Samenvattingen

Technische Bedrijfskunde

Operations Management

Met dank aan het bestuur van S.V. Scopus ’16 – ‘17

Gemaakt door: Bart Wolthers

Datum: 20 – 09 – 2016

Let op: S.V. Scopus is niet aansprakelijk voor mogelijke inhoudelijk en typ fouten. Echter streven wij wel naar een zo correct mogelijke

samenvatting. Deze samenvatting is ter ondersteuning voor de lesstof en is daardoor niet leidend. Distributie van dit document, gratis

alsmede tegen betaling, is niet toegestaan.

Let op: Deze samenvatting is gemaakt met de 11e editie van het boek Operations Management,

Processes and Supply Chains.

H11 Efficient Resource Planning

Material Requirements Planning Material requirements planning: A computerized information system developed specifically to help

manufacturers manage dependent demand inventory and schedule replenishment orders.

Figuur 11.1 blz. 459

MRP explosion: A process that converts the requirements of various final products into a material

requirements plan that specifies the replenishment schedules of all the subassemblies, components,

and raw materials needed to produce final products.

Dependent Demand For years, many companies tried to manage production and their dependent demand inventories

using independent demand systems, but het outcome was seldom satisfactory because dependent

demand is fundamentally different from independent demand.

Dependent demand: The demand for an item that occurs because the quantity required varies with

the production plans for other items held in the firm’s inventory.

Parent: Product that is manufactured from one or more components.

Component: Item that goes through one or more operations to be transformed into or become part

of one or more parents.

Managing dependent demand inventories is complicated because some components may be subject

to both dependent and independent demand.

Master Production Scheduling Master production schedule: A part of the material requirements plan that details how many end

items will be produced within specified periods of time.

Aspects of Master Scheduling:

1. The sums of the quantities in the MPS must equal those in the sales and operation plan.

2. The production quantities must be allocated efficiently over time.

3. Capacity limitations and bottlenecks, such as machine or labor capacity, storage space, or

working capital, may determine the timing and size of MPS Quantities.

Figuur 11.3 en 11.4 blz. 460 en 461

Developing a Master Production Schedule The process of developing in MPS includes, (1) calculating the project on-hand inventory and (2)

determine the timing and size of the production quantities of specific products.

(Projected on-hand inventory at end of this week) = (On hand inventory at end of last week) +

(MPS Quantity due at start of this week) - (Project requirements this week)

Blz. 461 t/m 463

Available-to-promise(ATP) inventory: The quantity of end items that marketing can promise to deliver

on specified dates.

Reconciling the MPS with Sales and operations plans It is important for het MPS and the S&OP plans to be consistent because the MPS specifies actual

outputs while the S&OP determines the aggregate resources needed to produce those outputs.

MRP Explosion Bill of Materials Bill of materials (BOM): A record of all the components of an item, the parent-component relationships, and the usage quantities derived from engineering and process designs. Usage quantity: The number of units of a component that are needed to make one unit of its

immediate parent.

Four terms to describe inventory:

- End items

- Intermediate items

- Subassemblies

- Purchased items

End item: The final product sold to a customer

Accounting statements classify inventory of end items as either work-in-process (WIP), if work

remains to be done, or finished goods.

Subassembly: An intermediate item that is assembled (as opposed to being transformed by other

means) from more than one component.

Purchased item: An item that has one or more parents but no components because it comes from a

supplier.

Part commonality(standardization of parts or modularity): The degree to which a component has

more than one immediate parent.

Inventory Record Inventory record: A record that shows an item’s lot size policy, lead time, and various time-phased

data.

The inventory record devides the future into periods called time buckets.

The time-phased information contained in the inventory record consists of:

1) Gross requirements

2) Scheduled receipts

3) Projected on-hand inventory

4) Planned receipts

5) Planned order releases

Gross requirements: The total demand derived from al parent production plans.

Scheduled receipts: Orders that have been placed but not yet completed. For a purchased item, the

scheduled receipt could be in one of several stages (processed, transported, etc.)

Projected on-hand Inventory Projected on-hand inventory: An estimate of the amount of inventory available each week after gross

requirements have been satisfied.

(Projected on-hand inventory balance at end of week t) = (Inventory on hand at end of week t-1) +

(scheduled or planned receipts in week t) – (gross requirements in week t)

Planned receipts: Order that are not yet released to the shop or the supplier.

Planned Receipts: Planning for the receipt of new orders will keep the projected on-hand balance from dropping below

zero. The planned receipt row is developed as follows:

1. Weekly on-hand inventory is projected until a shortage appears. Completion of the initial

planned receipt is scheduled for the week in which the shortage is projected. The addition of

the newly planned receipt should increase the projected on-hand balance so that it equals or

exceeds zero. It will exceed zero when the lot size exceeds requirements in the week it is

planned to arrive.

2. The projection of on-hand inventory continues until the next shortage occurs. This shortage

signals the need for the second planned receipt.

This process is repeated until the end of the planning horizon.

Planned order release Planned Order Release: An indication of when an order for a specified quantity of an item is to be

issued.

Planning factors Planning Lead time Planning lead time is an estimate of the time between placing an order fora n item and receiving the

item in inventory.

A more extensive estimating process consists of breaking down each of the following factors:

Setup time

Processing time

Materials handling time between operations

Waiting time

Each of these times must be estimated for every operation along the item’s route.

Lot-Sizing Rules A lot sizing rule determines the timing and size of order quantities. A lot-sizing rule must be assigned

to each item before planned receipts and planned order releases can be computed.

Three lot-sizing rules:

1) Fixed order quantity

2) Periodic order quantity

3) Lot-for-lot

Fixed Order Quantity Fixed order quantity: A rule that maintains the same order quantity each time an order is issued.

Periodic Order Quantity Periodic order quantity: A rule that allows a different order quantity for each roder issued but issues

the order for predetermined time intervals

(POQ lot size to arrive in week t) = (Total gross requirements for P weeks, including week t) – (

Projected on-hand inventory balance at end of week t-1)

Lot for Lot Lot-for-lot(L4L) rule: A rule under which the lot size ordered covers the gross requirements of a single

week

(L4L lot size to arrive in week t)= (Gross requirements for week t) – (projected on-hand inventory

balance at end of week t-1)

Comparing Lot-Sizing Rules The performance of the L4L rule with respect to average inventory levels comes at the expense of an

additional planned order and its accompanying setup time and cost. We can draw three conclusions

from this comparison:

1) The FOQ rule generates a high level of average inventory because it creates inventory

remnants. A remnants is inventory carried into a week but it is to small to prevent a

shortage.

2) The POQ rule reduces the amount of average on-hand inventory because it does a better job

of matching order quantity to requirements.

3) The L4L rule minimizes inventory investment, but it also maximizes the number of orders

placed. This rule is most applicable to expensive items or items with small order or setup

costs.

Safety stock: An important managerial decision is the quantity of safety stock to carry.

Outputs form MRP Material requirements MRP translates, or explodes, the MPS and other sources of demand into the requirements needed

for all of the subassemblies, components, and raw materials the firm needs to produce parent items.

This process generates he material requirements plan for each component item.

An item’s gross requirements are derived from three sources:

1. The MPS for immediate parents that are end items

2. The planned order releases for immediate parents below the MPS level

3. Any other requirements not originating in the MPS, such as the demand for replacement

parts.

Action Notices Action Notices: A computer-generated memo alerting planners about releasing new order and

adjusting the due dates of scheduled receipts.

Resource Requirements Reports An essential role of planners is to monitor the capacity requirements of material requirements plans,

adjusting a plan when it cannot be met.

The planner can apply TOC to keep bottleneck operations fed by adjusting some lot sizing rules or

occasionally overriding planned order releases. To facilitate this process, various types of capacity

report scan be provided, for example: capacity requirements planning

Capacity Requirements Planning (CRP): A technique used for projecting time-phased capacity

requirements for work stations; its purpose is to match the materials requirements plan with the

capacity of key processes.

Performance Reports MRP evolved into manufacturing resource planning (MRP II)

Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II): A system that ties the basis MRP system to the company’s

financial system and to other core and supporting processes.

MRP and the Environment Consumer and governmental concern about the deterioration of the natural environment has driven

manufacturers to reengineer their processes to become more environmentally firmed. Nonetheless,

manufacturing processes often produce a number of waste materials that need to be properly

disposed of.

Wastes comes in many forms: - Effluents, such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and hazardous chemicals associated with

the processes used to manufacture the product.

- Materials, such as metal shaving, oils, and chemicals associated with specific operations.

- Packaging materials, such as unusable cardboard and plastics associated with certain

products or purchased items.

- Scrap associated with unusable products or component defects generated by the

manufacturing process

Companies can modify their MRP systems to help them track these wastes and plan for their

disposal.

MRP, Core Processes, and Supply Chain Linkages Figuur 11.19 blz. 475

Enterprise Resource Planning Enterprise process: A companywide process that cuts across functional areas, business units,

geographical regions, and product lines.

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems: Large, integrated information systems that support

many enterprise processes and data storage needs.

How ERP Systems are designed blz. 475/476

Resource Planning for Service Providers Dependent Demand: Demand fora n item that is a function of the production plans for some other

item the company produces. For service resource planning, it is useful to define the concept of

dependent demand to include demands for resources that are driven by forecasts of customer

requests for services or by plans for various activities in support of the services the company

provides.

Voorbeelden blz. 477/478

Bill of Resources Bill of resources (BOR): A record of a service firm’s parent-component relationships and all of the

materials, equipment time, staff, and other resources associated with them, including usage

quantities.

Once the service firm has completed its master schedule, the BOR can be used to detemrine wat

resources the firm will need, how much of them it will need, and when. A BOR for a service provider

can be as complez as a BOM for a manufacturer.

Blz. 479

H5 Managing Process Constraints Constraint: Any factor that limits the performance of a system and restricts its output. In linear

programming, a limitation that restricts the permissible choices for the decision variables.

Bottleneck: A capacity constraint resource whose available capacity limits the organization’s ability to

meet the product volume, product mix, or demand fluctuation required by the marketplace.

Theorie of constraints (TOC): A systematic management approach that focuses on actively managing

those constraints that impede a firm’s progress toward its goal.

Concept TOC: Bottlenecks should be scheduled to maximize their throughput of services or products

while adhering to promised completion dates.

Seven key principles of the Theory Of Constraints:

1. The focus should be on balancing flow, not on balancing capacity.

2. Maximizing the output and efficiency of every resource may not maximize the throughput of

the entire system.

3. An hour lost at a bottleneck or a constrained resource is an hour lost for the whole system, In

contrast, an hour saved at a non-bottleneck resource is a mirage, because it does not make

the whole system more productive.

4. Inventory is needed only in front of the bottlenecks to prevent them from sitting idle and in

front of assembly and shipping points to protect customer schedules. Building inventories

elsewhere should be avoided.

5. Work, which can be materials, information to be processed, documents, or customers,

should be released into the system only as frequently as the bottlenecks. Bottleneck flows

should be equal to the market demand. Pacing everything to the slowest resource minimizes

inventory and operating expenses.

6. Activating a non-bottleneck resource is not the same as utilizing a bottleneck resource.

Activation of non-bottleneck resources cannot increase throughput, nor promote better

performance on financial measures.

7. Every capital investment must be viewed from the perspective fo its global impact on overal

throughput (T), inventory (I), and operating expenses (OE).

Practical application of the TOC involves the implementation of the following steps:

1. Identify the System Bottleneck(s)

2. Exploit the Bottleneck(s): Create schedules that maximize the throughput of the bottlenecks.

3. Subordinate All Other Decisions to Step 2: Non-bottleneck resources should be scheduled to

support the schedule of the bottleneck and not produce more than the bottleneck can

handle.

4. Elevate the Bottleneck(s): After the scheduling improvements in step 1-3 have been

exhausted, and the bottleneck is still a constraint to throughput, management should

consider increasing the capacity of the bottleneck.

5. Do Not Let Inertia Set In.

Throughput time: Total elapsed time from the start to the finish of a job or a customer being

processed at one or more work centers.

Example 5.2 blz. 203

Drum-Buffer-Rope System (DBR) Drum-buffer-rope is a planning and control system based on the TOC that is often used in

manufacturing firms to plan and schedule production. It works by regulating the flow of work-in-

process materials at the bottleneck or at the capacity constrained resource (CCR).

Buffer: Time buffer that plans early flows tot he bottleneck and thus protects it from disruption.

Buffer management: Monitors the execution of incoming bottleneck work

Applying the Theory of Constraints to Product Mix Decisions Managers might be tempted to produce the products with the highest contribution marins or unit

sales.

Contribution margin: The amount each product contributes to profits and overhead; no fixed costs

are considered when making the product mix decision. (traditional method)

Example 5.3

Line Balancing Line balancing: The assignment of work to stations in a line process so as to achieve the desired

output rate with the smallest number of workstations.

Differences between Line Balancing and TOC:

1) Rather than taking on new customers orders to best use bottleneck capacity

2) Scheduling so that bottleneck resources are conserved, line balancing takes a third approach

3) Creates workstations with workloads as evenly balanced as possible

4) Line balancing only applies to line processes that do assembly work, or to work that can be

bundled in many ways to create the jobs for each workstaiton in the line.

Goal: Obtain workstation with well-balanced workloads.

Work elements: The smallest units of work that can be performed independently.

Immediate predecessors: Work elements that must be done before the nexte element can begin.

Precedence diagram Precedence diagram: A diagram that allows one to visualize immediate predecessors better; work

elements are denoted by circles, with the time required to perform the work shown below each

circle.

Exampele 5.4

Activity-on-node (AON) network: An approach used to create a network diagram, in which nodes

represent activities and arcs represent the precedence relationships between them.

Cycle time: The maximum time allowed for work on a unit at each station

The cycle time can be calculated after determining the desired output rate for a line.

Cycle Time = 1

𝑟 r = desired output rate in units per hour

Theoretical minimum: A benchmark or goal for the smallest number of stations possible, where the

total time required to assemble ach unit (the sum of all work-element standard times) is divided by

the cycle time.

Perfect balance is achieved when the sum of the work-element times at each station equals the cycle

time, c, and no station has any idle time.

Theoretical minimum (TM) = ∑ 𝑡

𝑐

∑ 𝑡 = total time required to assemblee ach unit (the sum of all work-element standard times)

c = cycle time

Minimizing the number of stations automatically ensures minimal idle time, maximal effiency, and

minimal balance delay.

Idle time: Total unproductive time for all stations in the assembly of each unit.

Idle time = n * c - ∑ 𝑡

n = number of stations

c = cycle time

∑ 𝑡 = total standard time required to assemble each unit

Efficiency: Ratio of productive time to the total time, expressed as a percent.

Efficiency (%) = ∑ 𝑡

𝑛𝑐 x 100%

Balance delay: The amount by which efficiency falls short of 100%

Balance delay (%) = 100 – Efficiency

As long as c is fixed, we can optimize all three goals by minimizing n.

Finding a solution: The goal is to cluster the work elements into workstations so that (1) the number of workstations

required is minimized, and (2) the precedence and cycle-time requirements are not violated. The

idea is to assign work elements to workstations subject to the precedence requirements so that the

work content for the workstation is equal the cycle time for the line. In this way the number of

workstations will be minimized. Here we use the trial-and-error method to find a solution, although

commercial software pack ages are also available.

Tabel 5.3 blz. 211

Rebalancing the Assembly Line: While the product mix or demand volumes do not change as rapidly for line processes as for job or

batch processes, the load can shift between work centers in a line as the end product being

assembled is changed from one product to another, or when the total output rate of the line is

altered. Constraints arising out of such actions can be managed by either rebalancing the line, or as

illustrated by chrysler in Managerial Practive 5.1 , by shifting workers across different lines in the

manufacturing plant to reduce waste and create more balanced allocation of workloads and available

worker capacity.

Managerial Considerations In addition to balancing a line for a given cycle time, managers have four other considerations:

1) Pacing

2) Behavioral factors

3) Number of model produced

4) Different cycle times

Pacing: The movement of product from one station to the next as soon as the cycle time has elapsed.

Pacing manufacturing processes allows materials handling to be automated and requires less

inventory storage area. However, it is less flexible in handling unexpected delays that require either

slowing down the entire line or pulling the unfinished work off the line to be completed later.

Behavioral Factors: Most controversial aspect of line-flow is behavioral response. Studies show that

installing production lines increases absenteeism, turnover, and grievances. Paced production and

high specialization lower job satisfaction. Workers generally favor inventory buffers as a means of

avoiding mechanical pacing. One study even showed that productivity increased on unpaced lines.

Number of Model Produced: Mixed-model line: A production line that produces several items belonging to the same family.

In contrast, a single-model line produces one model with no variations. Mixed-model production

enables a plant to achieve both high-volume production and product variety. However, it complicates

scheduling and increases the need for good communication about het specific parts to be produced

at each station.

Cycle Times: A line’s cycle time depends on the desired output rate (or sometimes on the maximum

number of workstations allowed). In turn, the maximum line efficiency varies considerably with the

cycle time selected. A manager might go with a particularly efficient solution even i fit does not

match the desired output rate. The manager can compensate for the mismatch by varying the

number of hours the line operates through overtime, extending shifts, or adding shifts. Multiple lines

might even be the answer.

H6 Designing Lean Systems

Lean systems: Operations systems that maximize the value added by each of a company’s activities

by removing waste and delays from them.

Just-in-time (JIT) philosophy: The belief that waste can be eliminated by cutting unnecessary

capacity or inventory and removing non-value-added activities in operations.

Eight types of waste or muda:

1) Overproduction

2) Inappropriate processing

3) Waiting

4) Transportation

5) Motion

6) Inventory

7) Defects

8) Underutilization of Employees

Goals lean system: Eliminate eight types of waste, produce services and products only as needed,

and to continuously improve the value-added benefits of operations.

Jit system: A system that organizes the resources, information flows, and decision rules that enable a

firm to realize the benefits of JIT principles.

Lean systems lead to continuous improvement in quality and productivity. (Lean is Kaizen)

Through lean systems, workers, supervisors, engineers, and analysts apply methods for continuous

improvement to demolish the exposed rock. The coordination required to achieve smooth material

flow in lean systems identifies problems in time for corrective action to be taken.

Maintaining low inventories, periodically stressing the system to identify problems, and focusing on

the elements of the lean system lie at the heart of continuous improvement.

Service processes, such as scheduling, billing, order taking, accounting and financial planning, can be

improved in lean systems to.

Two salient characteristics of lean systems that are related to creating and managing material flows

in a supply chain: close supplier ties and small lot sizes.

Close Supplier Ties: Because lean systems operate with low levels of capacity slack or inventory,

firms that use them need to have a close relationship with their suppliers. Supplies must be shipped

frequently, have short lead times, arrive on schedule, and be of high quality.

Small lot sizes: Lean systems use lot sizes that are as small as possible.

Lot: A quantity of items that are processed together.

Small lots have the advantage of reducing het average level of inventory relative to large lots. Small

lots pass through the system faster than large lots since they do not keep materials waiting. Finally,

small lots help achieve a uniform workload on the system and prevent overproduction. Large lots

consume large chunks of capacity at workstations and, therefore, complicate scheduling. Small lot

scan be juggled more effectively, enabling schedulers to efficiently utilize capacities.

Disadvantage small lot: Increased setup frequency. Typically, a setup takes the same time regardless

of the size of the lot. Consequently, many small lots, in lieu of several large lots, may result in waste

in the form of idle employees, equipment, and materials. Setup times must be brief to realize the

benefits of small-lot production. Achieving brief setup times often requires close cooperation among

engineering, management and labor.

Single-digit setup: The goal of having a setup time of less than 10 minutes.

Proces considerations in Lean systems Pull method of Work Flow Pull method: A method in which customer demand activates production of the service or item.

(product wordt gemaakt na het bestellen van de klant)

Push method: A method in which production of the item begins in advance of customer needs.

(product wordt gemaakt voor dat de klant het besteld, bv. Broodjes bij supermarkt)

Quality at the Source Consistently meeting the customer’s expectations is an important characteristic of lean systems.

Quality at the source: Defects are caught and corrected where they are created.

Jidoka: Automatically stopping the process when something is woring and then fixing the problems

on the line itself as they occur.

Jidoka represents a visual management system whereby status of het system in terms of safety,

quality, delivery, and cost performance relative to the goals for given fabrication cell or workstation

in an assembly line is clearly visible to workers on the floor at all times.

Poka-Yoka: Mistake-proofing methods aimed at designing fail-safe systems that minimize human

error.

Andon: system that gives machines and machine operators the ability to signal the occurrence of any

abnormal condition such as tool malfunction, shortage of parts, or the product being made outside

the desired specifications.

Uniform Workstation Loads A lean system works best if the daily load on individual workstations is relatively uniform. Service

processes can achieve uniform workstation loads by using reservation systems.

For manufacturing processes, uniform loads can be achieved by assembling the same type and

number of units each day, thus creating a uniform daily demand at all workstations.

Takt time: Cycle time needed to match the rate of production to the rate of sales or consumption.

Two options for devising a production for the vehicles and are based on the Japanese heijunka:

Heijunka: The leveling of production load by both volume and product mix.

Mixed-model assembly: Type of assembly that produces a mix of models in smaller lots.

Second option uses a lot size of one, repeated 50 times a shift. The sequence would achieve the

same total output as the other options; however, it is feasible only if the setup times are brief.

Standardized Components and Work Methods In highly repetitive service operations, analyzing work methods and documenting the improvements

to use can gain great efficiencies.

In manufacturing, the standardized components increases the total quantity that must be produced

for that component.

Flexible workforce Workforces can be trained to perform more than one job

A benefit of flexibility is the ability to shift workers among workstations to help relieve bottlenecks as

they arise without the need for inventory buffers – an important aspect of the uniform flow of lean

systems.

The more customized the service or product is, the greater the firm’s need for a milt skilled

workforce.

Automation Benefits: Greater profits, greater market share, or both. Automation services can play a big role when

it comes to providing lean services.

Five S practices Five S (5S): A methodology consisting of workplace practices – sorting, straightening, shining,

standardizing and sustaining – that are conducive to visual controls and lean production.

It is commonly accepted that 5S forms an important cornerstone of waste reduction and removal of

unneeded tasks, activities, and materials.

1) Sort: Separate needed items from unneeded items

2) Straighten: Organize the work area so that it is easy to find what is needed

3) Shine: Clean and wash the work area and make it shine

4) Standardize: Establish schedules and methods of performing the cleaning and sorting.

5) Sustain: Create discipline to perform the first four S practices

Total Preventive Maintenance (TPM)

Total preventive maintenance: Reduces the frequency and duration of machine downtime. After performing their routine maintance activities, technicians can test other machine parts that might need to be replaced. Another tactic is to make workers responsible for routinely maintaining their own equipment, which

will develop employee pride in keeping the machines in top condition.

House of Toyota

Highest quality, lowest cost, shortest lead time by eliminating wasted time and activity.

Just In Time (JIT

o Takt Time

o One-piece flow

o Pull system

Culture of continuous improvement

Jidoka

o Manual or automatic line stop

o Separate operator and machine activities

o Error proofing

o Visual control

Operational stability

o Heijunka

o Standard work

o TPM

o Supply Chain

Designing Lean Systems Layouts Line flows are recommended in designing lean systems layouts because they eliminate waste by

reducing the frequency of setups.

If volumes of specific products are large enough, groups of machines and workers can be organized

into a line-flow layout to eliminate setups entirely.

When volumes are not high enough to justify dedicating a single line of multiple workers to a single

customer type or product, managers still may be able to derive the benefits of line flow layout –

simpler materials handling, low setups, and reduced labor costs – by creating line-flow layouts in

some portions of the facility. Two techniques for creating such layouts are one-worker, multiple

machines (OWMM) cells , and group technology cells.

One Workers, Multiple Machines One-workers, multiple machines(OWMM) cell: A one-person cell in which a worker operates several

different machines simultaneously to achieve a line flow.

An OWMM arrangement reduces both inventory and labor requirements. Inventory is cut because

rather than piling up in queues waiting for transportation to another part of the plant, materials

move directly into the next operation. Labor is cut because more work is automated.

Group Technology (GT): Blz. 238

Group technology: An option for achieving line flow layout with love volume processes; this

technique creates cells not limited to just one worker and has a unique way of selecting work to be

done by the cell.

Goal: identify a set of products with similar processing requirements and minimize machine

changeover or setup.

Once parts have been grouped into families, the next step is to organize the machine tools needed to

perform the basic processes on these parts into separate cells.

Value stream mapping Value stream mapping: A qualitative lean tool for eliminating waste or muda that involves a current

state drawing, a future state drawing, and an implementation plan.

Value stream mapping spans the supply chain from the firm’s receipts of raw materials or

components to the delivery of finished goods to the customer.

Product family Current state drawing Future state drawing Work plan and implementation.

Figuur 6.6 blz. 239 + blz. 240 – 242

Once the current state map is done, the analysts can then use principles of lean systems to create a

future state map with more streamlined product flows. Finally, the last step is aimed at preparing

and actively using an implementation plan to achieve the future state. It may take only a couple of

days from the creation of a future state map to the point where implementation can begin for a

single product family.

The kanban system Kanban: A Japanese word meaning ‘card’ or ‘visible record’ that refers to cards used to control the

flow of production through a factory.

Systeem met kaarten aan bakken waardoor kan worden gezien welk product gebruikt moet worden

en welk product geproduceerd moet worden.

Figuur 6.9 blz. 243

General operating rules kanban:

1. Each container must have a card

2. The assembly line always withdraws materials from the fabrication cell. The fabrication cell

never pushes parts to the assembly line because, sooner or later, parts will be supplied that

are not yet needed for production.

3. Containers of parts must never be removed from a storage area without a kanban first being

posted on the receiving post.

4. The containers should always contain the same number of good parts. The use of

nonstandard container or irregularly filled container disrupts the production flow of the

assembly line.

5. Only nondefective parts should be passed along to the assembly line to make the best use of

materials and worker’s time. This rule reinforces the notion of building quality at the source,

which is an important characteristic of lean systems.

6. Total production should not exceed the total amount authorized on the kanbans in the

system.

Determining the number of containers The number of authorized containers in the TPS determines the amount of authorized inventory.

Management must make two determinations:

1) Number of units to be held by each container

2) Number of containers flowing back and forth between the supplier station and the user

station.

WIP= (average demand rate)(average time a container spends in the manufacturing process)

+ safety stock

WIP = Work-in-process inventory

In this application , WIP is the product of k, the number of containers, and c, the number of units in

each container. Consequently,

K = number of container for a part

= expected daily demand for the part, in units

= average waiting time during the production process plus materials handling time per container, in

fractions of a day

= average processing time per container, in fractions of a day

C = quantity in a standard container of the part

= a policy variable that adds safety stock to cover for unexpected circumstances

Other Kanban Signals

Container system: Sometimes, the container itself can be used as a signal device: an empty container

signals the need to fill it. Adding or removing containers adjust the amount of inventory of the part.

This system works well when the container is specially designed for a particular part and no other

parts could accidentally be put in the container. Such is het case when the container is actually a

pallet or fixture used to position het part during precision processing.

Operational Benefits and implementation Issues Blz. 246 + 247

H4 Operations Management Capacity: The maximum rate of output of a process or a system.

Wanneer de capaciteit de vraag van nu en de toekomst niet haalt zal de organisatie kansen voor

groei en winst missen.

Changing the capacity of a process will have an impact on other processes within the firm and across

the chain.

Marketing provides demand forecasts needed to identify capacity gaps.

Human resources focuses on hiring and training employees needed to support internal capacity

plans. So all departments in a firm get involved with and are affected by long-term capacity planning

decisions.

Planning Long-Term capacity Long-term capacity plans deal with investments in new facilities and equipment at the organizational

level and require top management participation and approval because they are not easily reversed.

These plans cover at least two years into the future, and long-term capacity planning is central to the

success of an organization.

Measures of Capacity and Utilization Capacity can be expressed in one of two ways: in terms of output measures or input measures:

Output measures of capacity: Best utilized when applied to individual processes within the firm or

when the firm provides a relatively small number of standardized services and products.

Input Measures of Capacity: Generally used for low-volume, flexible processes, such as those

associated with a custom furniture maker. In this case, the furniture maker might measure capacity

in terms of inputs such as number of workstations or number of workers.

Utilization: Degree to which a resource such as equipment, space, or the workforce is currently being

used and is measured as the ratio of average output rate to maximum capacity.

Utilization: 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆

𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 x 100%

Economies of scale: A concept that states that the average unit cost of a service or good can be

reduced by increasing its output rate.

Four principal reasons explain why economies of scale can drive costs down when output increases:

1) Fixed costs are spread over more units

2) Constructions costs are reduced

3) Cost of purchased materials are cut

4) Process advantages are found

Spreading fixed costs: In the short term, certain costs do not vary with changes in the output rate.

These fixed costs include heating costs, debt service, and manager’s salaries.

Reducing Construction Costs: Certain activities and expenses are required to build small and large

facilities alike: building permits, architects ‘fees, and rental of building equipment. Doubling the size

of the facility usually does not double construction costs.

Cutting Costs of Purchased Materials: Higher volumes can reduce the costs of purchased materials

and services. They give the purchaser a better bargaining position and the opportunity to take

advantage of quantity discount.

Finding Process Advantages: High-volume production provides many opportunities for cost

reduction. At a higher output rate, the process shifts toward a line process, with resources dedicated

to individual products. Firms may be able to justify the expense of more efficient technology or more

specialized equipment. The benefits from dedicating resources to individual services or products may

include speeding up the learning effect, lowering inventory, improving process and job designs, and

reducing the number of changeovers.

Diseconomies of scale: Occurs when the average per unit increases as the facility’s size increases.

Capacity Cushion: The amount of reserve capacity a process uses to handle sudden increases in

demand or temporary losses of production capacity; it measures the amount by which the average

utilization falls below 100 percent.

Capacity Cushion, C= 100(%) – Average Utilization (%)

Expansionist Strategy: The timing and sizing of expansion are related; that is, if demand is increasing

and the time between increments increases, the size of the increments must also increase. The

expansionist strategy, which stays ahead of demand, minimizes the chance of sales lost to insufficient

capacity.

Wait-and-See Strategy: The conservative wait-and-see strategy is to expand in smaller increments,

such as by renovating existing facilities rather than building new ones. The wait-and-see strategy lags

behind demand. To meet any shortfalls, it relies on short-term options, such as overtime, temporary

workers, subcontractors, stock outs and the postponement of preventive maintenance on

equipment.

Follow the leader strategy: Expanding when other do.

Capacity decisions should be closely linked to processes and supply chains throughout the

organization.

A systematic approach to long term capacity decisions: 1. Estimate future capacity requirements

2. Identify gaps by comparing requirements with available capacity

3. Develop alternative plans for reducing gaps.

4. Evaluate each alternative, both qualitatively and quantitatively, and make a final choice.

Step 1: Estimate Capacity Requirements

Capacity requirement: What a process’s capacity should be for some future time period to meet the

demand of customers, given the firm’s desired capacity cushion.

Planning horizon: The set of consecutive time periods considered for planning purposes.

Capacity requirements can be expressed in one of two ways: wit hand output measure or with an

input measure.

Using output measure: Output measures are appropriate for high-volume processes with little

product variety or process divergence.

Using Input Measures: Output measures may be insufficient in the following situations:

Product variety and process divergence is high

The product or service mix is changing

Productivity rates are expected to change

Significant learning effects are expect.

In such cases, it is more appropriate to calculate capacity requirements using an input measure.

Capacity requirement: 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓′𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅

𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 𝒂𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓,𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒐𝒏

M= 𝑫𝒑

𝑵[𝟏−(𝑪

𝟏𝟎𝟎)]

D = demand forecast for the year (number of customers served or units produced)

p = processing time (in hours per customer served or unit produced)

N = total number of hours per year during which the process operates

C = desired capacity cushion (expressed as a percent)

M = the number of input units required

Capacity Requirement =

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒖𝒑 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓′𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅, 𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔

𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 𝒂𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓,𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒐𝒏

M= [𝐷𝑝+(

𝐷

𝑄)𝑠]𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 1+[𝐷𝑝+(

𝐷

𝑄)𝑠]𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 2+⋯

𝑁[1−(𝐶

100)]

Q = number of units in each lot

s= setup time in hours per lot

Step 2: Identify gaps

Capacity gap: Positive or negative difference between projected demand(capacity requirements(M))

and current capacity.

Step 3: Develop alternatives

Base case: The act of doing nothing and losing order from any demand that exceeds current capacity,

or incur costs because capacity is too large.

Other alternatives if expected demand exceeds current capacity are various timing and sizing options

for adding new capacity, including the expansionist and wait-and-see strategies. Additional

possibilities include expanding at a different location and using short-term options, such as overtime,

temporary workers, and subcontracting. Alternatives for reducing capacity include closing plants or

warehouses, laying off employees, or reducing the days or hours of operation.

Step 4: Evaluate the alternatives

Qualitative Concerns: Manager looks at how each alternative fits the overall capacity strategy and

other aspects of the business not covered by the finacial analysis. Of particular concern might be

uncertainties about demand, competitive reaction, technological change, and cost estimates. Some

of these factors cannot be quantified and must be assessed on the basis of judgment and experience.

Others can be quantified, and the manager can analyze each alternative by using different

assumptions about the future.

Quantitative Concerns: The manager estimates the change in cash flows for each alternative over the

forecast time horizon compared to the cash flow

Cash flow= The difference between the flows of funds into and out of an organization over a period

of time, including revenues, costs, and changes in assets and liabilities.

H10 Planning and Scheduling Operation Operations planning and scheduling: The process of balancing supply with demand, from the

aggregate level down to the short-term scheduling level.

Types of plans with operations planning and scheduling - Sales and operations plan: A plan of future aggregate resource levels so that supply is in

balance with demand. It states a company’s or department’s production rates, workforce

levels, and inventory holdings that are consistent with demand forecasts and capacity

constraints. The S&OP is time-phased, meaning that is projected for several time periods into

the future.

- Aggregate plan: Another term for the sales and operations plan

- Production plan: S&OP for a manufacturing firm that centers on production rates and

inventory holdings.

- Staffing plan: S&OP for a service firm, which centers on staffing and on other human

resource-related factors

- Resource plan: An intermediate step in the planning process that lies between S&OP and

scheduling. It determines requirements for materials and other resources on a more detailed

level than the S&OP. It is covered in the next chapter.

- Schedule: A detailed plan that allocates resources over shorter time horizons to accomplish

specific tasks.

Level 1: Sales and Operations Planning Aggregation In general, companies perform aggregation along three dimensions: (1) services or products, (2)

workforce, and (3) time.

1. Services or products

Product family: A group of services or products that have similar demand requirements and common

process, labor, and materials requirements.

Sometimes, product families relate to market groupings or to specific processes. A firm can

aggregate its services or products into a set of relatively broad families, avoiding to much detail at

this stage of the planning process.

2. Workforce: A company can aggregate its workforce in various ways as well, depending on its

flexibility.

For example, if workers at the bicycle manufacturer are trained to work on either mountain bikes or

road bikes, for planning purposes management can consider its workforce to be a single aggregate

group, even though the skills of individual workers may differ.

3. Time: The planning horizon covered by sales and operations plan typically is one year,

although it can differ in various situations.

Information Inputs: Figure 10.1 blz. 397

Related Plans:

Business plan: A projected statement of income, costs, and profit.

It is usually is accompanied by budgets, a projected balance sheet, and a projected cash flow

statement showing sources and allocations of funds.

The business plan unifies the plans and expectations of a firm’s operations, finance, sales, and

marketing managers.

Annual plan (financial plan): A plan for financial assessment used by a nonprofit service organization.

Figuur 10.2 The relationship of sales and operations plans and schedules to other plans.

Level 1: Sales and Operations plan

- Forecasting

- Business or annual plan

- Operations strategy

- Constraint management

Level 2: Resource Planning

Level 3: Scheduling

Level 2 Resource Planning Process that takes sales and operations plans; processes time standards, routings, and other

information on how services or products are produced; and then plans the timing of capacity and

material requirements. It decomposes the aggregate quantities of product families, workforce, and

time to arrive at the material and resource requirements implied in the sales and operations plan

over a shorter time horizon.

A major input is the master production schedule, which specifies the timing and size of production

quantities for each product in the product families.

The material requirements planning process then derives plan for components, purchases materials,

and workstations.

Level 3 Scheduling Scheduling takes the resource plan and translates it into specific operational tasks on a detailed

basis. Facility schedules can be developed by assigning activities to facilities so as to utilize them

efficiently.

Workforce schedule: Details specific work schedule for each category of employee

Finally, given the material requirements plan for a group of jobs in a manufacturing plant, the specific

sequence of those jobs can be scheduled on a bottleneck machine.

S&OP Supply Options Developing sales and operation plans means making decisions. Given demand forecasts, operations

managers must develop a plan to meet the demand. There are six options that can be used singly or

in combination to arrive at a plan:

1) Anticipation inventory: Can be used to absorb uneven rates of demand or supply.

2) Workforce Adjustment: Managers can adjust workforce levels by hiring or laying off

employees. The us e of this alternative can be attractive if the workforce is largely unskilled

or semiskilled and the labor pool is large. However, for a particular company, the size of het

qualified labor pool may limit the number of new employees that can be hired at any one

time. Also, new employees must be trained, and het capacity of the training facilities

themselves might limit the number of new hires at any one time.

3) Workforce Utilization: An alternative to a workforce adjustment is change in workforce

utilization involving overtime and under time.

Overtime: The time that employees work that is longer than te regular workday or workweek which

they receive additional pay (bv. 150%)

Undertime: The situation that occurs when employees do not have enough work for the regular-time

workday or workweek (payed or unpaid).

4) Part-Time Workers: Another option apart from under time is to hire part-time workers, who

are paid only for the hours and days worked.

5) Subcontractors: Subcontractors can be used to overcome short-term capacity shortages,

such as during peaks of the season or business cycle. Subcontractors can supply services,

make components and subassemblies, or even assemble an entire product.

6) Vacation Schedules: A manufacturer can shut down during an annual lull in sales, leaving a

skeleton crew to cover operations and perform maintenance.

S&OP Strategies Chase Strategy Chase strategy: A strategy that involves hiring and layinf off employees to match the demand

forecast.

Level Strategy Level strategy: A strategy that keeps the workforce constant, but varies its utilization via overtime,

undertime, and vacation planning to match the demand forecast

Mixed strategy: A strategy that considers the full range of supply options (part-time workers,

subcontractors, enz. )

Constraints and Costs An acceptable sales and operations plan must recognize relevant constraints or costs. Constraints can

be either physical limitations (machine capacities that limit maximum output or inadequate

inventory storage space) or related to managerial policies (number of backorders or the use of

subcontractors or overtime, as well as the minimum inventory levels needed to achieve desired

safety stocks.

Sales and Operations Planning as a Process Tabel 10.2 blz. 400

Figuur 10.3 blz. 401

The S&OP process itself, typically done on a monthly base, consists of six basic steps. They are much

like the forecasting process steps.

1) Gather data (actual sales, production, inventory, costs, and constraints.

2) Demand Planning

3) Update S&OP spreadsheets

4) Consensus meetings (with stakeholders): how to balance supply with demand

5) Executive S&OP meeting

6) Finalize and communicate

Spreadsheets for Sales and Operations Planning Figuur 10.4 blz. 403 and shows all supply options except overtime.

The top part of the spreadsheat shows the input values, the next part of the spreadsheet shows the

dervied values ghat follow from the input values.

The final part of the spreadsheet, the calculated values of the plan, shows the plan’s cost

consequences.

Scheduling Job and Facility Scheduling Schedule scan be displayed in various ways. For different jobs or activities, schedules can simply list

the job due dates, show in a table their start and finish times, or show in a graph their start and finish

times. The chart takes two basic forms:

1) The job or activity progress chart, which can be used to monitor and revise schedules.

2) Workstation chart, which can be used to schedule the capacity of facilities.

Gantt Progress Chart Ganttt Progress Chart graphically displays the current status of each job or activity relative to its

scheduled completion date.

Figuur 10.7

Gantt Workstation Chart Gantt Workstation Chart (rooster voor een bepaalde locatie)

Figuur 10.8

The chart can be used to identify time slots for unscheduled emergency surgeries. It can also be used

to accommodate request to change the time of surgeries.

Workforce Scheduling Workforce Scheduling: A type of scheduling that determines when employees work

The schedule specifies the on-duty and off-duty periods for each employee over a certain time

perido, as in assigning postal clerks, nurses, pilots, attendants, or police officers to specific workdays

and shifts.

Rotating Schedule: A schedule that rotates employees through a series of workdays or hours.

Fixed Schedule: A schedule that calls for each employee to work the same days and hours each week.

Developing a Workforce Schedule 1) From the schedule of net requirements for the week, find all the paris of consecutive days,

excluding the day with the maximum daily requirement. Select the unique pair that has the

lowest total requirement for the two days. In some unusual situations, all pairs may contain a

day with the maximum requirements.

2) If a tie occurs, choose one of the tied paris, consistent with the provisions written into the

labor agreement, if any.

3) Assign the employee the selected pair of day off. Subract the requirements satisfied by the

employee from the net requirements for each day the employee is to work.

4) Repeat steps 1 through 3 until all the requirements have been satisfied or a certain number

of employees have been scheduled.

Voorbeeld 10.2 blz. 409

Sequence Jobs at a workstation Sequencing: Determining the order in which jobs or customers are processed in the waiting line at a

workstation.

Priority Sequencing Rules One way to determine what job to process next is with the help of a priority sequencing rule

Priority sequencing rule: A rule that specifies the job or customer processing sequence when several

jobs are waiting in line at a workstation.

The following two priorities sequencing rules are commonly used in practice:

First-Come, First-Served. The job arriving at the workstation first has the highest priority. This

rule is ‘fair’ in that each job is treated equally, with no one stepping ahead of other already in

line.

First-Come, first-served (FCFS): A priority sequencing rule that specifies that the job or customer

arriving at the workstation first has the highest priority.

Earliest Due Date. The job with the earliest due date (EDD) is the next one tob e processed.

The due date specifies when work on a job should be finished. Due dates are commonly used

by manufacturers and suplliers in the supply chain.

Earliest due date (EDD): A priority sequencing rule that specifies that the job or customer with the

earliest due date is the next job to be processed.

Expediting: The process of completing a job or finishing with a customer sooner than would

otherwise be done.

Performance Measures The quality of a schedule can be judged in various ways. Two commonly used performance measures

are flow time and past due.

Flow time

Flow time: The amount of time in a job spends in the service or manufacturing system.

It is the sum of the waiting time for servers or machines.

Flow time is sometimes referred to as throughput time or time spent in the system, including service.

Flow time = Finish time + Time since job arrived at workstation.

Past due

Past due(tardiness): The amount of time by which a job missed its due date.

Minimizing ghese past due measures supports the comeptitive priorities of cost (penalties), quality

(perceptions or poor service) and time (on-time delivery).

Software support Computirezed scheduling systems are available to cope with the complexity of workforce scheduling.

Advanced planning and scheduling (APS) systems: Computer software systems that seek to optimize

resources across the supply chain and align daily operations with strategic goals.

A firms’s ability to change its schedules quickly and still keep the goods and services flowing

smoothly through the supply chain provides a competitive edge.