veel meer overlap.


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Steekproef in Verhoef/Nijkamp

Tekstblokken uit een artikel dat Nijkamp als enige auteur in 2007 publiceerde in het boek

Sustainable Urban Development: The environmental assessment methods zijn te herleiden tot

een hoofdstuk dat Nijkamp in 2004publiceerde met collega-hoogleraar Erik Verhoef (eerste

auteur) in het boek Urban Dynamics and Growth: Advances in Urban Economics , in 2003 ookals paper gepubliceerd in iets andere vorm. Naar die publicaties verwijst Nijkamp echter niet

in de publicatie uit 2007. Als klap op de vuurpijl publiceerde Nijkamp het hoofdstuk uit 2007

nogmaals in 2011, in vrijwel identieke vorm onder dezelfde titel, nu in het tijdschrift Regional

Science Inquiry Journal, zonder verwijzing naar Verhoef en zonder verwijzing naar de twee

eerdere boeken.

Vergelijk bijvoorbeeld p. 2 van deze link:http://papers.tinbergen.nl/03078.pdf

met dit tekstblok uit Regional Science Inquiry Journal:

Shelter role

The city is offering settlement facilities for numerous people, based on its scale advantagesin housing many citizens. Shelter has even become a human right, and cities are able to care

for the housing needs of people. From this perspective, cities offer a significant contribution

to a sustainable human habitat.

Religious role

In the early biblical history the city was often regarded as the source of evil (Babylon,

Nineveh). But in the later history we observe a more positive appreciation of the city.

Jerusalem was the seat of King David and the New Jerusalem became even a metaphor for a

total re-birth of mankind.

Cultural role

Historically, the city was the place where arts and sciences were flourishing. Venice,

Bologna, Padua, Paris, Augsburg, Amsterdam and many other places offer an overwhelmingPeter Nijkamp, Regional Science Inquiry Journal, Vol. III, (1), 2011, pp13-22 15

evidence of the favourable seedbed conditions of an urban way of life for the advancement

of culture.

Political role

Democracy was a new type of governance which found its seedbed in the city. And still

nowadays political power is largely concentrated in cities and governments have

established their premises in cities. De-concentration of physical government facilities (e.g.,

premises) has never become very successful. Administrative functions are usually executed

in capital cities of countries, or at least in cities with a critical political mass.

Economic role

The city is the market place for economic activity. It is also the place where usually productsare designed and often manufactured. Furthermore, it is a marketplace where capital is

supplied and advisory services are offered. In addition, the city is - as a result of various

types of agglomeration advantages - a very efficient way of organizing production and

consumption. Social role

Cities house thousands of people who are through the associative nature of city life able to

communicate with a great number of others, intensively or less intensively. But they have a
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social contact and communication spectrum which far exceeds that of a random

distribution of people.

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