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An Illustrated History of Computers

This picture shows what were known as "counting tables" [photo courtesy

IBM]

The abacuswas an early aid for mathematical computations. Its only value is that it aidsthe memory of the human performing the calculation. A skilled abacus operator can workon addition and subtraction problems at the speed of a person equipped with a hand

calculator (multiplication and division are slower). The abacus is often wrongly attributedto China. In fact the oldest surviving abacus was used in !"" #.C. by the #abylonians.The abacus is still in use today principally in the far east. A modern abacus consists ofrings that slide over rods but the older one pictured below dates from the time whenpebbles were used for counting (the word $calculus$ comes from the %atin word forpebble).

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In &'& an eccentric (some say mad) cotsman named *ohn +apier invented logarithmswhich are a technology that allows multiplication to be performed via addition. Themagic ingredient is the logarithm of each operand which was originally obtained from aprinted table. #ut +apier also invented an alternative to tables where the logarithmvalues were carved on ivory sticks which are now calledNapier's Bones.

(An original set o Napier's Bones [photo courtesy IBM] !

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(A more moern set o Napier's Bones !

+apier,s invention led directly to the slie rule first built in -ngland in &'! and still inuse in the &/'",s by the +AA engineers of the 0ercury 1emini and Apollo programswhich landed men on the moon.

(A slie rule!

%eonardo da 2inci (&345&4&/) made drawings of gear5driven calculating machines butapparently never built any.

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The first gear5driven calculating machine to actually be built was probably thecalculating clock so named by its inventor the 1erman professor 6ilhelm chickard in&'!. This device got little publicity because chickard died soon afterward in thebubonic plague.

(#chickar's $alculating $lock

)

In &'3 #laise 7ascal at age &/ invented the%ascalineas an aid for his father who wasa ta8 collector. 7ascal built 4" of this gear5driven one5function calculator (it could onlyadd) but couldn,t sell many because of their e8orbitant cost and because they reallyweren,t that accurate (at that time it was not possible to fabricate gears with the requiredprecision). 9p until the present age when car dashboards went digital the odometerportion of a car,s speedometer used the very same mechanism as the 7ascaline toincrement the ne8t wheel after each full revolution of the prior wheel. 7ascal was a child

prodigy. At the age of & he was discovered doing his version of -uclid,s thirty5secondproposition on the kitchen floor. 7ascal went on to invent probability theory thehydraulic press and the syringe. hown below is an : digit version of the 7ascaline andtwo views of a ' digit version;

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(%ascal's %ascaline [photo & I)))] !

(A * igit moel or those who couln't aor the + igit moel !

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(1ac2uar's -oom showing the threas an the punche cars !

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(By selecting particular cars or 1ac2uar's loom you eine the wo,en

pattern [photo & I)))] !

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(A close3up o a 1ac2uar car !

(This tapestry was wo,en by a 1ac2uar loom !#y &: the -nglish mathematician $harles Babbagewas proposing a steam drivencalculating machine the si

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came with a companion volume of corrections which showed that the set had over &"""numerical errors. It was hoped that #abbage,s machine could eliminate errors in thesetypes of tables. #ut construction of #abbage,s >ifference -ngine proved e8ceedinglydifficult and the proect soon became the most e8pensive government funded proect upto that point in -nglish history. Ten years later the device was still nowhere near

complete acrimony abounded between all involved and funding dried up. The devicewas never finished.

(A small section o the type o mechanism employe in Babbage's 4ierence

)ngine [photo & I)))] !

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#abbage was not deterred and by then was on to his ne8t brainstorm which he called theAnalytic )ngine. This device large as a house and powered by ' steam engines wouldbe more general purpose in nature because it would be programmable thanks to thepunched card technology of *acquard. #ut it was #abbage who made an importantintellectual leap regarding the punched cards. In the *acquard loom the presence or

absence of each hole in the card physically allows a colored thread to pass or stops thatthread (you can see this clearly in the earlier photo). #abbage saw that the pattern ofholes could be used to represent an abstract idea such as a problem statement or the rawdata required for that problem,s solution. #abbage saw that there was no requirement thatthe problem matter itself physically pass thru the holes.

=urthermore #abbage reali

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the first computer programmer. Ada invented the subroutine and was the first to recogni

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(%reparation o punche cars or the 67#7 census !

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(A ew 5ollerith esks still e8ist toay [photo courtesy The $omputer Museum] !

(Two types o computer punch cars !

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Dne early success was the @arvardMark Icomputer which was built as a partnershipbetween @arvard and I#0 in &/33. This was the first programmable digital computermade in the 9.. #ut it was not a purely electronic computer. Instead the 0ark I was

constructed out of switches relays rotating shafts and clutches. The machine weighed 4tons incorporated 4"" miles of wire was : feet tall and 4& feet long and had a 4" ftrotating shaft running its length turned by a 4 horsepower electric motor. The 0ark I rannon5stop for &4 years sounding like a roomful of ladies knitting. To appreciate the scaleof this machine note the four typewriters in the foreground of the following photo.

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(The 5ar,ar Mark I9 an electro3mechanical computer !

Bou can see the 4" ft rotating shaft in the bottom of the prior photo. This shaft was acentral power source for the entire machine. This design feature was reminiscent of thedays when waterpower was used to run a machine shop and each lathe or other tool wasdriven by a belt connected to a single overhead shaft which was turned by an outside

waterwheel.

(A central shat ri,en by an outsie waterwheel an connecte to each machine

by o,erhea belts was the customary power source or all the machines

in a actory !

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(:ne o the our paper tape reaers on the 5ar,ar Mark I (you can obser,e the

punche paper roll emerging rom the bottom! !

Dne of the primary programmers for the 0ark I was a woman ;race 5opper. @opperfound the first computer $bug$; a dead moth that had gotten into the 0ark I and whosewings were blocking the reading of the holes in the paper tape. The word $bug$ had been

used to describe a defect since at least &::/ but @opper is credited with coining the word$debugging$ to describe the work to eliminate program faults.

(The irst computer bug [photo & I)))] !

In &/4! 1race @opper invented the first high5level language $=low5matic$. Thislanguage eventually became CD#D% which was the language most affected by theinfamous BE problem. A high5level language is designed to be more understandable byhumans than is the binary language understood by the computing machinery. A high5level

language is worthless without a program 55 known as a compiler55 to translate it into thebinary language of the computer and hence 1race @opper also constructed the world,sfirst compiler. 1race remained active as a ear Admiral in the +avy eserves until shewas / (another record).

The 0ark I operated on numbers that were ! digits wide. It could add or subtract two ofthese numbers in three5tenths of a second multiply them in four seconds and divide themin ten seconds. =orty5five years later computers could perform an addition in a billionth

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of a secondF -ven though the 0ark I had three quarters of a million components it couldonly store numbersF Today home computers can store !" million numbers in A0and another &" billion numbers on their hard disk. Today a number can be pulled fromA0 after a delay of only a few billionths of a second and from a hard disk after a delayof only a few thousandths of a second. This kind of speed is obviously impossible for a

machine which must move a rotating shaft and that is why electronic computers killed offtheir mechanical predecessors.

Dn a humorous note the principal designer of the 0ark I5owar Aikenof @arvardestimated in &/3 that si8 electronic digital computers would be sufficient to satisfy thecomputing needs of the entire 9nited tates. I#0 had commissioned this study todetermine whether it should bother developing this new invention into one of its standardproducts (up until then computers were one5of5a5kind items built by specialarrangement). Aiken,s prediction wasn,t actually so bad as there were very fewinstitutions (principally the government and military) that could afford the cost of whatwas called a computer in &/3. @e ust didn,t foresee the micro5electronics revolution

which would allow something like anIBM #tretchcomputer of &/4/;

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((that,s ust the operator,s console here,s the rest of its !! foot length;)).

(to be bested by a home computer of &/' such as thisApple Iwhich sold for only G'"";).

(The Apple < which was sol as a o3it3yoursel kit (without the lo,ely case seen

here! !

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The microelectronics re,olutionis what allowed the amount of hand5crafted wiring seenin the prior photo to be mass5produced as an integrate circuitwhich is a small sliver ofsilicon the si

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An integrate circuit ("silicon chip"! [photo courtesy o IBM]

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The primary advantage of an integrated circuit is not that the transistors (switches) areminiscule (that,s the secondary advantage) but rather that millions of transistors can becreated and interconnected in a mass5production process. All the elements on theintegrated circuit are fabricated simultaneously via a small number (maybe &) of opticalmasks that define the geometry of each layer. This speeds up the process of fabricating

the computer 55 and hence reduces its cost 55 ust as 1utenberg,s printing press sped upthe fabrication of books and thereby made them affordable to all.

The I#0 tretch computer of &/4/ needed its !! foot length to hold the &4""""transistors it contained. These transistors were tremendously smaller than the vacuumtubes they replaced but they were still individual elements requiring individual assembly.#y the early &/:"s this many transistors could be simultaneously fabricated on anintegrated circuit. Today,s%entium =microprocessor contains 3"""""" transistors inthis same thumbnail si75& computer of &/'/;

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The 4)$ %4%3

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Dne of the earliest attempts to build an all5electronic (that is no gears cams belts shaftsetc.) digital computer occurred in &/! by17 >7 Atanaso a professor of physics andmathematics at Iowa tate 9niversity. #y &/3& he and his graduate student Clifford#erry had succeeded in building a machine that could solve / simultaneous equationswith / unknowns. This machine was the first to store data as a charge on a capacitor

which is how today,s computers store information in their main memory (4/AMorynamic /AM). As far as its inventors were aware it was also the first to employ binaryarithmetic. @owever the machine was not programmable it lacked a conditional branchits design was appropriate for only one type of mathematical problem and it was notfurther pursued after 6orld 6ar II. It,s inventors didn,t even bother to preserve themachine and it was dismantled by those who moved into the room where it layabandoned.

(The Atanaso3Berry $omputer [photo & I)))] !

Another candidate for granddaddy of the modern computer was $olossus built during6orld 6ar II by #ritain for the purpose of breaking the cryptographic codes used by1ermany. #ritain led the world in designing and building electronic machines dedicatedto code breaking and was routinely able to read coded 1ermany radio transmissions. #ut

Colossus was definitely not a general purpose reprogrammable machine. +ote thepresence of pulleys in the two photos of Colossus below;

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(Two ,iews o the coe3breaking $olossus o ;reat Britain !

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(The ?use ?< in its resiential setting !

Huse,s third machine the?@ built in &/3& was probably the first operational general5purpose programmable (that is software controlled) digital computer. 6ithoutknowledge of any calculating machine inventors since %eibni< (who lived in the &'"",s)Huse reinvented #abbage,s concept of programming and decided on his own to employbinary representation for numbers (#abbage had advocated decimal). The H! was

destroyed by an Allied bombing raid. The H& and H met the same fate and the H3survived only because Huse hauled it in a wagon up into the mountains. Huse,saccomplishments are all the more incredible given the conte8t of the material andmanpower shortages in 1ermany during 6orld 6ar II. Huse couldn,t even obtain papertape so he had to make his own by punching holes in discarded movie film. #ecausethese machines were unknown outside 1ermany they did not influence the path ofcomputing in America. #ut their architecture is identical to that still in use today; anarithmetic unit to do the calculations a memory for storing numbers a control system tosupervise operations and input and output devices to connect to the e8ternal world. Husealso invented what might be the first high5level computer language $7lankalkul$ thoughit too was unknown outside 1ermany.

The title of forefather of today,s all5electronic digital computers is usually awarded to)NIA$ which stood for -lectronic +umerical Integrator and Calculator. -+IAC wasbuilt at the 9niversity of 7ennsylvania between &/3! and &/34 by two professors1ohnMauchlyand the 3 year old17 %resper )ckert who got funding from the wardepartment after promising they could build a machine that would replace all the$computers$ meaning the women who were employed calculating the firing tables for the

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army,s artillery guns. The day that 0auchly and -ckert saw the first small piece of-+IAC work the persons they ran to bring to their lab to show off their progress weresome of these female computers (one of whom remarked $I was astounded that it took allthis equipment to multiply 4 by &"""$).

-+IAC filled a " by 3" foot room weighed !" tons and used more than &:""" vacuumtubes. %ike the 0ark I -+IAC employed paper card readers obtained from I#0 (thesewere a regular product for I#0 as they were a long established part of businessaccounting machines I#0,s forte). 6hen operating the -+IAC was silent but you knewit was on as the &:""" vacuum tubes each generated waste heat like a light bulb and allthis heat (&3""" watts of heat) meant that the computer could only be operated in aspecially designed room with its own heavy duty air conditioning system. Dnly the lefthalf of -+IAC is visible in the first picture the right half was basically a mirror image ofwhat,s visible.

(Two ,iews o )NIA$9 the ")lectronic Numerical Integrator an $alculator"

(note that it wasn't e,en gi,en the name o computer since

"computers" were people! [67#7 Army photo!

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To reprogram the -+IAC you had to rearrange the patch cords that you can observe onthe left in the prior photo and the settings of !""" switches that you can observe on theright. To program a modern computer you type out a program with statements like;

Circumference = 3.14 * diameter

To perform this computation on -+IAC you had to rearrange a large number of patchcords and then locate three particular knobs on that vast wall of knobs and set them to !& and 3.

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(/eprogramming )NIA$ in,ol,e a hike [67#7 Army photo] !

Dnce the army agreed to fund -+IAC 0auchly and -ckert worked around the clockseven days a week hoping to complete the machine in time to contribute to the war. Theirwar5time effort was so intense that most days they ate all ! meals in the company of thearmy Captain who was their liaison with their military sponsors. They were allowed asmall staff but soon observed that they could hire only the most unior members of the9niversity of 7ennsylvania staff because the more e8perienced faculty members knewthat their proposed machine would never work.

Dne of the most obvious problems was that the design would require &:""" vacuumtubes to all work simultaneously. 2acuum tubes were so notoriously unreliable that eventwenty years later many neighborhood drug stores provided a $tube tester$ that allowed

homeowners to bring in the vacuum tubes from their television sets and determine whichone of the tubes was causing their T2 to fail. And television sets only incorporated about!" vacuum tubes. The device that used the largest number of vacuum tubes was anelectronic organ; it incorporated &'" tubes. The idea that &:""" tubes could functiontogether was considered so unlikely that the dominant vacuum tube supplier of the dayCA refused to oin the proect (but did supply tubes in the interest of $wartimecooperation$). -ckert solved the tube reliability problem through e8tremely carefulcircuit design. @e was so thorough that before he chose the type of wire cabling he wouldemploy in -+IAC he first ran an e8periment where he starved lab rats for a few days andthen gave them samples of all the available types of cable to determine which they leastliked to eat. @ere,s a look at a small number of the vacuum tubes in -+IAC;

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-ven with &:""" vacuum tubes -+IAC could only hold " numbers at a time. @oweverthanks to the elimination of moving parts it ran much faster than the 0ark I; amultiplication that required ' seconds on the 0ark I could be performed on -+IAC in .:thousandths of a second. -+IAC,s basic clock speed was &""""" cycles per second.Today,s home computers employ clock speeds of &""""""""" cycles per second. #uiltwith G4""""" from the 9.. Army -+IAC,s first task was to compute whether or not itwas possible to build a hydrogen bomb (the atomic bomb was completed during the warand hence is older than -+IAC). The very first problem run on -+IAC required only "seconds and was checked against an answer obtained after forty hours of work with amechanical calculator. After chewing on half a million punch cards for si8 weeks -+IACdid humanity no favor when it declared the hydrogen bomb feasible. This first -+IACprogram remains classified even today.

Dnce -+IAC was finished and proved worthy of the cost of its development itsdesigners set about to eliminate the obno8ious fact that reprogramming the computerrequired a physical modification of all the patch cords and switches. It took days tochange -+IAC,s program. -ckert and 0auchly,s ne8t teamed up with the mathematician1ohn ,on Neumannto design)4>A$ which pioneered the store program. #ecause hewas the first to publish a description of this new computer von +eumann is oftenwrongly credited with the reali

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computation steps) could be represented electronically ust as the data was. #ut this maorbreakthrough can be found in -ckert,s notes long before he ever started working with von+eumann. -ckert was no slouch; while in high school -ckert had scored the secondhighest math AT score in the entire country.

After -+IAC and ->2AC came other computers with humorous names such as I%%IAC*D@++IAC and of course 0A+IAC. I%%IAC was built at the 9niversity of Illinois atChampaign59rbana which is probably why the science fiction author Arthur C. Clarkechose to have the @A% computer of his famous book $""&; A pace Ddyssey$ born atChampaign59rbana. @ave you ever noticed that you can shift each of the letters of I#0backward by one alphabet position and get @A%?

(I--IA$ II built at the 6ni,ersity o Illinois (it is a goo thing computers were

one3o3a3kin creations in these ays can you imagine being aske to

uplicate this0! !

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(5A- rom the mo,ie "

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the compression of music to allow more minutes of music to fit within the limited

memory of an 07! player the observation of car tire rotation to detect and prevent skids in an anti5lock

braking system (A#) the analysis of the writing style in hakespeare,s work with the goal of proving

whether a single individual really was responsible for all these pieces.

#y the end of the &/4",s computers were no longer one5of5a5kind hand built devicesowned only by universities and government research labs. -ckert and 0auchly left the9niversity of 7ennsylvania over a dispute about who owned the patents for theirinvention. They decided to set up their own company. Their first product was the famous6NI>A$computer the first commercial (that is mass produced) computer. In the 4",s9+I2AC (a contraction of $9niversal Automatic Computer$) was the household word for$computer$ ust as $Eleene8$ is for $tissue$. The first 9+I2AC was sold appropriatelyenough to the Census bureau. 9+I2AC was also the first computer to employ magnetictape. 0any people still confuse a picture of a reel5to5reel tape recorder with a picture of a

mainframe computer.

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(A reel3to3reel tape ri,e [photo courtesy o The $omputer Museum] !

-+IAC was unquestionably the origin of the 9.. commercial computer industry but itsinventors 0auchly and -ckert never achieved fortune from their work and their

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company fell into financial problems and was sold at a loss. #y &/44 I#0 was sellingmore computers than 9+I2AC and by the &/'",s the group of eight companies sellingcomputers was known as $I#0 and the seven dwarfs$. I#0 grew so dominant that thefederal government pursued anti5trust proceedings against them from &/'/ to &/:(notice the pace of our country,s legal system). Bou might wonder what type of event is

required to dislodge an industry heavyweight. In I#0,s case it was their own decision tohire an unknown but aggressive firm calledMicrosotto provide the software for theirpersonal computer(7C). This lucrative contract allowed 0icrosoft to grow so dominantthat by the year """ their market capitali

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(There were ways to interact with a mainframe. The first was called time sharingbecause the computer gave each user a tiny sliver of time in a round5robin fashion.7erhaps &"" users would be simultaneously logged on each typing on a teletypesuch as

the following;)

(The Teletype was the stanar mechanism use to interact with a time3sharing

computer !

A teletype was a motori

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printing the computer,s response (at a whopping &" characters per second). Dn the left5hand side of the teletype in the prior picture you can observe a paper tape reader andwriter (i.e. puncher). @ere,s a close5up of paper tape;

The alternative to time sharing was batch moe processing where the computer gives itsfull attention to your program. In e8change for getting the computer,s full attention atrun5time you had to agree to prepare your program off5line on a key punch machinewhich generated punch cards.

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An IBM Dey %unch machine which operates like a typewriter e8cept it prouces

punche cars rather than a printe sheet o paper

#ut things changed fast. #y the &//",s a university student would typically own his owncomputer and have e8clusive use of it in his dorm room.

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The original IBM %ersonal $omputer (%$!

This transformation was a result of the invention of the microprocessor. Amicroprocessor (u7) is a computer that is fabricated on an integrated circuit (IC).

Computers had been around for " years before the first microprocessor was developed atIntelin &/&. The micro in the name microprocessor refers to the physical si

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A typical Busicom esk calculator

#ut a new Intel employee (Ted @off) convinced #usicom to instead accept a generalpurpose computer chip which like all computers could be reprogrammed for manydifferent tasks (like controlling a keyboard a display a printer etc.). Intel argued thatsince the chip could be reprogrammed for alternative purposes the cost of developing itcould be spread out over more users and hence would be less e8pensive to each user. Thegeneral purpose computer is adapted to each new purpose by writing aprogramwhich isa sequence of instructions stored in memory (which happened to be Intel,s forte).#usicom agreed to pay Intel to design a general purpose chip and to get a price breaksince it would allow Intel to sell the resulting chip to others. #ut development of the chiptook longer than e8pected and #usicom pulled out of the proect. Intel knew it had awinner by that point and gladly refunded all of #usicom,s investment ust to gain sole

rights to the device which they finished on their own.

Thus became the Intel 3""3 the first microprocessor (u7). The 3""3 consisted of !""transistors and was clocked at &": k@< (i.e. &":""" times per second). Compare this tothe 3 million transistors and the 1@< clock rate (i.e. """"""""" times per second)used in a 7entium 3. Dne of Intel,s 3""3 chips still functions aboard the 7ioneer &"spacecraft which is now the man5made obect farthest from the earth. Curiously#usicom went bankrupt and never ended up using the ground5breaking microprocessor.

Intel followed the 3""3 with the :"": and :":". Intel priced the :":" microprocessor atG!'" dollars as an insult to I#0,s famous !'" mainframe which cost millions of dollars.

The :":" was employed in theMIT# Altaircomputer which was the world,s firstpersonal computer(7C). It was personal all right; you had to build it yourself from a kitof parts that arrived in the mail. This kit didn,t even include an enclosure and that is thereason the unit shown below doesn,t match the picture on the maga

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The Altair ++ the irst %$

A @arvard freshman by the name ofBill ;atesdecided to drop out of college so he couldconcentrate all his time writing programs for this computer. This early e8perienced put#ill 1ates in the right place at the right time once I#0 decided to standardi

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2annevar #ush with a >ifferential Analy

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A pantograph punch

7ress used to read information

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@eathkit -C 5 & -ducational Analog Computer

1ift of >avid *. 7ederson J!4.:'

0emory technology assortment

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-arly &' 8 &' ceramic core plane

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('35bit magnetic shift register (@arvard 0ark I2)9&/4)

I#0 magnetic core plane9c. &/'"

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(0agnetic core memory plane assembly9&/4)

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Cray5& Kself5portraitL

I%%IAC I2

The Connection 0achine

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i7C (Intel 7ersonal uper Computer)

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ancho Armc. &/'ancho %os Amigos @ospital 9nited tates

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AC02I (Dbli8) obotc. &/:Tokyo Institute of Technology *apan

Dmnibot """&/:4Tomy Eyogo Company Inc. *apan

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1ala8y(games)&/&Computer ecreations Inc. 9nited tates

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Personal Computer Software

At the start of the computer age in the 1950s, computer

0ac D&/:3Apple Computer Corporation 9nited tates

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The 0acintosh operating system released with the first 0acintosh in *anuary &/:3 wasbased on work done for the Alto computer proect at Jero8Ls 7alo Alto esearchCenter(7AC). Apple co5founder teve *obs had visited 7AC in +ovember &// andwas inspired by a demonstration of the Alto graphical user interface (19I) to start the%isa proect.

Driginal 0icrosoft 6indows &." software bo8&/:4Dn loan from the 2intage Computer =estival

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-arly 0icro5oft employees c. &/:

The first version of the 6indows operating system resulted from a contract betweenI#0 and 0icrosoft to develop a graphical user interface (19I) for the I#0 7C. 6henthe collaboration ended I#0 pursued its own DM environment and 6indows became0icrosoftLs premiere product.

Although initial versions were rudimentary and included few applications 2ersion !."

could address memory beyond '3"E and featured a more sophisticated user interface.=ollowing its release in &//" software vendors quickly developed a large array ofapplications for 6indows.

pc computer

0icral 0icrocomputer&/!- =rance 0icral (in blue) with tape drive monitor and keyboard

c. &/!Credit; Thi T. Truong

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Jero8 +otetakerc. &/'7AC 9nited tates

Jero8 7alo Alto esearch (7AC) researcher Alan Eay intended the +otetaker to be aportable universal learning appliance. #uilt by >oug =airbairn the computer weighing3: pounds featured an internal monitor and floppy disk drive as well as a mouse. %ikethe Jero8 Alto the +otetaker used a version of the malltalk5: operating environment.

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Apple II&/Apple Computer Inc. 9nited tates

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T5:" 0odel &&/

Tandy adio hack 9nited tates

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I#0 7ersonal Computer&/:&I#0 Corporation 9nited tates

Although I#0Ls first personal computer arrived nearly ten years after others wereavailable the I#0 7ersonal Computer (7C) instantly legitimi

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Dsborne & 7ortable Computer&/:&Dsborne Computer 9nited tates

In &/:& Dsborne advertised the first commercial portable computer. The Dsborne &weighed 3 pounds and became its own carrying case by attaching the keyboard to thefront of the unit. It was a success not only because of its siesigned by %ee =elsentein the machine used a Hilog H:" processor and ran theC7M0 operating system.

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