Better Management Practices for Cotton and Sugarcane · Integrated Weed Management 44 Insect pests...

Better Management Practicesfor

Cotton and SugarcaneCrop Management Review

Helping farmers manage their crops in the most appropriate and better waysFunded by European Commission

Study conducted by: EEccoo-CCoonnsseerrvvaattiioonn IInniittiiaattiivveess,, IIssllaammaabbaaddStudy coordinated by: DDrr.. NNaassiirr MMaahhmmoooodd NNaassiirr, Freshwater & Toxics Programme, WWF - PakistanCover page design: CCoommmmuunniiccaattiioonnss DDiivviissiioonn, WWF - PakistanPublished in 2006 by WWF - Pakistan, Ferozepur Road, Lahore - 54600, PakistanOpinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of WWF, its members andECI. All written material in this report may be reprinted, provided the source is credited to WWF -Pakistan and ECI.Cover photo by: DDrr.. NNaassiirr MMaahhmmoooodd NNaassiirr,, WWF - Pakistan and WWF-Canon / MMaauurrii RRAAUUTTKKAARRIIMaps: GGIISS LLaabb/WWF - Pakistan

1. Acknowledgements 5 2. Acronyms 73. Better Management Practices - An Overview 9 4. Overall Objectives 115. Methodology 13 6. Introduction and Background 157. Executive Summary 19

8. PART-I: COTTON

Soil Health and Fertility 23 Agronomic Practices and Farm Layout 27 Irrigation Practices 31 Cotton Seed Health and GM Cotton 40Integrated Weed Management 44Insect pests and diseases 47 Post-Harvest Practices 66 Environmental Impacts of Cotton Cultivation 67Efficient Marketing Practices 69Recommendations for BMPs in Cotton 73

9. PART-II: SUGARCANE

Soil Health and Fertility 77Seed Health, Plantation and GMOs 85Agronomic Practices and Farm Layout 94Irrigation Practices 97Insect Pests and Diseases 101Post-Harvest Practices 110Environmental Impacts of Sugarcane Cultivation 113Efficient Marketing Practices 116Recommendations for BMPs in Sugarcane 117

10. References, Documents and Websites 121

Appendix-I List of progressive growers contacted 141Appendix-II List of Research & Development Institutes visited 143Appendix-III Maps of Cotton & Sugarcane Agro-ecological Zones 144

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Contents

WWF-P is highly grateful to the European Union for financial and technical support for undertaking thecurrent Review titled "Better Management Practices (BMPs) for Cotton and Sugarcane". We are alsograteful to the team members as well as professionals from Eco-Conservation Initiatives (ECI) such asMr. Mohammad Azhar Qureshi, Mr. Mohammad Irshad, Mr. Sohail Iqbal and Syed Ishfaq Ali Shah fortheir commitment to undertake this Review in close coordination with WWF-P team including Dr. NasirMahmood Nasir coordinator for this study, Mr. Arif Hamid and Mr. Hammad Naqi Khan.

This Review is based on the outcome of research and development carried out in most of the cotton andsugarcane growing areas across the globe. This is hoped that it would be equally useful for the smallfarmers, local progressive growers, research and development institutes and departments of agricultureresearch and extension for further on-farm adaptive research and replication of the better managementpractices for cotton and sugarcane in different agro-ecological zones of Pakistan. This is further hopedthat the current review will prove hallmark to level the ground for agriculture based productivityenhancement in Pakistan keeping in view the best use of fresh water resources in the context of envi-ronmental conservation being one of the prime objectives of WWF-P's on-going initiatives of natureconservation.

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1. Acknowledgements

1. AARI Ayub Agricultural Research Institute2. BMPs Better Management Practices3. BT Bacillus thuringiensis4. CABI Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau International5. CBO Community Based Organization6. CCRI Central Cotton Research Institute7. CLCV Cotton Leaf Curl Virus8. CMA Cooperative Marketing Association9. CRI Crop Research Institute10. ECI Eco-Conservation Initiatives11. EIA Environmental Impact Assessment12. EIL Economic Injury Level13. EM Effective Microorganism14. EU European Union15. FAO Food and Agriculture Organization16. FFS Farmer Field School17. FPC Filter Press Cake18. FSA Farm Service Agency19. FYM Farm Yard Manure20. GCTB Green Cane Trash Blanket21. GIS Geographic Information System22. GMOs Genetically Modified Organisms23. GOP Government of Pakistan24. ICM Integrated Crop Management25. IGRs Insect Growth Regulators26. IPM Integrated Pest Management27. IT Information Technology28. IWM Integrated Weed Management29. MAF Million Acre Feet30. NGO Non-Governmental Organization31. NARS National Agricultural Research Systems32. NIBGE National Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering33. PCCC Pakistan Central Cotton Committee34. PCCA Plains Cotton Cooperative Association35. POP Persistent Organic Pollutants36. SCARP Salinity Control And Reclamation Projects 37. TOT Training of Trainers38. UNEP United Nations Environment Programme39. USDA United States Department of Agriculture40. WHO World Health Organization41. WUE Water Use Efficiency42. WUI Water Used Index 43. WWF World Wide Fund for Nature44. WWF-P World Wide Fund for Nature - Pakistan

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2. Acronyms

Better Management Practices (BMPs) are tools for meeting today's farming goals. For a better manage-ment practice, an action must maintain or increase crop returns while minimizing the impact on theenvironment. In addition to this, BMPs are practices used by agricultural producers to control the gen-eration and delivery of pollutants from agricultural activities to water resources of the state and there-by reduce the amount of agricultural pollutants entering surface and ground waters. Each BMP is a cul-mination of years of research and demonstrations conducted by agricultural research scientists and soilengineers. There is no one system for all farms. The combination of practices appropriate for a farm willdepend on individual problems and opportunities. In recent years, the focus has widened to include envi-ronmental factors in the crop production equation.

Producing high yields has always been an important part of farming. When input costs were low com-pared to crop returns, the best way to farm was to fertilize for maximum yields and then, add a littleextra. The feeling was that we could lose more with too little input than with too much. With the increas-ing costs of fertilizer, fuel and other inputs and crop prices not keeping pace, the emphasis has changed.Inputs are carefully measured so that the yield for each unit is worth more than the cost of the input.The greatest yields do not necessarily give the greatest profit.

The decline of fresh water resources at the global level is quite evident with the increasing demand offood because of population explosion alarmingly visible in the under-developed countries across theworld. As a result, there is crucial importance for improvement in the efficiency of water use and assist-ing growers to implement water efficient practices increasingly when we talk about two important cropssuch as cotton and sugarcane. Water is a valuable asset and, with increasing demands on its use, poten-tially reduced access and increased irrigation costs, cotton and sugarcane growers are seeking to maxi-mize their production for each unit of water they use. While the cotton and sugarcane industries arewell-placed in the context of water use efficiency, there are opportunities to further improving water useefficiency.

Accurate measurement of water use on a crop and farm scale is the first step toward defining water useefficiency on farms. It can assist growers to measure crop water use and drainage on their farms in aneffort to assess the alternative irrigation methods to the common furrow irrigation, such as sub-surfacedrip irrigation and low-pressure overhead systems.

Similarly, this needs to evaluate crops that are rotated with cotton and sugarcane that may improve theirsoil conditions. Improved soil health and structure increases root exploration, leading to greater mois-ture and nutrient recovery when the cotton is grown. Soil type and climate influence how the cotton ora sugarcane plant responds to the amount of water in the soil, how quickly it experiences moisture stressand the duration of the stress. This stress affects plant growth and cotton quality and yield.

The cotton and sugarcane industries are faced with insecticide resistance, water allocation reductionsand community concerns about chemical use. In this environment, decision tools for better managementare essential to ensure growers have access to, and can effectively apply, the latest research. It needs todevelop suite of decision tools help growers achieve Better Management Practices.

Good soil nutrition is critical for profitable and sustainable cropping. The advanced countries havedeveloped nutrient management systems for better cotton and sugarcane production as well as life cyclesof major insect pests such as Helicoverpa and mites. These models assist growers improve nutrients andpest management by predicting pests' pressures and yield loss due to nutrition deficiency and pest dam-

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3. Better Management PracticesAn Overview

age.

This Review has been undertaken in a way that it could be useful for preparation of a number of BMPManuals for the benefit of small farmers, local progressive growers, research and development institutesand departments of agriculture research and extension for further on-farm adaptive research and repli-cation of the better management practices for cotton and sugarcane production in Pakistan.

10 Better Management Practices for Cotton and Sugarcane

Preparation of current review is an effort to create an enabling environment for researchers, extensionworkers, policy makers, progressive farmers and small-scale growers to replicate, adopt and disseminatethe Better Management Practices (BMPs) for cotton and sugarcane. Following are the overall objectives:

Collate and review the Better Management Practices (BMPs) available in generalIdentify those BMPs which have been proven successful in a particular ecosystemLink the identified BMPs to address the social, socio-economic and environmental issues in the national and international perspectivesCategorize the innovative and appropriate BMPs for on-farm adaptive research that are financially viable for farmers, especially for cotton and sugarcane crops in Pakistan by the involvement of progressive growers and national research centers.

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4. Overall Objectives

Preparation of this document is based upon in-depth review of Better Management Practices (BMPs)across the globe as well as Pakistan in the context of integrated production systems and functional mod-els of crop management which ensure higher productivity, low cost inputs, safe methods of pest man-agement, increased soil fertility, efficient use of fresh water resources, conservation of the particularagro-ecological systems, better farm workers health and protection of agro-biodiversity. The methodol-ogy for review and data collection consisted of investigation of relevant literature at the local and glob-al level where both the crops under focus are grown and considered as the main source of farmer'sincome. Information was also collected from the available progressive growers, researchers, extensionworkers and policy makers through personal communication and interactive on-farm dialogue. In addi-tion to this, the Information Technology tools such as World Wide Web, electronic mail and differentdatabases were also consulted as and when needed. Maximum effort has been made to avoid the person-al influence or opinion for projecting any farm practice as the BMP. Only those BMPs for cotton and sug-arcane have been recommended or highlighted for adaptive research or wider implementation whichhave proven effective in different countries across the globe and are suitable for different agro-ecologi-cal zones in Pakistan.

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5. Methodology

Agriculture is the mainstay of Pakistan's economy. It accounts for nearly 23% of the national income.Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and the labour force, in various economic activities is around 42 per centof the country's workforce (Tariq, 2006). It also supplies raw material to industries, notably the textileindustry, which is the largest industrial sub-sector of the economy. Moreover, 67.5 per cent of the coun-try's population living in rural areas is directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture for their livelihood(GOP, 2004). Pakistan has been growing agricultural commodities with fluctuating production quanti-ties. However on average, production level has been maintained in many crops. Lower yields of differentcrops may be due to water logging, salinity, non-availability of good seed, smallholdings, pest infestationsand inefficient transfer of technologies. Increased production had been achieved by expanding cultivat-ed area and the unit yield has not been significantly increased to its potential level, in spite of enhancedinputs.

The well being of the economy depends on the production, processing and distribution of major cropssuch as cotton, wheat, milk, meat, sugar and edible oils. In the long run, the agricultural economy hasto produce an increasing surplus that may sustain the economic growth and also translate into a moremarket-oriented economy. In reality, the agricultural economy (farming and agricultural business) is thedominant force, which drives the growth and development of national economy. No other sector is larg-er or more intimately related to individuals and the everyday consumption of necessities than agricul-ture.

The overall agricultural economy has an important impact on the total business activities of the coun-try's entire economy. An increase of one rupee in farming and agricultural business production willtherefore stimulate as to a rupee increase in the overall business activity. It is abundantly clear that infuture, the development in agriculture is going to interact with growth, poverty and environment.Therefore, the aim of policy-makers then should be to manage their interactions to produce the mostbeneficial outcome possible for the economy. In the past, little attention was given to the interactionsbetween agriculture, poverty and the environment. The government had previously relied on agricultureto provide food security, and also focused on grain crops, rice and wheat. Furthermore, poverty reduc-tion and changing demand patterns will require increased attention to other crops and livestock. In addi-tion, insufficient consideration has been given to developing sustainable systems of resource use.

Increased pressure on land will require a shift towards high value, higher yielding crops and highercropping intensities. Growth in the past relied on expansion of cultivable land.

The entire agriculture-environment poverty nexus must receive greater priority. A depleted and pollut-ed environment adversely affects the poor through increased health problems and lowers the productiv-ity of natural resources. Agriculture strategy in Pakistan will therefore have to harness win-win strate-gy to reverse the downward spiral of worsening of poverty and natural resources degradation.The sector also plays a crucial role in preserving the environment. This is because it remains the primaryuser of natural resources such as air, land and water. Recognition of this fact perhaps makes the sectoreven more important than it has been in the past. In addition to natural resource management consid-eration, the objective of sustainability will influence growth strategies more generally. Further growthmust come from yield increase, but in a less damaging way than in the past. This will require moreemphasis on raising the knowledge of farmers about crop and resource management, and less empha-sis on chemical inputs used in mono cropping with a way forward to better management practices of thetarget crops such as cotton and sugarcane. However, realization of the prospect that exist will requireeffective actions and policy reforms to resolve the issues and problems that now have become binding on

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6. Introduction andBackground

the sector particularly those impeding productivity growth.

Imported commodities included oilseeds, wheat and pesticides. Rice, cotton and fruits are exported insizable quantities. However, some of the exports may suffer in future when regulation of World Tradewill be strictly enforced and proper measures are not implemented. Under these regulations marketingof agricultural commodities will be subjected to rigorous testing. The marketable commodities will haveto be pest and pesticide free. If they could not be pesticide free but their quantity should be below desiredlevel of acceptability. The value of agriculture produce in the context of cotton and sugarcane is enorous(Table. 1) (GOP, 2005).

It shows that monetary value of cotton and sugarcane is enormous. Agriculture based economy dependsa lot on these two crops, in addition to some other crops.

Insect pests and diseases are one of the major constraints to achieve sustainable production. Despitethese constraints, Pakistani scientists have made great successes in the field of Integrated CropManagement (ICM) and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) that involve a wide range of managementpractices from preparation of the land to post-harvest management practices keeping in view the aspectsof environmental conservation (Table. 2)


Table. 1. Value of agricultural crops (Million Rupees)

Major crops Minor crops

Crop Value Crop Value Rice 74,181 Pulses 4,741 Wheat 132,230 Vegetables 2,470 Barley 657 Veg/Potato 16,393 Jowar 1,426 Potato 8,311 Bajra 1,489 Fruits 72,963 Maize 16,826 Condiments 18,978 Gram 11,003 Oilseeds 5,545 Rape/ mustard 3,877 Fiber crops 29 Sesamum 530 Other crops 15,685 Cotton 101,256 Guar seeds 1,110 Sugarcane 59,754 Fodder 14,255 Tobacco 4,394 Sugar beat 320 Total 407, 623 183,034 Grand Total 590,657

Source: GOP, 2004-05

In addition to this, the research and development institutes in Pakistan including Central Cotton ResearchInstitute (CCRI), National Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE), NationalAgriculture Research Centre (NARC), Ayub Agricultural Research Institute (AARI), Crop ResearchInstitute (CRI), Mardan, CABI Regional Bioscience Center Pakistan, Eco-Conservation Initiatives (ECI),various sugar mills as well as a large number of progressive growers in all the four provinces of Pakistanhave been instrumental in the environmentally sustainable market-oriented on-farm Research andDevelopment (R&D) of cotton and sugarcane crops. Despite all these collective and individual levelefforts, low literacy rate, slow economic growth, political instability and prevalent centuries old feudalsystem could not enable our farming communities to compete other nations of the same stature in pro-ductivity enhancement initiatives, particularly in cotton and sugarcane. Preparation of this review is oneof the efforts in this context to review, identify, organize and introduce Better Management Practices

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Table. 2. Successes in IPM of various crops achieved in Pakistan

Crop Pest Species

Control Measures Remarks

Pyrilla

Redistribution of Epiricania and conservation of egg parasitoid Parachrysocharis javensis

Complete control throughout NWFP, aerial spray was stopped and more than Rs. 30 million are being saved every year since 1985. Complete control at Faran sugar Mills, Tandlianwala Sugar Mills, Jamal Din Wali Sugar Mills, Habib Sugar Mills etc.

Introduction of Cotesia flavipes Augmentative releases of Trichogramma

Excellent control achieved at Habib Sugar Mills, Faran Sugar Mills, Jamal Din Wali Sugar Mills, Tandlianawala Sugar Mills, Consolidated Sugar Mills and Bannu Sugar Mills etc.

Mass releases of the egg parasitoid Telenomus beneficiens

Excellent control achieved at Habib Sugar Mills, Faran Sugar Mills, Jamal Din Wali Sugar Mills, Tandlianawala Sugar Mills, Consolidated Sugar Mills and Bannu Sugar Mills etc.

Borers

Mass releases of Trichogramma

Complete control achieved at Tandlianwala Sugar Mills.

Sugarcane

Mealy bugs

Hoeing and ploughing

Good control of mealy bug was achieved.

Boll Worms

Mass releases of Trichogramma

Excellent control of bollworms Cotton

Sucking pests

Conservation of predators

Excellent control of sucking pests

Sources: Proceedings of the Conference on Integrated Pest Management in the Asia-Pacific Region, 23-27 September 1991, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 73-84pp.

Proceedings of the Workshop on Integrated Pest Management of Agricultural Pests for OIC member countries in Asia, 8-11 March 1999, Islamabad, Pakistan, 25-37pp.

(BMPs), particularly in the major crops of cotton and sugarcane with the sole objectives of environmen-tally sustainable market-oriented production system. The same efforts may tremendously help thenational economy meet challenges of the forthcoming WTO regime.


Better Management Practices (BMPs) are tools for meeting today's farming goals. For a better manage-ment practice, an action must maintain or increase crop returns while minimizing the impact on theenvironment. The combination of practices appropriate for a farm will depend on individual problemsand opportunities. The cotton and sugarcane industries are faced with insecticide resistance, water allo-cation reductions and community concerns about chemical use. Increased pressure on land will requirea shift towards high value, higher yielding crops and higher cropping intensities. Growth in the pastrelied on expansion of cultivable land. The entire agriculture-environment poverty nexus must receivegreater priority. The value of agriculture produce in the context of cotton and sugarcane is enormous.Range of BMPs pertaining to soil health, agronomy, planting time, planting densities, pest and diseases,

plant physiology etc was identified and their merits and demerits were discussed in detail. In case of cot-ton, Pakistan's soils are very poor in organic matter than the desirable level. Under the prevailing agro-ecological system, about 6.3 million hectare is affected by the salinity and sodicity. Soil environmentstressed by excessive salts (salt-affected soils) and by improper water balance (water logged soils) can bemanaged only on sustained basis to improve the productivity of such areas. Soil Erosion can be controlledby providing more vegetation, by making strong bunds. Reclamation of salt affected soils is done by deepploughing and leaching salts with water, using gypsum, sanding, horizon mixing and profile inversion.Crop yields in Pakistan are low and a big gap exists between the potential yields and the yields at thefarm level. Contribution of the fertilizer in this gap has been estimated at about 50%. Composting andgreen manuring is done primarily to increase the yield of subsequent crops as well to improve the phys-ical conditions of the soil. By just 10% improvement in fertilizer use efficiency, 1.48 billion rupees canbe saved. Soil test based application of fertilizer helps avoid the application where response to fertilizerare not expected. For example, all P, K and 1/3 N should be applied to sowing by band placement.Remaining 1/3 N with first irrigation and 1/3 N at pre-flowering stage. The uptake of super phosphatesis increased if it is mixed with farmyard manure. Application of farmyard manure @ 5mertic tons/hathrough fermentation with irrigation gave up to12% more seed cotton.

Keeping in view small farmers' case, strip tillage would be more appropriate while preparation of theland for cotton cultivation, as it would leave part of the soil surface covered, while providing a smoothseedbed for planting operations. Higher plant densities provide an earlier cover and thus reduce compe-tition for water and weeds. They also tend to shorten the length of the growing period. As harvesting insmall scale farming operations is generally done by hand and higher plant densities of cotton are har-vested mechanically this is not an option for small holders. However, twin row cotton, where two rowsof cotton are planted on the same bed, could be the intermediate solution, as it will increase plant den-sity while still permitting manual harvesting.

To obtain potential sugarcane yields; 50% of total N requirements should be made available in the formof FYM and 50% applied in the form of fertilizer. Sugarcane trash should be retained which act as veryuseful mulch and when this voluminous mass is turned under in soil, it is the valuable organic matter.Trash Mulch increase soil temperature during winter & decrease temperature during hot dry weather,increase in soil temperature save the crop from frost hazards, decrease in soil temperature help decreasesurface evaporation, conserve moisture and check evaporation losses of water, suppress weed growth;cane grows with out weed competition for nutrients and shade, preserves parasites and predators, favor-able micro-climate for soil bacteria and microbes, increase organic matter in soil and accelerate miner-alization and recycling of nutrients. The overall impact of unprocessed sugarcane press mud/ filtercakeas well as the processed press mud as compost has been found highly encouraging in different sugarcanegrowing areas of Pakistan. Processed mud compost contains 60 - 70% organic matter that enhances landfertility and increases sugarcane yield by 85%. Sugarcane yield increased by about one ton per every 7

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7. Executive Summary

kg N/ha applied in the form of commercial fertilizer. The addition of 45 kg P2O5 along with 67 kg K2O/ha increased the yield of sugar cane by about 5 tons than the use of 67-122 kg N alone.Salinity and water-logging are the major constraints of irrigated agriculture in Pakistan. Seed should beplaced 7.5cm down on one side of ridge for sowing of cotton in salt affected soils. Mulch tillage is a man-agement technique that uses organic matter as mulch. It reduces the crystallization and hardening ofsoils. Number of ploughs should be directly in correlation with the soil type. For hard soil, the numberof ploughs may be from three to four times. The purpose should be to make the soil loosed-texturedenough to promote good growth of cotton plants. Soil leveling should be done with laser-leveling. Residue left on soil surface reduces erosion and water run-off but it also stimulates weed growth. In caseof no tillage more organic matter is located near the surface, which improves soils. In addition to mod-ified tillage and mulching, other measures such as field layout, terracing, contour, planting Strip tillage/ planting Hedgerows / vegetation 'live barriers', drainage ditch design, cover crops, enhanced vegeta-tion of watercourses, soil amendments are useful BMPs to reduce soil erosion and increased biologicalactivity.Sugarcane should be planted in September rather than in Feb.-March at a row spacing of 90cm to 1 m,as September planted crops usually produces 20% to 35% higher cane yield. Two budded double settsshould be placed end to end in the furrows covered with 2 to 3cm soil layer. About 80 to 100 maunds(3.25 to 4 tonnes) seed of thin cane varieties and 100 to 120 maunds (4 to 5 tonnes) seed of thick vari-eties is sufficient to plant one acreWater requirement of cotton is considerably reduced on a high water table soil. Variation in fiber lengthdepends on the amount of water the plant had. Longest lint is produced by bolls which at the time ofirrigation are very young and can take full advantage of moisture. Water use efficiency was higher under14 day's interval as compared to 7 and 21 days activity in soil, which improves structure and increasesthe speed of pesticide breakdown. In Pakistan, WWF currently carries out a research project on watersavings in irrigated cotton comparing three systems, ridge and alternate furrow closed, bed and furrowirrigation and the traditional flood irrigation. Already in the first year, water savings of up to 47% wereobserved when using the first two irrigation systems instead of flood irrigation. Irrigation schedulingimproves water use efficiency, reduces water-logging, quantifies the effectiveness of rain and allows bet-ter management of soil structure problems. Do not risk low crop yields by spreading water too thin. Apositive gross margin on a smaller area of crop is better than a negative one on a large area! Consciouslydecide how much risk you are prepared to accept.The best way is to apply light irrigation with short interval as per requirements. In this way we shall alsobe able to manage our cotton field in case it rains. For irrigation management, it is important to consid-er estimation of crop water requirement, monitoring of water use, irrigation scheduling, irrigation sys-tem characteristics, source of irrigation water, maintenance of irrigation infrastructure and availabilityof knowledge and training. For better management of irrigation water, following measures need to beadopted:

Available resources of water should be used judiciously depending upon needsCrop lands to be protected from different species of weedsWater channels to be properly cleaned so that water flow is smooth and uninterrupted by weedsand herbs.Moderately irrigate the crop in the beginningFor the crop to compete draught conditions, maximum effort should be made to conserve moisture in the soil after sprouting starts.Proper land leveling is highly important to get uniform irrigation in the fieldsKeeping in view the ongoing draught conditions in sugarcane growing areas of the country, dripand sprinkler irrigation methods need to be adopted.


Seed quality is the sum of all attributes contributing to seed performance. Seed are treated with fungi-cides and /or insecticides or any other material or technique to disinfect the seed and seedlings againstseed and soil- borne diseases, organisms and insects in the fields. Hardly any BMPs are developed and tested for GM cotton and the environmental safety concerns derivedfrom GM products are difficult to address, since the effects are not easily observed in the short term. Btcotton (insect resistant) varieties IR-FH-901, IR-NIBGE-2, IR-CIM-448 and IR-CIM-443 which havebeen grown over 8,000 acres of land in season 2005-06. Bt cotton varieties yielded almost 30% moreseed cotton as compared with conventional varieties. Healthy seed of improved recommended varieties of sugarcane should be cultivated. This can increasecane yield from 20 to 30 per cent. Sugarcane varieties Co-1148 and Disko are cultivated on large scalein the Punjab and Upper Sindh. Both are late maturating and have low sugar content. In general thinsugarcane varieties have more potential as compared to the thick varieties because of easy management,less irrigation water, resistance to pests, better ratooning capabilities

Strip planting is a versatile system of planting sugarcane in well-spaced, double-row strips withoutaffecting the number of rows and seed rate/ha has been designed and studied intensively for five yearsin the Department of Agronomy of the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (UAF). This system hasproved to be superior to the conventional 60cm-apart, single-row planting system. Paired-row stripplanting with 90cm between the strips and 30cm between the two rows of each strip has not only givenhigher cane yield than the traditional single-row planting system.

Sugarcane planted in pits gave substantially higher cane yield (222-289 t/ha) than the flat, double-row strip planting system (133-138 t/ha).

Being one of the important agronomic practices earthing-up prevents sugarcane lodging, expatiatesgrowth, helps in management of borer pest, root system is strengthened, enhances water uptake efficien-cy, expedite sugarcane maturity, there is overall increase of weight and recovery. A well maintained pro-ductive multi rationing system should help to reduce the cost of production. Sugarcane planting is donein October-December and February-March. Autumn planting is considered high yielding but it vulner-able to lodging. In general thin sugarcane varieties have more potential as to thick varieties because theyare easy to be managed, needless irrigation water, resistant to pests, and have better ratooning capabili-ties.Integrated weed management program is based on Practices that limit the introduction and spread ofweeds - prevent weed problems before they start, Practices that help the crop compete with weeds - help"choke out" weeds, Practices that keep weeds "off balance" - make it difficult for weeds to adapt.For effective weed management, high seedling rates, narrow row spacing, shallow and uniform seedlingallow the crop to be more competitive with weeds. Composting livestock manure (one year minimum)will reduce the viability of many weed seeds, although certain weeds can survive longer than others incomposted manure.According to the insecticide resistance management strategy is proposed to combat cotton pests inPakistan:

Scout the crop at least once a week, or twice a week when pest pressures are high and environmental conditions are favorable.Delay first spray on cotton as long as possible.Don't repeat the same insecticide class to which a control failure was noticed.Don't use any active ingredient more than twice per season.

Plant protection measure should be based on combination of different techniques such as resistant vari-

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eties, healthy seed, planting time, tillage operations, irrigation and fertility management, biological con-trol, mechanical control, semio-chemicals and insecticide and these should be applied in such a waythat each techniques compliments the effect of the other to formulate Integrated Crop Management(ICM) strategies. Importance of other non-synthetic products like neem oil and extract have extensivelybeen used as an important component of ICM. Participatory training activities based on Training of Trainers (ToT) and Farmer Field School (FFS) for thelocal communities to develop and enhance skills of farmers and extension workers in developing andimplementing BMPs should be started on larger areas. This will raise opportunities to grow more cot-ton with BMPs.Groups of neighboring cotton farmers work together to implement Integrated Pest Management (IPM)practices and so reduce their use of broad-spectrum pesticides. This helps conserve and encourage ben-eficial insects and spiders. IPM programme must be very efficient during September because only thismonth brings about more than 60% of total yield. Therefore we need to remain very alert and attentive.We must visit our fields daily & our spray program should be according to the requirements.Careless handling of cotton during picking and transport results in its contamination with moisture,immature bolls, twigs, leaves, human and animal hair, cigarettes, jute twines, ropes, shoppers, plasticfibers, toffee wrappers etc. To avoid contamination, start cotton picking only when 50% bolls are open,do not pick half-opened bills and pick cotton when dew dries off. Pickers should completely cover theirhead with a cloth made of cotton and use cotton cloth as picking `pallies.' Begin picking from lower partsof plants and go upwards gradually.In case of sugarcane, there should be a zoning system. The farmers should not be free to sell their pro-duce to any mill they like. The mills would not like to invest their money on development of the farmersunless they are sure to get their cane delivered to their mill. This has also encouraged the middlemanbusiness, which has increased the cost and decreased the quality of cane delivered. This has alsoincreased the after harvest losses and transport expanses.An efficient marketing system is a prerequisite for sustained agricultural development. It affects bothproducer income (through prices farmers receive for their products) and consumer welfare (via pricesconsumers eventually pay for agricultural commodities). Instead of individual marketing, efforts shouldbe to market seed cotton either through cooperative or pool marketing as done in United States.


Soil Health and Fertility

Soil health and composition

Cotton grows well on a wide range of soil types from almost pure to heavy clay. However, sticky clay isdifficult to manage in wet weather. Cotton tolerates a fairly wide range of soil acidity and alkalinity, butwhile it will grow on soils as acid as pH 4.0 the best crops are grown at pH 6.0 or more (Munro, 1994).Another study receives that it can grow in soils with pH of 5.5 - 8.5.

Pakistan's soils are very poor in organic matter than the desirable level. A soil having 1.29 % carbon isconsidered to be sufficient in organic matter, but Pakistan soils are having less than that. In a survey con-ducted by Azam et al. (2001), it is reported that the range of soil carbon in Pakistan soils is 0.52 to 1.38%in different soil series. Most of them have less than 1%. The cultivated soils must have proper proportionof organic matter for producing profitable crops. When the percentage of the organic matter is higherthen the crops will result into better growth and higher yields.

Cotton needs a soil with good moisture holding capacity. The humus content may be less than 1% (Sethiet al., 1960). Water stress affects the quality (Makhdum, 2002). Germination percentage, plant popula-tion, number of bolls and yield of seed cotton is higher in ameliorated soil than non ameliorated (Sadiqet al., 2003).

Under the prevailing agro-ecological system, about 6.22 million hectare is affected by the salinity andsodicity. The problems faced are shortage of good quality water to leach the soluble salts, low leachingefficiency due to infiltration problems, inadequate drainage of surplus water, high cost of amendments,failure to maintain a healthy salts balance because of poor management, and the use of poor qualityground water. Soil environment stressed by excessive salts (salt-affected soils) and by improper waterbalance (water logged soils) can be managed only on sustained basis to improve the productivity of suchareas.

Water erosion occurs in Western and Northern hilly areas and in Potohar Plateau. In the eastern flanksof Punjab situated in the foot hills of Himalayas, rain drops strike the surface with force. Aggregates andclods are broken into smaller particles which are splashed into the air and the surface layer is compact-ed.

If the rainfall is well distributed, falls with enough intervals and in less quantity, the erosion will be less.If slope is more, the velocity will be more and thus water erosion will be more. If the soil is hard andcompact, then erosion will be less. If the land is kept busy under the crops there will be less erosion andvice versa.

Erosion can be controlled:

by providing more vegetation on hilly areas. Generally a cover of dense vegetation is effective inretaining soil and rainfall. by making strong bunds and they should be made around the fields and as such the erosion is

23

8. PART-I : COTTON

stopped.by leveling the soil and gullies and by ploughing the area across the slope. In case of unleveledand sloppy soils thus ploughing across the slope will decrease the velocity of flowing water and erosion will be checked.

When the water table rises to such an extent that the surface becomes saturated or nearly saturated upto 100% with water then soils become unfit for crop production. This is done naturally or is introducedby human beings. About 30% (4.7 million ha) of the gross command area is water logged and about 13%is considered highly water logged (UNO, 2000-01). The plant growth is adversely affected in variousways. For example, when the arid conditions prevail, the excessive is usually accompanied by salinity, airis replaced from soil pores thus decrease in gas diffusion, also the oxygen deficiency occurs as its rate ofdiffusion decreases (1000 times slower) and resultantly the carbon dioxide concentration increases.Among other adverse effects on the plant growth are the adverse effects on various physiologicalprocesses like transpiration and water absorption decrease.

Reclamation of salt affected soils is done by deep ploughing, sanding, horizon mixing, profile inversionand trenching. These treatments increase the permeability of soil which is generally a limiting factor inthe reclamation of sodic and saline sodic soils. Deep ploughing is very useful where the sub-soil has gyp-sum or lime. Addition of large amounts of organic matter during reclamation is also a common prac-tice. These methods increase the soil permeability through root action, production of aggregating agentsduring the decomposition, and release of carbon dioxide (to dissolve the lime) during respiration anddecomposition.

Fertility

Crop yields in Pakistan are low and a big gap exists between the potential yields and the yields at thefarm level. Contribution of the fertilizer in this gap has been estimated at about 50%. Supplementingnative plant nutrients with the application of fertilizers has been a single factor of production for reap-ing maximum potential of crops. Unluckily, a large number of farmers (about 60%) do not use fertiliz-er and those using it do not use according to the recommendations, thus necessitating the need to trans-fer its improved technology to farmers about its usages.

1. Any crop grown and ploughed under green and succulent conditions, to improve especially by addition of organic matter is called green manure crop. Green manuring is done primarily to increase the yield of subsequent crops as well to improve the physical conditions of the soil. Cropsselected for green manuring should be of short duration, quick growing, these crops should be hard enough to withstand unfavorable environmental conditions. They should have the ability offixing nitrogen very efficiently. In Pakistan, crops like sun hemp, jantar/ dhaincha and guara are used as green manures. The best time for turning these crops into green manures is just at the start of flowering.

2. Compost is organic residue or a mixture of organic residues and soil that have been piled, moistened and allowed to undergo biological decomposition. Composting is the microbial decomposition of the piled organic materials into partially decomposed residues, which are called compost orhumus. Any plant material can be composted, i.e. leaves, weeds, lawn cuttings, small pruning and garden wastes-supplemented with sawdust, fireplace ashes. To increase the rate of decay, small quantity of fertilizer (if composting material is deficient in particular plant nutrients) and soil (to


assure the presence of the composting microbes) may be added. Water is essential for all enzymatic processes, so compost must be kept moist (50-70% water) to get required decomposition. Avoid adding excess water because it can produce anaerobic condition and also may leach out soluble nutrients.

3. By just 10% improvement in fertilizer use efficiency, 1.48 billion rupees can be saved. Soil test based application of fertilizer helps avoid the application where response to fertilizer are not expected. Existing N: P ratio for major crops is too wide. To improve the efficiency, it needs to be narrowed down to 1:1. Deficient micronutrients should also be applied for the efficient use ofmajor nutrients. Nitrogen sources are to known to affect their efficient use. The rate of fertilizer application should depend upon the response of the crop variety to fertilizer. For high fertilizer responsive varieties comparatively high fertilizer doses be applied compared to low fertilizer responsive varieties. Inorganic fertilizers have contributed tremendously to the encouraging expansion in cotton output and other commodities (Khan and Ali, 1976; Choudhry, 1976).

4. All P, K and 1/3 N should be applied to sowing by band placement. Remaining 1/3 N with first irrigation and 1/3 N at pre-flowering stage. If phosphate missed at sowing, it should be top dressed along the lines before first irrigation, In case, the crop is fully fertilized with P and soil test value is above 10ppm, P application to cotton can be reduced. K and micronutrients (boron) should be applied on the basis of soil test. B is important for cotton crop, but one has to be careful because the difference between deficiency and toxicity is very narrow.

5. Most of our varieties are not responsive to high doses of fertilizer. Nature of parent material, soil texture, amount of all organic matter and type of crops all determine the choice of suitable fertilizer. These considerations are generally ignored while making such decision. Some clay fixes up (hold) fertilizers so strongly that these are not available to crop roots. Growth stage of farm crops,nature of parent material, soil texture, amount of organic matter and associated microbes, frequency and intensity of irrigation/ rainfall etc. all determine the proper timing and dosage of fertilizer. These considerations are generally neglected while making such decisions resulting in reduced efficiency of fertilizer rate of percolation, delta of irrigation water, depth of crop roots,season of the year all determine form of fertilizer and depth of placement that result in most efficient response. Unfortunately, little consideration is given to these factors. The distribution system is full of snags and gives rise to numerous problems a critical season every year. As a consequence of these above cited problems, the farmers are simply to procure required quantities of fertilizers in time. The uptake of super phosphates is increased if it is mixed with farmyard manure (Sharif,1976). Application of farmyard manure @ 5mertic ton /ha through fermentation with irrigation gave up to12% more seed cotton (PCCC, 2003).

6. The use of moisture (rainfall) is of great consideration of efficient setting of rotation in barani conditions. The rabi crops mature with the lesser amount of rainfall as compared to the kharifcrops. Leaving the soil fallow during kharif season, much of the precipitation (rainfall) received will be conserved and utilized by the rabi season crop. In barani areas, success of rotation dependson the control of weeds, proper conservation of soil moisture and its economic utilization.

7. When cotton growth is not brought to a standstill as a result of climatic conditions it will continueto grow from one season to another, making it very difficult to decide when to stop irrigation in order to maximize yield. A number of models have been developed to assist farmers in this deci

25

sion. Nationalistic considerations are the reason that some of these models are not available outside the country, where they were developed (Cotman-USA; Ozcot Australia), but the Gossym/Comax model is widely available and has proven after calibration to provide good guidelines for irrigation timing.

8. Current practice is to supply the crop with the maximum available water, which results in losses from runoff and deep percolation. As the resistance of cotton against water stress changes during different development stages of the crop, it could be exposed to water stress in periods when this will have little impact on yield. Water stress during early development seems to have little impact on final yield for instance and will also promote root growth resulting in a larger volume of rooted soil, which increases irrigation efficiency.

Saline sodic soil

Salinity and water-logging are the major constraints of irrigated agriculture in Pakistan. Salt affectedlands in Pakistan are estimated as about 6.8m ha (Khan, 1998), while water-logging on temporary orpermanent basis has affected an area of 6.17m ha (Rafiq, 1990). Salinity and water-logging (water tablewithin 2meters) co-exist in an area of 1.013m ha (Rafiq, 1975). The problem of water-logging, soilsalinity and sodicity in most of the irrigated area in this country is caused by the continuous seepage andpercolation from irrigation and lack of adequate drainage system. Massive efforts have been under manySalinity Control and Reclamation Projects (SCARPs) to overcome the problem of water-logging and salin-ity. But there is a general consequence that these problems are not yet completely tackled even in thecompleted SCARPs (Yaseen et al., 1997).

The characteristics of salt-affected soils differ widely and it is unscientific to generalize procedures fortheir reclamation. To bring the salt-affected soils under cultivation, the crop scientists are adopting theconcept of "adoption and selection of plant cultivars according to soil environment" through screeningof plant cultivars to be cultivated in salt-affected soils (Abdullah and Qureshi, 1990).

Some soils of Multan are salt affected having moderate to severe degree of salinity and sodicity that maybe used for general cropping after reclamation (Farooq and Syed, 1994). Seed be placed 7.5cm down onone side of ridge for sowing of cotton in salt affected soils. These provide good drainage condition andminimize the toxic effect of salts during germination of seed. Yahia et al., (1975) concluded that H2SO4was more effective than gypsum, especially for soil having higher ESP value. But Haq (1966) reportedcomparable results in respect of reduction in pH, ECe and ESP with H2SO4 and gypsum treatments.

Sulphuric acid dissolved CaCO3, which in turn enhanced water penetration.

Organic matter

Source of soil organic matter is top and roots of plants. Animals are considered to be second source ofthem. Composition of organic matter is of C, H, O, and water. Different constituents of organic residuesdecompose at different times with help of microorganisms. It increase available water content in sandysoils and increase both air and water flow rates through fine textured soils. When left on the top of the


soil they act as a mulch thus reducing erosion, shades the soil (which prevents the loss of moisture) andkeeps the soil cooler in hot weather and warmer in winter. Mulch tillage is a management techniquethat uses organic matter as mulch. It reduces the crystallization and hardening of the plinthite (laterite)layer of soils in the humid tropics that are rich in soluble iron and aluminum (Nasir et al., 1994, Nasirand Qureshi, 1999a).

One of the prevailing assumptions regarding K deficiency in cotton is that fast-fruiting, earlier maturinggenotypes are susceptible to K deficiency than the more full-season genotypes (Tupper et al., 1997).Compaction of re-productive growth into a shorter time frame with high yielding, early maturing geno-types intensify the K demand and need during this period. This assumption persists even through onestudy found no differences in the response to K among cotton genotypes of varying maturities (Pettigrew

et al., 1996).

Agronomic Practices and Farm Layout

Tillage Practices

Tillage operations are mainly affected by soil texture and type of clay. At present, seedbed preparation isdone by tilling the soil to a depth of about 8cm, whether by bullock-drawn local cultivator (munnah) orby tractor operated tin cultivator. This practice is suitable for loamy and sandy loam soils. For clay soils,however, we need special tillage implements like the disc harrow, clod breaker etc. It is through the fieldexperiment that suitable tillage operations can be evolved for proper seedbed preparation in clayey soils.Sour tillage operation just till to a depth of 8cm which resultantly form a "plough pan" thus hinderingthe movement of water and air as well as the growth of plant roots. Sowing on ridges in clayey soils and

on flat in loamy soils have proved useful.

Number of ploughs should be directly in correlation with the soil type. For hard soil, the number ofploughs may be from three to four times. The purpose should be to make the soil loosed-textured enoughto promote good growth of cotton plants. Soil leveling should be done with laser-leveling. The purposeshould be to keep the soil surface smooth and leveled on scientific basis. This will not only let the irriga-tion water to access uniformly to the whole crop but will also save the scarce source of irrigation waterby taking less time to irrigate (BMP Manual, 2000).

CCoonnvveennttiioonnaall ttiillllaaggee is a system which attempts to cover most of the residue, leaving less than 30% ofthe soil surface covered with residue (or crop remains) after planting. Usually, the moldboard plow isused along with a variety of other tillage tools. Effect of Tillage is significant (Anwar et al., 2002a).

MMuullcchh ttiillllaaggee is a system where soil is disturbed between harvesting one crop and planting the next.However, in this case, more than 30% of the soil surface is left covered with residue after planting. Chiselplows, offset discs or modified moldboard plows are the common implements. Other terms that we mayhear to describe this system are reduced tillage, minimum till or conservation tillage.

27

NNoo-ttiillll is a system where the soil is not disturbed between harvesting one crop and planting the next.Some tillage may be done by attachments to planting equipment to assist seed and fertilizer placement.

RRiiddggee ttiillllaaggee is a specific form of no-till where crops are planted on pre-formed ridges. Inter-row culti-vation is done after the crop has emerged in order to control weeds and re-form the ridges.

Better Management Practices for Tillage and Equipment

Read the instruction manual for relevant equipment. Learn how to set it and operate it properly. Properly maintain equipment. Check machinery regularly (daily or even twice a day when in use). Catching a problem in its early stages saves money and time. Early detection may prevent the small problem from developing into a large one. Operate the machine at the suggested speed and load. This gives peak performance and longer life. Replace parts when they are worn. Worn parts will not perform properly and will increase thehorsepower requirement. Tillage equipment operates best when it is leveled in all directions. Level it front to back and sideto side. Check that all depth gauge wheels operate at the same depth. These adjustments create even tillage. Combine operations on each field pass to reduce the number of trips over the field. Use only the implements necessary to create an ideal seedbed. Soil conditions and results will help decide which combination of equipment is best. Once a good seedbed is created stop tilling. Work the soil across the slope to eliminate erosion and prepare an adequate seedbed


Keeping in the view the advantages and disadvantages of different tillage systems, its upto the farmerwhich system to be adopted as Better Management Practices.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Tillage Systems

Advantages Disadvantages

Conventional Tillage

• Familiar to most farmers and machinery widely available.

• Incorporates manure without specialized equipment.

• Soil warms faster in the spring than with less tillage.

• Allows maximum frost action on soil. This breaks the soil into smaller clumps.

• Low levels of surface residue permit high levels of water evaporation. This allows earlier planting and is a plus for poorly-drained soils.

• More equipment is needed than in reduced tillage systems.

• Low residue levels make soil vulnerable to crusting and erosion by wind and water.

• Tillage stimulates weed growth and reduces levels of organic matter.

• Working wet soil may cause compaction and the development of plow pans.

• During the growing season, high evaporation resulting from lack of residue can reduce crop yields.

Mulch Tillage • Most of the same advantages as conventional tillage.

• Residue left on soil surface reduces erosion and water run-off.

• Labour inputs are lower than in conventional tillage.

• Fewer trips over the field reduce costs.

• Management skill levels required similar to conventional tillage.

• Tillage stimulates weed growth.

• High residue levels can slow soil warm-up in the spring.

• Primary tillage will not be effective under wet conditions.

• High residue levels require attachments on the planter.

No-TTill/Ridge Tillage

• Lower input and capital expenses.

• Labour inputs per acre are greatly reduced.

• More organic matter is located near the surface, which improves soil structure.

• High levels of residue drastically reduce soil erosion.

• Increased biological activity in soil, which improves structure and increases the speed of pesticide breakdown.

• High residue levels can slow soil warm-up.

• Success depends on the characteristics of the soil.

• Fewer options are available to work in manure.

• Above-average management skills are required.

Planting time and varieties

The best time of sowing of American cotton is middle of May to middle June in Punjab (Dastur, 1944a,b) but some say it to be middle April (Sana Ullah et al., 1976). Early sowing is conducive to high yield(Khan (1960). Rajaraman and Afzal (1943); Tempany (1926) and (Gill et al., 2001) found that opti-mum sowing time is the most decisive factor in obtaining better yield. Sowing dates are important forinsect attack. Cultural practices are important (Makhdum et al., 2001, 2001b); Malik, 2006) and effectthe productivity (Makhdum et al., 2001). Effects of thiazum are studied by Malik et al., 2002). Mutationbreeding in cotton is not substitute for conventional breeding (Khan et al., 1976a, Shuaib et al., 1976).It has been established fact that for development of a new variety, 8 to 10 years are required normally(Mithaiwala, 1976) but evaluation process is a continuous one (Anwar et al., 2002b). Recommendedvarieties of cotton are CIM, CIM-506, CIM499, CIM-433.BH-160, CIM-466, NIAB-111, CIM-707,NIAB-999, FH-1000, and FH-901. Plant breeders have not been able to keep pace with changingrequirements of cotton export trade as well as domestic mills (Rashid, 1976).

American Cotton is generally grown in southern part of Punjab and sown in April-May. It start flower-ing in August and the boll continues to open from October to November. Leaves are broad and less hairy.They are heavily attacked by Jassids and whitefly and in certain years, by cotton Thrips, Aphids, and Leafrollers. It is generally believed that heavily manure field of cotton are more severely attacked by Jassids,whereas whitefly is more serious where climate is comparatively dry. In these areas, in general the boll-worm causes heavy damage and of the 40% of the flowers and fruits, which drop off, 25%, are shedbecause of the attack of bollworms. In the Punjab, the pink bollworm is predominant and cause heavydamage each year.

The Desi cotton varieties are short lined and are grown in the sub-mountain and high rainfall areas.They are sown during April-May and start flowering in the end of July. Their bolls continue to open fromSeptember to November and cotton has to be picked quite frequently. Their leaves are comparatively nar-row, more hairy and are less infested by Jassid and whitefly. In areas where it is grown, the bollwormpopulation is also very lower and, therefore, the plants escape the attack.

A thick uniform stand is critical to force cotton into a compact plant with few branches. Cotton plantedin 40cm rows with 10 plants per meter in the row has resulted in plant types that harvest well with astripper harvester. An early dense canopy will help greatly in reducing weed competition (de Nooy,2003).


Irrigation PracticesIIrrrriiggaattiioonn

Irrigation is the practice of applying water to the soil to supplement the natural rainfall and providemoisture for plant growth (Wiesner, 1970). Whatever system we have, we must think appropriately andour management and operations will change as we review what return we are making on every millime-ter of water we have - whether it be rain or pumped. The average yield per acre is much lower than thecountries having irrigation facilities.

FFaaccttoorrss ttoo bbee ccoonnssiiddeerreedd wwhheenn sseelleeccttiinngg iirrrriiggaattiioonn mmeetthhooddss

In normal years normal watering give more yield as compared to withholding of the first watering (Gill,1960a, b, c). Zahid (1972) found that a high yield of cotton could be obtained with no irrigation afterplanting while only one irrigation at flowering was needed to obtain maximum yield. Total of 5 irriga-tions are enough (Gill, 1960 a, b, c). Soil moisture is important (Haagan, et al., 1959). Water require-ment of cotton is considerably reduced on a high water table soil (Khan, 1970). Variation in fiber lengthdepends on the amount of water the plant had. Longest lint is produced by bolls which at the time ofirrigation are very young and can take full advantage of moisture (Bell, 1915).Water use efficiency washigher under 14 day's interval as compared to 7 and 21 days (Soomro et al., 1999).

Application of first irrigation after 30 days of sowing produced significantly higher yields. (Mari et al.,2000) and other options have been discussed by (Chaudhry et al., 1988, Khan and Siddique, 1978).Broadly speaking, there are two irrigation development solutions: when irrigation is introduced to alocality for the first time; and when existing irrigated agriculture is altered or improved. Whatever thesituation, before any attempt at irrigation development, the following considerations should be made:

1. Would proposed expenditure on irrigation be better spent on schools, roads, health care, and rainfed farming improvement or something else?

2. Is irrigation the most economical and appropriate way of producing/increasing crops compared with say the issue of fertilizers, alternative cultivation practices, better seeds for improved crop storage?

3. Will domestic terms of trade give enough incentive to irrigators to help development efforts work? Is security of tenure inadequate?

4. Are there existing irrigation schemes in need of improvement, or is it better to start new ones?5. Are the innovations proposed within the grasp of the participants? For example, the Helmand Valley

Project, Ethiopia, encounters difficulties because planners overestimated the capacity of semi-nomadic people to adopt sedentary, irrigated farming (White 1962; Van Raay 1975).

6. Is the technical design adequate for supply, application and disposal of water?7. To issue the suitability of the technical design, it is necessary to consider:

(a) SSooiill ffaaccttoorrss- these include the structure, texture, depth, infiltration rate, internal drainage rate,aeration, moisture-retention characteristics, level of salinity, presence of toxic substances, plant pests diseases, fertility, risk of laterite formation.(b) TTooppooggrraapphhiicc ffaaccttoorrss- the degree of slope, size and shape of existing field (if any)(c) CClliimmaattee ffaaccttoorrss- temperature, solar radiation, wind exposure, air humidity, length of the growing season, variation of day length.(d) PPllaanntt ffaaccttoorrss- crops to be grown (their rooting characteristics, draught and salinity tolerance,

31

length of growing season, rotation system, method of cultivation (close planting or row crops?)

Furrow irrigation systems

Furrow irrigation involves the release of water along furrows, typically 25 to 30cm wide and 15 to 20cm deep, to wet ridge separating them. The method is best suited to deep, moderately permeable, fine-textured soil and uniform, gentle slopes. If the slope is more than 2%, instead of arranging the furrowsup and down slope, they must be orientated almost along the contour with just sufficient fall to main-tain controllable flow. This means it is possible to use the method on slopes as steep as 14% although thisis rare ( Johi, 1980). Important considerations are as following:

Adequate management and maintenance of all components between the head ditch and the tail drainis important for furrow irrigation systems.Improving furrow irrigation performance involves careful management of flow rates and irrigation

duration and appropriate timing (scheduling) of irrigation events.The relationship between head and flow determines the amount of water applied to a field. Flow through siphons and culverts increases as head increases and decreases as head decreases, hence variations in head cause variations in volume of water applied.Optimal furrow irrigation performance requires understanding of application efficiency and distribution uniformity and the methods for improving both.

DDrriipp iirrrriiggaattiioonn ssyysstteemmss - The inclusion of this section and the following one on centre pivot and lateralmove irrigation systems is an indication that best practice row crop irrigation does indeed include dripand spray irrigation systems as an alternative to surface irrigation.

A system designed by a row crop engineer who is experienced, preferably in cotton, is critical to achieve the potential water savings and flexibility in crop management that drip irrigation can offerA well-planned maintenance program is essential to maintain proper system operation.It is important to monitor and control the quality of water used with the drip system, which determines the frequency of flushing require.


Source: Texas Agric. University

Drip allows accurate application of water and fertilizer to suit crops; requirements and flexibility infield operations, but the management requirement is higher than conventional surface systems.

Sprinkler irrigation

In cotton, this is carried out through mobile systems. Water is generally released above the canopy andlosses occur through wind drift and interception by the crop. Low Energy Precision Application (LEPA),where water is released under the canopy by lowering the sprinkler outlets, will prevent these losses. Incombination with tied ridges, where irrigation water is contained in sections of the furrow this is one ofthe most efficient irrigation systems.

As it is a highly mechanized irrigation method, requiring heavy investments, it is not a suitable systemfor small farmers.

33

Source Raine 2000

Source Foley 2001

Centre pivot and lateral move irrigation systems

Ensure the system capacity of centre pivots and lateral moves (CP&LMs) is large enough when managed correctly, to keep up with peak crop water requirements.Using larger diameter pipe spans cost more, but lifetime running costs are dramatically reducedAll CP&LMs will operate with sprinklers to germinate cotton crops, including those machines that operate LEPA irrigation throughout the main growing season. Sprinkler packages represent a small part of the overall performance of the machine more than any other aspect. New systems have problems with wheel tracks and wheel ruts, but these become less as leveled landcompacts. Simple equipment alterations can help: reducing nozzle flow rates around towers; relocating LEPA outlets and sprinklers to keep wheel tracks dry; and reducing tower water interception

from sprinklers. Consider larger tyres, or using third or fourth incline wheels and gearboxes on electrically powered towers.Support and assist local manufacturers who are prepared to resize jigs and build 48 meter spans forguidance systems, popular in the Australian cotton industry. Guidance systems can now operate in circles for centre pivots, and swath widths can be adjusted under spans that are not 48 meters.Ensure that all water drains from span pipes, so that pipe insides remain dusty dry between irrigation. Test irrigation water quality before you buy a system, to ensure compatibility of irrigation waters and pipe coatings.Continue irrigation long enough after fertigation has finished to ensure machine is fully flushed.

In Pakistan, WWF currently carries out a research project on water savings in irrigated cotton compar-ing three systems, ridge and alternate furrow closed, bed and furrow irrigation and the traditional floodirrigation. Already in the first year, water savings of up to 47% were observed when using the first twoirrigation systems instead of the flood irrigation methods managed by the local farmers, while at thesame time cotton yields increased (WWF Pakistan, 2001).


Source: Foley 2001

MMaannaaggiinngg ssooiillss ffoorr iirrrriiggaatteedd ccoottttoonn pprroodduuccttiioonn

Farm management affects soil structure, which in turn affects plant available water. Good soil structure is essential in maximizing water use efficiency Soil pit observations, chemical testing and visual inspection will help soil management decisions. Irrigation system construction efficiency will be influenced by soil type.

AAppppllyyiinngg wwaatteerr-rruunn ffeerrttiilliizzeerr

Water-run urea is an effective means of applying N to cotton up to boll filling. Use urea, not anhydrous ammonia, to reduce N loss. Other mineral fertilizers are not well suited to application in irrigation water.

AAsssseessssiinngg aanndd mmaannaaggiinngg iirrrriiggaattiioonn ssaalliinniittyy:: iinncclluuddiinngg EEMM ssuurrvveeyyiinngg

Irrigation salinity is a significant but often hidden issue. Especially in the case of salinity, preventionis much better than cure.Irrigators need to understand the relationship between irrigation and the causes of irrigation salinity.Measure soil and water salinity levels on a regular basis to observe trends and identify problems.Irrigation salinity can be managed and quite often reversed.While cotton is quite tolerant of saline conditions, steps should be taken to minimize saline impactson other crops and the landscape in general.Effective Micro-organism (EM) surveys need to be groundtruthed with soil tests.

Efficient irrigation

AAsssseessssiinngg wwhhoollee ffaarrmm uussee eeffffiicciieennccyy

Water use efficiency describes a relationship between system inputs and outputs. Relating production outputs (such as $ or bales) to water input (Ml) results in a water use index

35

Figure. 1. Crop water use efficiency for different irrigation systems

Source: Foley 2001

(WUI). Relating water output (Ml) to water input (Ml) results in a dimensionless (%) irrigation system efficiency.

WWaatteerr bbaallaannccee aanndd ddeeeepp ddrraaiinnaaggee uunnddeerr iirrrriiggaatteedd ccoottttoonn

Deep drainage below the root zone causes rising water tables and salinity and can be significant evenin heavy clays.Drainage occurs when more rain or irrigation is added to the soil than there is empty storage capacity to hold it.Drainage risk can be reduced by maintaining sufficient empty storage (soil water deficit) as a buffer.

DDeevveellooppiinngg aa ssuurrffaaccee iirrrriiggaattiioonn ssyysstteemm

Surface irrigation systems supply water to crops at ground surface level. At present, surface irrigationmethods are the most widespread means of applying water to the land in developing countries.Wherever there is a tradition of irrigation it is almost certainly some from of surface irrigation, com-monly basin or furrow. A tradition of irrigation may not always aid agricultural improvement - wherethere is a strong tradition of basin or furrow irrigation farmers can something be so set in their waysthat they resist the introduction of new cultivation techniques or innovations in water application.

Uniform water distribution is important if uneven crop yields and/or localized water logging/salt accu-mulation are to be avoided. To obtain uniform application with surface irrigation methods it is impor-tant that the basin, field or planting plot be carefully leveled. New techniques, for example laser-level-ing, have already begun to reduce costs and make this easier, even using unskilled manpower. A prob-lem with some surface irrigation methods is that channels and banks hinder mechanization and the lay-out row crops but not field crops (i.e. those broadcast, not planting in rows) the range of crops that canbe grown is restricted and rotation of crops my be difficult (Barrow, 1987). For better results we shouldpractices following:

Selecting an irrigation system. Upgrading a surface irrigation system. Soil types for storages and channels. The "perfect" layout for an irrigation system.

SSttoorraaggee aanndd ddiissttrriibbuuttiioonn eeffffiicciieennccyy

AAsssseessssiinngg tthhee eeffffiicciieennccyy ooff ssttoorraaggeess,, cchhaannnneellss aanndd rreettiiccuullaattiioonn ssyysstteemmss

Don't assume that evaporation and seepage are the greatest losses from your storages, channels andreticulation system.Take measurements to find out what your greatest loss is.Determine if these losses are a problem by carrying out an economic assessment of the benefit thatcould arise from addressing these losses.

MMaannaaggiinngg eevvaappoorraattiioonn aanndd sseeeeppaaggee iinn ssttoorraaggeess aanndd cchhaannnneellss


Modifying the effect that wind speed and surface area have on evaporation losses from storages andchannelsSeepage issues are most commonly caused by unplanned or poor construction, use of suitable soil type, poor soil compaction and poor maintenance.Prevention is better than cure! Maintain and monitor storages and channels to save expense and losses in the long term.To choose how or whether to mitigate evaporative or seepage losses, balance the cost of the repairsagainst the short or long term benefit, and the value given to the water being lost and the crop beingproduced.

MMeetteerriinngg iirrrriiggaattiioonn wwaatteerr

Water meters can be used to establish pump efficiencies and benchmark irrigation system performance.Correct installation of a water meter is as important as the choice of water meter.There are three main types of water flow meters - electromagnetic, ultrasonic and propeller actuated.In comparing water meters, irrigators should consider their accuracy, repeatability, ability to handletrash and irrigation water, the effect of wear on their performance and cost.

AAsssseessssiinngg ffiieelldd-ssccaallee wwaatteerr eeffffiicciieennccyy

Relative small design or management changes at a field level can greatly increase the water use efficiency of a farming system. Measuring water use at a field level is an extremely useful management tool. There are techniques available that either irrigators or irrigation consultants can use.Water use efficiency at a field level is affected by the volume, uniformity and timing of irrigations and rainfall as well as crop performance.Measurement of water volumes can be undertaken by monitoring bulk flows onto a field (any irrigation system) or by monitoring individual furrows and extrapolating data across the field (furrowsystems).Accurate measurement of soil moisture is important in determining accurate water use efficiencies.Commercial services can provide detailed measurements of water use and modeling to assess and optimize irrigation performance of individual fields.

IIrrrriiggaattiioonn sscchheedduulliinngg ooff ccoottttoonn

Irrigation scheduling improves water use efficiency, reduces water-logging, quantifies the effectiveness of rain and allows better management of soil structure problems.A decline in the crop daily water use indicates the crop needs irrigating. Regular and careful monitoring is needed to detect this decline in crop water use.Extending the irrigation interval once regular irrigation has started without monitoring soil water levels can result in yield loss. Don't stress the crop during peak flowering and boll filling.Every cotton field is different. Soil structure and management have a dramatic impact on soil wateravailability and the irrigation interval. Do not assume the deficit or readily available water capacityis the same for neighboring fields.Look after the cotton plants near your soil moisture device. If the data seems suspect, check the meas

37

uring site. UUssiinngg aauuttoommaattiicc wweeaatthheerr ssttaattiioonnss

Automatic weather stations (AWS) provide site-specific atmospheric information that irrigators canuse to assist irrigation scheduling decisions.There are a range of factors to consider when purchasing and AWS: sensor availability, accuracy,robustness, method of calculating Et o, maintenance issues and availability of technical support.The setting of the AWS is critical to the accuracy of climatic data recorded.Regular and proper maintenance of the AWS is necessary to obtain accurate data.

IIrrrriiggaattiioonn mmaannaaggeemmeenntt ooff ccoottttoonn

CCoottttoonn ggrroowwtthh rreessppoonnsseess ttoo wwaatteerr ssttrreessss

Cotton plant responses to water stress vary depending on the stage of growth at which the stress occurs, the degree of stress, and the length of time the stress is imposed.The plant aims to establish a balance between carbohydrate supply and demand. Water stress at anystage of growth will affect both the production and distribution of carbohydrates throughout the plant. Carbohydrate demands on the plant, primarily made by developing bolls, restrict excessive vegetative growth.Through adaptation, the cotton plant survives during periods of water stress by prioritizing the maintenance of different physiological processes to ensure the production of viable seed and therefore cotton fiber. The impact of water stress on final yield depends on the degree to which each physiological process is affected.

MMaannaaggiinngg iirrrriiggaatteedd ccoottttoonn aaggrroonnoommyy

Crop rotation, mepiquat chloride and nitrogen rate can affect the irrigation requirements and scheduling during the season.Several tools exist to help growers manage their farm and irrigation water.Climatic risk and rainfall probabilities can be determined for any location in the Australian cotton industry.

WWaatteerr-llooggggiinngg:: iittss iimmppaacctt oonn ccoottttoonn

Water logging soils reduce the access of the roots to oxygen, impairing root growth and function andultimately nutrient uptake. Toxic gases in the waterlogged soil can also increase.Water logging reduces cotton yields by reducing the number of bolls on the plant.The risk of water logging can be reduced by optimizing field design, bed formation and irrigation scheduling. The application of some foliar fertilizers may also assist in fields known to waterlog.

MMaannaaggiinngg iirrrriiggaattiioonn wwiitthh lliimmiitteedd wwaatteerr

Do not risk low crop yields by spreading water too thin. A positive gross margin on a smaller area of crop is better than a negative one on a large area! Consciously decide how much risk you are prepared to accept. Calculate the area you are able to fully irrigate with the supply available. Select "high priority" fields


on an efficient supply and good yield history. Choose a cultivar suited to your production region. Avoid excessive nitrogen, which encourages rankvegetation growth and wastes irrigation water.Reduced fiber length is the main quality concern with limited water. Varieties with inherently longfiber buffer the risk of penalties.Maintain your normal irrigation strategy and only increase the irrigation interval in extreme cases.Delay the first irrigation interval in extreme cases. Delay the first irrigation rather than stress the crop during flowering.Approach defoliation as normal, deciding on the last harvestable boll, and monitor plant maturity todetermine the defoliation date.

TToo pprreevveenntt sshhoorrttaaggee ooff wwaatteerr,, iitt iiss iimmppeerraattiivvee ttoo ttaakkee aallll ppoossssiibbllee mmeeaassuurreess aaggaaiinnsstt ddeeggrraaddiinngg wwaatteerrrreessoouurrcceess.. TThheerree iiss aa nneeeedd ttoo iimmpprroovvee wwaatteerr rroottaattiioonn pprrooggrraammmmee ttoo eennssuurree tthhaatt ccrrooppss ggeett iirrrriiggaattiioonn aatttthhee rriigghhtt ttiimmee.. IItt hhaappppeennss tthhaatt tthheerree iiss eexxcceessssiivvee aavvaaiillaabbiilliittyy ooff iirrrriiggaattiioonn wwaatteerr wwhheenn ccrroopp ddooeess nnoott nneeeeddiitt aanndd tthhee rreessuulltt iiss lloossss ooff wwaatteerr.. GGrroowweerrss aarree ssuuggggeesstteedd ttoo iirrrriiggaattee ccrroopp ooppttiimmaallllyy bbeeccaauussee oovveerr aanndduunnddeerr-iirrrriiggaattiioonn iiss ddeettrriimmeennttaall ffoorr ccrroopp ggrroowwtthh aanndd ddeevveellooppmmeenntt.. TToo ccooppee wwiitthh wwaatteerr sshhoorrttaaggee,, ccoomm-pplleettee rreeoorrggaanniizzaattiioonn ooff wwaatteerr sseeccttoorr iinnssttiittuuttiioonnss tthhrroouugghh mmeerrggeerrss,, eeccoonnoommiicc uuttiilliizzaattiioonn ooff wwaatteerrrreessoouurrcceess ooff tthhee ccoouunnttrryy,, pprrooccuurreemmeenntt ooff aaddddiittiioonnaall ssttoorraaggee ffoorr ccrroopp rroouunndd tthhee yyeeaarr,, bbuuiillddiinngg ssttoorraaggee ttoooovveerrccoommee ddrroouugghhttss aanndd ttoo ddeevveelloopp ccoommpprreehheennssiivvee wwaatteerr aanndd hhyyddrroo rreessoouurrcceess ppoolliiccyy aarree nneecceessssaarryy((HHaassssaann,, 22000066))..

SSppeecciiaall mmaannaaggeemmeenntt pprraaccttiicceess aarree rreeqquuiirreedd ffoorr ssooiillss hhaavviinngg ssaalliinnee- ssooddiicc ppaattcchheess.. TThhuuss wwhheenn wwaatteerr iissaapppplliieedd iitt ggooeess ttoowwaarrddss tthhee nnoonn-ssaalliinnee ppaarrtt ooff tthhee ffiieelldd.. IItt iiss ppoossttuullaatteedd tthhaatt iiff aa bbuunndd iiss bbuuiilltt aarroouunndd eeaacchhssaalliinnee ppaattcchh aanndd wwaatteerr iiss lleett iinnttoo tthhrroouugghh aann ooppeenniinngg iinn tthhee bbuunndd aanndd tthhee ooppeenniinngg iiss cclloosseedd iimmmmeeddiiaattee-llyy aafftteerr aapppplliiccaattiioonn,, iitt wwiillll hheellpp rreeccllaaiimm tthhee ssaalliinnee ppaattcchheess.. IIff tthhee ccrroopp lliikkee ccoottttoonn iiss nnoott wweellll ggrroowwnn tthhaannootthheerr ccrrooppss lliikkee bbaarrlleeyy,, wwhheeaatt,, rriiccee aanndd ssuuggaarrccaannee sshhoouulldd bbee ppllaanntteedd wwiitthhoouutt wwaaiittiinngg ffoorr aaddddiittiioonnaallttrreeaattmmeenntt..

TThhee mmaaiinntteennaannccee ooff ccrroopp rreessiidduueess oonn oorr nneeaarr tthhee ssooiill rreedduucceess tthhee eevvaappoorraattiioonn aanndd ccoonnssttiittuutteess aanndd eesssseenn-ttiiaall pphhaassee ooff wwaatteerr mmaannaaggeemmeenntt iinn ppootteennttiiaallllyy wwiinn eerrooddaabbllee aarraabbllee llaannddss aanndd ssuucchh mmaaiinntteennaannccee iiss tthheeggrreeaatteesstt ssiinnggllee ffaaccttoorrss iinn eerroossiioonn ccoonnttrrooll mmeeaassuurree.. TThhee nnaattuurraall ssoouurrcceess ooff mmuullcchh aarree aaggrriiccuullttuurraall bbyypprroodd-uuccttss lliikkee ssttrraaww,, ssttuubbbblleess,, ttrreeee lleeaavveess aanndd mmaannuurreess.. IInnoorrggaanniicc aanndd ppllaassttiicc mmuullcchheess hhaavvee aallssoo pprroovveedd eeffffeecc-ttiivvee.. TThheessee mmuullcchheess mmaatteerriiaall wwhheenn ssccaatttteerreedd oonn ssooiill ssuurrffaaccee,, eerreeccttiilliittyy ooff wwiinndd rreedduucceedd..

Cotton crop resistance against water stress changes during the growing period, in its initial vegetativestage cotton is quite hardy and can resist a reasonable level of water stress without affecting yields.During flowering and boll formation, however, water stress will immediately lead to yield reduction.Cotton will continue to produce bolls throughout the season as it is in principle not an annual crop. Bollsthat are formed at the end of the cultivation period will not contribute to the yield as lint will not haveenough time to develop in these bolls. The decision on when to stop irrigation in order to maximize yieldsvis-à-vis water is difficult to make and has been subject of a number of studies. In mechanized harvest-ing stopping irrigation will also help in shedding the leaves, which get in the way at harvest time (deNooy, 2003).

IIrrrriiggaattiioonn aanndd ccoottttoonn ddiisseeaassee iinntteerraaccttiioonnss

Irrigation practices have contributed significantly to the Fusarium wilt, black root rot and

39

Verticillium wilt problems of the Australian cotton industry. Irrigation practices can and should be modified to reduce the rate of increase of plant disease problems.

Cotton Seed Health and GM Cotton

Cotton seed and improved variety

Ellis (1993) outlined the social and economic impact of improved varieties in countries where they havebeen widely grown, and it is commonly observed that the dissemination of improved seed and comple-mentary inputs has removed the shadow of famine from the lives of millions of poor farmers. Becauseimproved seed embodies the genetic potential of a plant, it determines the upper limits ( Jaffee andSrivastava, 1992). There is need to identify the measures to enhance the improved seed supply and tounleash genetic yield potential of various crop varieties to boost the production and to earn foreignexchange from main cash crop like cotton. There is also need to evolve high yielding crop varieties andensure their uninterrupted supply of seed to farming community. This would only be possible when pub-lic and private sector seed agencies join hands in undertaking systematic seed production and distribu-tion on scientific lines.

Good plant breeding research and availability of improved varieties are essential, but unless good qual-ity seed of these varieties is produced commercially and supplied to farmers, a country will not benefitfrom research. An efficient production and distribution system for seed is necessary. Some countries havenot been able to exploit domestic and international plant breeding efforts because a functional and effi-cient seed production system does not exist (Van Gastel et al., 1996). According to the project appraisalreport (World Bank, 1976), the use of improved seed alone can cause increase in yield by 10-20%.

The efforts to strengthen seed industry in Pakistan resulted in declaration of seed business as an indus-try in 1994 and a National Seed Policy was announced in 1996, which signified the collaboration rolesof various agencies and established necessary parameters for orderly growth of seed industry. After thesedevelopments, as many as 426 private seed companies have been allowed for seed multiplication, pro-duction and distribution in the country (up to June 2004). Out of these maximum seed companies areregistered in Punjab (377) particularly in cotton growing areas of the Punjab (Shah et al., 2005).

Seed quality is the sum of all attributes contributing to seed performance. It decides whether the farmer'scrop will be good, bad, or indifferent. It is determined by the genetic purity, physical purity, germinationpercentage, incidence of seed-borne diseases, density (weight/volume or number), vigor, moisture con-tent, storability characteristics.

BBMMPPss rreellaatteedd ttoo sseeeedd

Seed are treated with fungicides and /or insecticides or any other material or technique to disinfectthe seed and seedlings against seed and soil- borne diseases, organisms and insects in the fields. The treated seed should be labeled as disinfected or poison seed.


The purpose of seed storage is to preserve the planting stock from one year until the next year. FromHumidity, temperature, air (oxygen and CO2 content), direct sunlight, kind of seed, kind and number of fumigations, effect of seed treatment, attack by rodents, insects, and moulds. Normally 20-25lb of seed per acre is sufficient to get the optimum plant population of 15, 000 - 20, 000 plant peracre (Khan et al., 1976).

GGeenneettiiccaallllyy MMooddiiffiieedd CCoottttoonn

The production of Genetically Modified (GM) crops is currently concentrated in just a few countries,while more countries are still in the stage of experimenting. In 2001, 99% of GM crops were producedcommercially in only four countries, namely United States (68%), Argentina (22%), Canada (6%) andChina (3%). Cotton is one of the few commercially approved GM crops being grown worldwide, withapproximately 20% of global cotton produced using GM seed. About 34% of world's exports are of GMvarieties (BMP, 2004).The total area growing GM cotton in 2002 was 6.8 million hectares, significantly more than in 2001;this increased to 7.2 million hectares in 2003, or 21% of the 34 million hectares of cotton grown glob-ally according to ISAAA. By 2004, 7.8 million hectares of GM cotton were being grown by the three topgrowers USA, China and India (Table. 3). The figure for India's area of Bt Cotton grown in 2004 at 100,000 hectares, is given by Professor Runge in a report prepared for the Council on Biotech Information.But ISAAA estimates that in 2004, the area under Bt cotton increased by 400%, in spite of failing overthree seasons, to 500,000 hectares. What the Agrifood Awareness biotech bulletin failed to mention is that only the top three cotton produc-ing countries out of the top ten have commercial production of GM cotton, with the USA and Chinaaccounting for practically all of the GM cotton production in the world. And even by 2004, none of theother ten top cotton growers had any commercial adoption of GM varieties (Table3).

41

Table.3. Adoption of GM cotton production in the top ten cotton-growing countries in 2004

S.No. Country Thousand hectares

Thousand hectares GM

GM type Level of development

1 India 8,730 100 Bt Commercial

2 USA 5,596 4,900 Stacked, HT, Bt Commercial

3 China 4,824 2,800 Bt Commercial

4 Pakistan 3,125 - Bt Laboratory studies

5 Uzbekistan 1,453 - - -

6 Brazil 750 - Stacked, HT and Bt Field studies

7 Turkey 654 - - -

8 Turkmenistan 550 - - -

9 Mali 516 - - -

10 Benin 415 - - -

Source columns 4-6: F Runge. The global diffusion of plant biotechnology

TThhrreeaattss aanndd pprroommiisseess ooff GGMM CCoottttoonn

When we go through the literature, hardly any BMPs are developed and tested for GM cotton. Uptill now,most of the work is confined to experimentation. However, there may be threats and promises of GMcotton that need to be discussed.

It is essential that the negative impacts, if any, of products created by biotechnology are kept to a mini-mum, while the greatest benefits should be harnessed and equally shared by all. Biotechnology offers thepotential to reduce uncertainty in the world's future food supply, in the face of a growing population and the limited carrying capacity of the Earth.

The environmental safety concerns derived from GM products are difficult to address, since the effectsare not easily observed in the short term. Those who oppose this kind of biotechnology argue that GMspecies may crossbreed, cross-fertilize or pollinate with non-GM species. These hybrids may become thedominant species, thus changing the ecosystem. There are also concerns over the possibility of detrimen-tal effects on other species, such as damage to butterflies from Bt crops, and soil flora and fauna. It is alsofear that Bt crops may induce resistance in target pests.

To summarize: GM crops are a fact in modern agriculture, and are probably here to stay. Whether theyare accepted or not is a matter of public reception and opinions, which politicians must take intoaccount. Finally, while there are critics of GM crops, there are also supporters and perceived advantages. It transpires that the GM cotton failed to out-perform the indigenous variety in all but one of the 9 dis-tricts in Indonesia. Worse yet, the GM cotton by Monsanto succumbed to drought and the brown hop-per. Vivid photographs showed the browned-out GM cotton field next to the lush green field of indige-nous cotton, which is resistant to both drought and the brown hopper. www.i-sis.org.uk

"Konphalindo" had earlier halted the commercialization of Monsanto's GM cotton with the help of infor-mation provided by ISIS, which drew attention to a strongly worded advice against the approval ofMonsanto's GM cotton given by UK Government scientists. They warned of antibiotic resistance genesthat would make gonorrhoea untreatable (see "Monsanto's GM Cottons & Gonorrhoea", ISIS PressRelease).

TThhee ccaassee ooff GGMM CCoottttoonn iinn IInnddiiaa

India has barred Monsanto Company and its Indian partners from selling three varieties of geneticallymodified cotton in a southern Indian state. The Genetic Engineering Approval Committee, a federal reg-ulator, refused to renew licenses for the sale of three Monsanto BT cotton varieties in Andhra Pradeshstate, because they had been found ineffective in controlling pests there, said Suresh Chandra, the com-mittee chairman. Conflicting accounts of the success/failure of Bt cotton have been coming from India for several yearsnow. Monsanto claims that Bt cotton is great for Indian farmers, giving increased sales etc., but careful-ly conducted research shows the opposite to be the case: massive crop failures and uncontrollable pestinfestations were also reported (see "Broken promises", SiS 22). And while politicians, seeking to appearprogressive and patriotic, praised the 'advantages' of biotech, the farmers have resorted to, at times, vio-lent protest and suicide because of losses incurred through using the GM varieties.

The Indo-Asian News Service reported that agriculture ministry sources had claimed that the large-scale


plantation of GM cotton in 2004 had played a big role in helping India achieve a bumper crop. However,earlier that year, India's Financial Express reported that in spite of claims that India was a key GM cropcultivator, the actual area planted with GM cotton was miniscule compared with the total cotton grow-ing area: about 1%.

Monsanto commissioned a marketing organization to carry out a survey among Bt cotton growing farm-ers, with a single contact during the second season of GM adoption (the first had failed very badly leav-ing farmers in debt). In the same season, a detailed study carried out by Dr Abdul Qayoom, former jointDirector of Agriculture in Andhra Pradesh, and Sakkari Kiran, involving contacts with farmers every 15days, showed that Monsanto's Bt cotton had been out-performed again by non-GM cotton. Furthermore,the Monsanto-commissioned study had claimed for Bt cotton four times the actual reduction in pesticideuse, twelve times the actual yield, and 100 times the actual profit!

Commenting on a recent ISAAA report, PV Satheesh, convener of the Hyderabad based DeccanDevelopment Society said "Bt cotton failed to live up to expectations in the third consecutive year in dif-ferent parts of south India.

Nevertheless, the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry remarked that GM cropsoffer the potential for huge productive gains, and hold a lot of promise for Indian agriculture. Accordingto the ISAAA, India is categorized as a "mega-biotech country" with the highest percentage area increaseunder transgenic crops in the world; though only GM cotton is commercially grown. ISAAA claims thatBt cotton can reduce insecticide requirements by half, and make significantly greater savings for farm-ers. That is most unlikely, because farmers using Bt cotton seed are charged a 'technology fee' based onpredicted savings on pesticide application; and also because Bt crops do not necessarily reduce pesticideuse. Moreover, Bt cotton varieties are not always effective against local cotton pests, which can vary fromone area to the next.

GGMM CCoottttoonn iinn AAuussttrraalliiaa

In Australia, the biotech industry and farmers are funding a group called 'Agrifood Awareness' to thetune of $AUS 100 000, via a compulsory research and development levy, with the mandate of "guidingmeaningful opinions" in GMOs. Their biotech bulletin, "GM cotton adoption", which set the scene for the12th Australian cotton conference in August 2004, also gave a misleading impression of the extent ofadoption of GM cotton around the world.

Agrifood Awareness, like many official bodies and even governments, relies heavily on figures suppliedby ISAAA, though their figures on GM adoption are often highly inflated, and ISAAA is very vague abouthow these figures are generated (see "The GM bubble". SiS 22).

GM cotton adoption shows a trend towards the stacked gene varieties. In 1997, GM stacked gene cottonvarieties containing both the Bt and herbicide tolerant (HT) genes were grown for the first time in theUSA. According to the ISAAA, by 2001, the stacked gene variety accounted for 55% of all the global com-mercial cotton containing the Bt gene, compared with 45 % with the Bt gene alone.The US, China and Argentina are the most prolific adopters of GM cotton, having taken up 73%, 62%and 20 - 60% respectively of cotton production.

43

GGMM CCoottttoonn iinn PPaakkiissttaann

In May 2005 Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) provided 40,000.00 Kg basic seed of Bt cot-ton (insect resistant) varieties IR-FH-901, IR-NIBGE-2, IR-CIM-448 and IR-CIM-443 which have beengrown over 8,000 acres of land in season 2005-06. Its encouraging outcomes have surprised every onefrom seed companies to the farmers who cultivated these varieties. These early users of Bt cotton havebeen tightly screened and evaluated by PAEC on the bases of their capacity to follow Bio-safety rules. Bt cotton varieties yielded significantly more per acre as compare to non Bt cotton varieties - an average23-28 maund (1 Maund = 40 Kg) per acres versus 17-20 maund to traditional cotton varieties. Thistranslates into more than 30% increase in yield. It is noteworthy that in Bt cotton crops average numberof cotton bolls per plant are 120 while average Boll weight is app. 1.75 grams including seeds and num-ber of plants per acre are as recommended by the department of agriculture. The economical gain byusing Bt cotton per acre is more than Pak Rs. 3,000 at the market sale price of Rs. 1100/ Maund. InPakistan average cotton grower has 10 acres of land; increase in such small income per acre wouldimprove his quality of life. It is expected that cotton growers should have Bt seeds of the above varietiesfor at least 75,000 acres of land in year 2006-07.

Crop reviews carried out by various independent sources illustrate that unrecorded sowing of new Btcotton varieties also played its role in increasing cotton productivity, with unofficial estimates suggest-ing 3 to 5% of the area in Punjab and 10 to 15% of the area in Sindh may have been planted in trans-genic cotton.

Integrated Weed ManagementWWeeeeddss are plants, which are undesirable in a particular situation, and their removal is a relief fordesired crop plants. World record shows that weeds are responsible for 5.8% loss in cotton. Accordingto an estimate, annual losses caused by weeds may be "one billion rupees" in Pakistan. Thus weed is aplant growing out of its proper place (FAO, 73-77-78).

Interestingly, Integrated Weed Management (IWM) is also part of IPM and ICM. IWM makes use of acombination of different agronomic practices to manage weeds, so that the reliance on any one weedcontrol technique is reduced. Reducing the reliance on one or two specific weed control techniquesmeans that those techniques or tools will be effective for the future use. The objective of IWM is to main-tain weed densities at manageable levels while preventing shifts in weed populations to more difficult-to-control weeds. Losses caused by weeds will be minimized without reducing farm income.Controlling weeds with one or two techniques gives the weeds a chance to adapt to those practices. Forexample, the use of herbicides with the same mode of action (belonging to the same herbicide group)year after year has resulted in weeds that are resistant to those herbicides. The continuous production ofcertain types of crops also gives weeds a chance to adapt (downy brome has increased on fields wherewinter cereals are frequently grown).

Integrated weed management uses a variety of control techniques to keep weeds "off balance". Weedsare less able to adapt to a constantly changing system that uses many different control practices, unlikea program that relies on one or two weed control tools.


TTyyppeess ooff IInntteeggrraatteedd WWeeeedd MMaannaaggeemmeenntt PPrraaccttiicceess

There are three main types of agronomic practices that worldwide used to develop integrated weed man-agement program:

Practices that limit the introduction and spread of weeds - prevent weed problems before they start. Practices that help the crop compete with weeds - help "choke out" weeds. Practices that keep weeds "off balance" - make it difficult for weeds to adapt.

Combining a number of practices from each group will allow designing an integrated weed managementprogram for a farm. Fertilizer placement affects the crop's ability to compete with weeds. Placing the fertilizer where the crophas access to it, but the weeds do not, allows the crop to be more competitive with weeds. For example,after banding nitrogen fertilizer for four consecutive years, green foxtail densities were reduced by morethan 95% under zero-tillage conditions and that was before any in crop herbicide was applied! Similartrends were observed under conventional tillage conditions.

HHiigghh sseeeeddiinngg rates can help give the crop an edge on weeds. Extra plants allow the crop to shade weedsand make it more difficult for them to access nutrients and water. The additional competition may giveherbicide a boost and improve the job that it does.

NNaarrrrooww rrooww ssppaacciinngg 15-20cm (6 to 8 inches) also allows crop to be more competitive. There may be sit-uations where wide row spacings are necessary (residue clearance in zero tillage systems), and higherseeding rates may offset the effect of going to a wider row spacing.

SShhaallllooww sseeeeddiinngg 2.54cm or less (1 inch or less) and uunniiffoorrmm sseeeeddiinngg are important for fast crop emer-gence and good establishment, which allows the crop to be more competitive with weeds. Assuming theseed has been placed in moist soil; the closer it is to the soil surface, the faster the crop will emerge.Weeds that emerge after the crop cause less yield loss than those that emerge before, which is important

45

Figure Fertilizer Placement Affects Green Foxtail Densities

Source: O'Donovan and McAndrew, Alberta Environmental

when determining if it is necessary to spray.

HHiigghh-qquuaalliittyy sseeeedd (large, plump seed) produces vigorous seedlings that improve crop emergence, estab-lishment and yield. Certified seed is the best source of high-quality seed.

How sseeeeddbbeedd iiss pprreeppaarreedd can affect crop and weed growth. Ensuring that the crop seed is placed in anideal growing environment, and the weeds are not, is another way to give crop the edge. On-row pack-ing leaves the soil in the row firm, but loose in between the rows. Zero-tillage systems leave crop residuein between the rows, which shades the soil and keeps it cool. Fewer weeds germinate under zero-tillage

because of the reduction in soil disturbance. For example, green foxtail problems are reduced in zero-till systems because weeds are less able to germinate and grow in the zero-till soil environment.The best way to control weeds is by keeping them out of the fields. FFiieelldd ssaanniittaattiioonn involves practices thatprevent weeds from entering or spreading through your fields.

The use of cclleeaann sseeeedd (certified seed), cclleeaann eeqquuiippmmeenntt, are examples of good field sanitation techniques.This will reduce weed pressure and decrease the introduction of new and /or noxious weeds in thefields.

Controlling weeds in ddiittcchheess and at the eeddggeess ooff ffiieellddss or around sslloouugghhss is an important practice forlimiting the spread of weeds.

Patches of new iinnvvaaddiinngg wweeeeddss or hheerrbbiicciiddee-rreessiissttaanntt wweeeeddss should be controlled to prevent them fromspreading. If small patches are detected after the normal spraying time, they should be mowed or treat-ed with an appropriate herbicide (Roundup) to prevent seed set.

RReemmoovviinngg wweeeeddss before they have a chance to set seed is an important form of field sanitation. Collectingweed seeds by pulling cchhaaffff wwaaggoonnss behind the combine catches many seeds before they fall to theground. The use of forage crops (perennial or annual) allow to ccuutt wweeeeddss before they set seed, which isan important form of removal. Annual grassy weeds (wild oats, green foxtail) are less of a problem afteralfalfa, partly because of weed seed removal.

One need to be aware that spreading fresh manure may return weed seeds that are collected in chaff andforage if they are used for livestock feed. CCoommppoossttiinngg lliivveessttoocckk mmaannuurree (one year minimum) will reducethe viability of many weed seeds, although certain weeds can survive longer than others in compostedmanure.

The key to prevention rests with the ability to identify the weeds as seeds, as seedling, and as matureplants. Following are some of the important preventive measures, which are adopted for effective weed


Seeding Depth Affects Crop Emergence Seeding Depth (wheat) Days to Emergence Crop Emergence (%)

1 inch 1.5 days 90 2 inches 3.5 days 81 3 inches 5.0 days 84

Source: Yantai Gan, PhD thesis, University of Manitobia, 1994

management in letter and spirit:

Always use the clean seeds, do not feed screenings grain or hay containing weed seeds without firstdestroying their viability by grinding or cooking.

Do not use manure unless the viability of weed seeds has been destroyed through fermentation.

Do not permit livestock to move directly from infested area to clean area.

Avoid use of soil from infested area, clean farm implements and machine before from infested area.

Keep the bank of irrigation channels free from weeds.

Waste areas and borders should also be kept free of weed in order to prevent contamination of cultivated areas.

Keep uncropped area free from weeds.

Keep the farmland under the careful observation for the presence of weeds

Inspect the nursery stock for the presence of weed and tubers or rhizomes of perennial weeds andbe careful that cultivators do not drag runners or tubers about the field, act against wind borne weeds/ weed seeds

Pre-planting seedbed tillage, effective seedbed preparation, safe seeding methods enhance crop growth and minimize weed growth.

Optimum plant population per acre, use of crop that form canopy coverage over weeds, judicious irrigation practices, sound crop rotations, crop diversification, field sanitation and proper harvesting methods discourage spread weed seeds.

Insect Pests and Diseases

From late 1960s, it had become quite evident that indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides started topollute the land, air and fresh water resources and on the other hand, the pests developed resistanceagainst most of the chemical pesticides mainly consisting of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) such asAldrin, Chlordane, DDT, Dieldrin, Dioxins, Furans, Endrin, Heptachlor, Hexachlorobenzene, Mirex,Toxaphene and Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs). Therefore, since the beginning of 1970s, theresearchers and growers started to find out alternative sources of chemical pesticides including a rangeof cultural, biological, biochemical and mechanical practices based upon the centuries old proved tra-ditional methods of management integrating these with the innovative environmentally safe techniques.In this context, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) emerged as the range of Better Management Practices(BMPs) ensuring use of chemical pesticides only as a last resort but with main focus on non-chemicalpractices (Shahid, 2003).

47

IImmppoorrttaanntt ppeessttss

Insect pests are harmful to the crops causing heavy losses of yield and quality of the produce etc. It isestimated that each year billions of rupees are spent on the control of insect pests along with a hugedamage to various crops including cotton. Some of the insect pests suck plant sap, some chew the foliageand others bore into the stem, shoots, fruits, roots etc It is estimated that 20-40 % loss occurs due to dif-ferent pests of cotton (Ahmad, 1999; Hashmi, 1994).

Whitefly Bemisia tabaci is a serious pest of cotton. Its nymphs and adults suck the sap under surface ofthe leaves and lower the vitality of the plants thorough the loss of cell sap and normal photosynthesis isinterfered owing to the growth of sooty mould due to excretion of honeydew by the insect (Hashmi,1994).

Damage to the crop by Jassid Empoasca (Amrasca) devastans is caused by the adults as well as nymphs,both of which are very agile and move briskly. Injury to plants is due to the loss of sap and probably alsodue to the injection of toxins. Owing to the loss of plant vigor, the cotton bolls drop off, causing reduc-tion in yield. Jassids breed throughout the year and there are 11 generations in a year. Highly humidconditions are suitable for this pest (Abbass and Afzal, 1945)

Mites suck sap from the lower parts of the leaves. The leaves turn brown and look dry. They also makeweb on the underside of leaves. Both the adults and nymphs can cause damage. Dry and hot weather is


more favorable for them (Hashmi, 1994).

Pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella and spotted bollworms Erias insulana & E. vitella are the mostdestructive pests in Pakistan. Their damage is caused by the caterpillars only. The attacked bolls fall pre-maturely and those which do mature don't contain lint of good quality. The damaged cotton seed gives alower ginning percentage, lower oil extraction and inferior spinning quality. In the attacked bolls, larvalfeeding spoils lint (Ahmad, 1976).

American bollworm Helicoverpa armigera destroys foliage and fructiferous parts are severely damaged

by the larvae. They are voracious feeders and they usually prefer buds and bolls (Mohyuddin andQureshi, 1999).

IIPPMM aass BBMMPPss

The farming communities have been combating menace of the noxious pests through ash, tobacco water,and kerosene, a wide range of other oils, sulfur, and mercury along with biological, cultural, mechani-cal and legal control methods (Stoll, 1992). All these operations have been called pest control practicesand were considered suitable. With the advent of synthetic pesticides, the pest control had mostly beenachieved through pesticides. These were considered panacea of all the pest problems. The greaterreliance on chemical control was placed due to its mass appeal.

49

Use of pesticides in Pakistan started in 1947 with only 508 hand sprayers and 16 vehicles. In 1951,locust problem became severe; hence aircrafts for aerial spraying were obtained and utilized. Later on,aerial spraying was done against sugarcane leafhopper Pyrilla perpusilla in the NWFP. After initial suc-cess, it was extended to cotton, rice and orchards in the whole country. Of the total pesticides, 90% areinsecticides, 7% herbicides, 3% fungicides and less than 1% acaricides, fumigant and others; thus insec-ticides have been the most dominant range of pest control strategies. The use of these chemicals hasincreased continuously (Fig. 2) (Irshad, 2005).

For more than a quarter of a century, these chemicals seemed to show their enormous positive impacton agriculture sector mainly on cotton, sugarcane, rice, vegetables, orchards, etc. They had been consid-ered most essential input in increase of agriculture production. Now a major proportion grown by thefarmer is treated with chemicals. Pesticides can be considered both as cure and curse (Irshad, 2005).

Insects reported to be resistant to pesticides in the world are 504 and of these, 481 are injurious tohuman beings and 23 are beneficial (Georghiou and Tejeda, 1991). The figure for Pakistan is eight(Irshad, 2000). Work on resistance to pesticide is mostly confined to cotton and storage insect pests in

Pakistan. This does not mean that resistance phenomena is not severe in Pakistan but actually little workhas been done in the country on this issue.


020000400006000080000

100000120000140000

Ton

s

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

Year

Consumption of Pesticides

Fig. 2. Consumption of pesticides in Pakistan

Resistance phenomena puts extra burden on user of pesticides as pests are not killed at recommendeddose and this dose has to be increased. In certain cases, the resistance factor is so high that the pest is notkilled on very increased dose. This results in tremendous loss to the farmers. Little studies have been car-ried out in the country on destruction of natural enemies. There are about 200 research publications onthe subject in the country. The unit yield of two important crops on which heavy amount of pesticide isused (cotton and sugarcane) has not significantly increased as per increased pesticide application (Fig.3). There are many reasons of fluctuating yield but one factor is use of pesticides.

In Pakistan, lesser use of pesticide was advocated as early as 1978 (Irshad, 1978). To reduce reliance onchemical control, concept of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) emerged. It relied on non-disturbanceof ecosystem but to manage the pest populations with all the available means on economic basis.

EEvvaalluuaattiioonn ooff cchheemmiiccaall ccoonnttrrooll ffoorr bbeetttteerr mmaannaaggeemmeenntt ooff ssuucckkiinngg ppeessttss

Mustafa (1999) determined the comparative efficacy of 5 insecticides viz Confidor 200 SL, Mospilan 20SP, Gammon 25 WG, Thiodan 38 EC and M-Pede against cotton whitefly. The statistical data showed thatMospilan caused significant mortality of the cotton whitefly ranging from 84.62 to 90.78 followed byGammaon (70.53 to 85.96) and Confidor (69.68 to 81.85). The remaining two insecticides give poorcontrol of cotton whitefly.

Attique and Ghaffar (1996) reported that seed protectant insecticides like promet and confidor gaveeffective control of early season attack of Amrasca devastans, Bemesia tabaci and Thrips tabaci for up tofour weeks. Predator's population in the treated plot s lower than in the control. However, differentamong the treatments were not significant. The number of total boll/ha and the yield of seed cotton washigher in the plots treated with confidor.

Mustafa (1996) checked the comparative efficacy of ten insecticides viz. Terbon 30 EC, systoate 40 EC,thoidan 35 EC, Deltaphos 360 EC, larvin 80 DF, Aflix 36 EC, Decis 2.5 EC, Sherpa 5 EC, Polytrin-C 440EC, and Drawin 36EC, against jassid on cotton variety CIM-240, at Multan. All the tested insecticidesgave effective control of jassid. However on statistical basis, Polytrin-C 440 1EC, Aflix EC and Trebon 30

51

020000400006000080000

100000120000

19901991

19921993

19941995

19961997

19981999

20002001

20022003

2004

P est icide Co t t o n Sugarcan e

Source: Irshad, 2005

EC were most effective.

Hassan (1995) studied the toxicity of eight insecticides on cotton against sucking pests and the predator,Coccinella septempunctata 1.4 ml of each insecticide at a concentration of 0.05% and 0.025% i.e. wassprayed. Among these tested insecticides at a Nuvacron, Tamaron, Deltanet and Polytrin-C was highlytoxic giving 100% mortality of he predator, while Polo, Plenum, Primor and Cymbush were found selec-tive in use against the predator giving 0, 6.67, 10 and 13.3% mortality respectively.

Mahmood (1995) Compared the effectiveness of spray schedules of confidor SL 200, (Bitam 40 EW +Match 50 EC), Dectron 8 + 320 EC, (DELTAMETHRIN), Match 50, Dectron 8 + 320 EC (bifenthrin),April 40 SCW and Rogar 40 EC (dimethoate), were tested on recommended doses against the suckingpest complex of cotton. All the test schedules were in general, much effective. However on statistical basisa spray of methamidophos followed by two consecutive sprays of deltamethrin 50 EW and Confidor 200SL were most effective.

Talpur et al., (1994) determined the relative toxicity of different insecticides to yellow Thrips and jas-sid. The adults of both insect species were released on cotton leaves sprayed with 0.025% concentrationsof Dimethoate, Formothion, Monocrotophos, Methamidophos and Malathion. The data on percentagemortality revealed that Dimethoate was the most toxic followed by Molathion and Formothion. Theresults support the recommendations of Dimethoate for the control of Thrips and jassids on cotton.

Ali and Karim (1993) determined the efficacy of Furadan (carbofuran) 5G applied at 3 kg i.e. /ha,Sunagar and Polygon 40EC (both dimethoate), Tamaron (methamidophos) 40SL and Azadrin9monocrottophos) 40 WSC, all applied at 2 ml.lit. Of water in controlling infestations of jassids on cot-ton. Monocrotophos, Methamidophos and Brifenthrin gave 91-97% mortality on the 2nd day post treat-ment and 73-79% mortality 30 days post treatment. Equivalent figures for both Dimethoate formulationswere 56-72% and 65-70% respectively. Carbofuran had no effect on the 2nd day post treatment andgave only 8.72% mortality, but did give up to 68.68% mortality 30 days post treatment. All the insecti-cides tested, were toxic to parasitoids and predators of jassid up to 30 days post treatment.

Ali and Whala (1993) tested comparative efficacy of four spray schedules, viz, Tamaron 600 SL one +Baythroid TM 525 EC ONE AND POLO 500 SC against Thrips, cotton jassid and cotton whitefly on cot-ton variety, FH-682. All the spray schedules were found to have a significant effect in controlling thesucking pest insects.

Natarajan (1990) studied the natural enemies of Bemesia tabaci and effect of insecticides on their activ-ity in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, India. Field experiments revealed that activity and abundance tothe natural enemies including Coccinella septempunctata were significantly reduced more whenTriazophos, Monocrotophos or Methamidophps were sprayed than with Endosulfan or Phosalone.

Zhou and Xiang (1987), while studying the predation by predators and toxic effects of some chemicalsfound that predation by spiders was 42.8 aphids/day and that by Coccinellids 87 aphids/day. The pop-ulation development of predators was similar to that of aphids, but Methyl parathion at 0.1% killed44.4%of the spiders, 100% of Coccinellids while 50% Methamidophps killed 50% spiders and 71.4%Coccinellids 2 day after application.

Ahmad et al., (1986) reported the different levels of the insecticides by the Amrasca devastans (Dist.)


allowed in field cage and open-field studies in Pakistan to identify the economic threshold level of thepest on cotton and the most effective time to initiate control measures. In field cages, as few as 0.5 typhlo-cybid A. devastans per leaf caused significant yield losses when numbers were maintained at the targetlevel for 40 days on typhlocybid A. devastans per leaf was shown to be the critical threshold level forpractical control purposes in open fields and the cost-benefit ratio was greatest (18.67) at this level ofinfestation. A season long infestation by A. devastans caused significant crop loss. So correct timing of aninsecticide application with dimethoate at 494 g a.i/ha was important to reduce the damage.

Klein et al., (1986) studied the proliferation and branching of cotton seedling was a condition that hadrecently spread through out the cotton growing areas in Israel. Studies indicated that Thrips tabaci wasable to cause damage to leaves and buds on cotton seedling in the laboratory similar to that observed inthe field. The yield of the fiber and seed was significantly reduced in plants when branching occurs earlyin the season (up to the beginning of June). Methamidophps showed more promise than cypermethrinand aldicrb in reducing damage by Thysanoptera population in field trials.

Singh and Varma (1986) observed that larval mortality of Chrysoperla carnea were 74 to 89% after thetreatment of Endosulfan, Quinalfos, Monocrotophos, Phenthoate, Fenitrothion, whereas Phosalone,Carbaryl and Cypermethrin were moderately toxic (34.1-38.1%) to the eggs of pyralid, Corcyracephalonica.

Agarwal et al., (1983) demonstrated field trials carried out in Delhi, India, in 1976-78 showed that cot-ton varieties susceptible to infestation by jassids Amrasca devastans (Dist.) needed three spraying withmonocrotophos and Carbaryl to control this pest, as compared with two for resistance varieties (BiraneriNerma and H-14). The insecticidal applications had no effect on the incidence of boll worms. It was sug-gested that resistance varieties should be grown where ever A. devastans was an important pest.

Scott et al., (1985) observed that arthropod populations found in cotton plots treated with dimethoatewere compared to those found in plots treated with aldicarb and untreated plots in the Mississippi Deltain 1981-83 seed cotton yield was significantly higher in plots treated with dimethoate or with aldicarbat medium (0.56 kg a.i/ha) or high rates when compared to the untreated plots in two of the years. Somesuppression of populations of the Geocoris spp. Occurred in two years. However, populations of sever-al other beneficial arthropods were unaffected.

Visvanthan and Kareem (1983) tested endosulfan, monocrotophos and demeton-s-methyl (metasyston)against Amrasca devastans (Dist.) on cotton at 0.5 - 0.09%, 0.05% and 0.05 respectively, in 1977-79.The three compounds were almost equally effective, with monocrotophos giving slightly greater popu-lations reductions than the others; for all compounds, the reductions were inversely proportional to theconcentration used.

Dahiya and Sing (1982) compared vamidothion at three different concentrations with monocrotophos,dimethoate, oxydemeton-methyl, fomothion and phosphamidon for the control of Sundapteryx biguttula(Ishda.), Bemesia tabaci and Thrips tabaci on cotton. Vamidothion at 0.06% was the most effectiveagainst the first species, monocrotophos and dimethoate at 0.03% and vamidothion at 0.06% against the3rd.

Monsef and Kashkooli (1978) observed in the Iranian province of Fars on one of the most importantpests of cotton in that area. Bemesia tabaci Genn., it was found to have 10-11 generations a year end to

53

over winter as larvae, pupae or adults, at the end of February, with increasing temperatures, over win-tering pupae gave rise to adults and there flew to weeds, later migrating to cotton at the beginning ofJune when this crop had developed to suitable stage for infestation. White fly reached their peak popu-lation in August on early cotton crops and in September on later ones. Control measures comprised avid-ness of cultivating water melon, tomato or cucumber (Which were alternative host plants for B. tabaci)in the vicinity of cotton; early sowing of cotton; and chemical treatments with endosulfon (thoidan) at205 lit/ha gave considerable control of B. tabaci.

Balasubbramanan et al., (1976) applied dust and Ultra-low-Volume (ULV) sprays of various insecticidesat 1.5 kg toxicant/ha for the control of cotton pests, Amrasca devastans, Thrips tabaci, Aphis gossypiiand bollworm determined in field-plots tests in Tamil Nadu, India, in 1972-74. The best yields resultedfrom four applications at 20-days intervals of ultra low volume sprays of endosulfon and fenthion dur-ing 1972-73, and of dusts of carboxyl and endosulfon in 1973-74.

IInnsseeccttiicciiddee rreessiissttaannccee mmaannaaggeemmeenntt ssttrraatteeggyy

Ahmad (1999) proposed that depending on the present scientific knowledge and experiences gained inthe field, the following insecticide resistance management strategy is proposed to combat cotton pests inPakistan:

Scout the crop at least once a week, or twice a week when pest pressures are high and environmental conditions are favorable.Spray only at economic threshold levelFollow recommended use rates, no under-dosing or over-dosing.Direct insecticidal application at the insect's habitat for improved coverage.Delay first spray on cotton as long as possible.Avoid using broad-spectrum insecticides early in the season.Use only larvicidal rates of pesticidesDon't repeat the same insecticide class to which a control failure was noticed.Don't use any active ingredient more than twice per season.No consecutive sprays of the same pesticideNo mixtures if a single product can do the job.Don't apply insecticides to which resistance has developed. Replace such insecticides with those stillactive.Alternate insecticide classes with different modes of action to avoid development of insecticide resistance.For sucking insect pests, seed treatment of first spray with neonicotinoids like imidacloprid,acetamiprid or thiamethoxam.Subsequent sprays with IGRs like buprofezin or pyriproxyfen, and diafenthiuron alternatively.Broad-spectrum sprays of conventional insecticides towards middle or late in the season.

AA.. AArrttiiffiicciiaall mmeetthhooddss ooff iinnsseecctt ppeesstt ccoonnttrrooll (HDF-ECI Training Manual, 2006)

11.. AAggrriiccuullttuurraall// CCuullttuurraall pprraaccttiicceess

RReessiissttaanntt ppllaanntt vvaarriieettiieessInsect preference is related to color, light reflection, physical structure of the surface and chemical stim-


uli like taste and odor. A resistant variety has a non-preference quality by lacking one or more of thepreferred factors of the host plant. This will some time prove as shield against the attack of various cot-ton pests and diseases as all varieties will be not likely vulnerable to the pest attack. Secondly, it may sus-tain the drought condition for the possible length of time as all varieties do not require same increasednumber of water applications.

CCrroopp RRoottaattiioonn

It is useful when insects have long life cycles. Cotton crop rotation is of utmost importance. There are anumber of insect pests which are voracious and polyphagous, especially the American bollworm. It alsofeeds on lady fingers, tobacco, tomato, gram, millet and sorghum etc. To have a better control, such cropsand vegetables are to be rotated in successive manners that the various cotton pests could be suppressedand controlled.

CCrroopp rreeffuussee ddeessttrruuccttiioonn

Removal of crop residues, disposal of volunteer plants and burning of chaff stacks, burning of weeds indrainage ditches, community wide practices of stalk shredding followed by ploughing under the cropresidues in the fall to control pink bollworm.

TTiillllaaggee ooff ssooiill aanndd ccrroopp

It may change physical conditions of the soil, bury a stage of the insect, expose a stage of the insect,mechanically damage some stage of the insect, eliminate host plant of the pest and beneficial, hasten thegrowth or increase the vigor of the crop.

TTiimmiinngg ooff ppllaannttiinngg aanndd hhaarrvveessttiinngg

The upper and lower time limit for cotton crop should be given importance. The very early crop may actas cotton-pest-host in the days when the overall crop is not sown. While, the crop sown in lower timelimit will linger the pest attack and possibly help the pests to over winter. The suitable time period is from10th of May to 15th June.

TThhiinnnniinngg

It destroys the insects in their hibernation places

PPllaannttiinngg ooff ttrraapp ccrrooppss

Okra is good crop, which can be grown near cotton to attract jassids and spotted bollworms.

BBuurrnniinngg

Using flame throwers.

CCaarreeffuull llooccaattiioonn ooff ccrrooppss

Careful choice of crops adjacent to each other may help reduce insect damage. Mixed crops may also

55

deter the infestation of an injurious insect. The land selected for cotton crop growing should not be nearany type of forest trees, fruit trees or vegetables rather than growing in any orchard. The main vegeta-bles working as host plants for cotton crops are chilies (whitefly), brinjal (white fly), lady fingers (spot-ted bollworm and American bollworm), tobacco crop (American bollworm), gram (American boll-worm), tomato (American bollworm), water melon ( jassids, aphids, and white fly), and cucurbits(aphids, white fly, and weevil).

WWaatteerr MMaannaaggeemmeenntt

Appropriate quantity of water is given so that there is less favorable condition for breeding of insects.Irrigation by flooding drowns many insects while many are driven with running water. Resultantly theyare exposed for their natural enemies.

SSttiimmuullaattiinngg ppllaanntt ggrroowwtthh wwiitthh ffeerrttiilliizzeerrss

Proper and timely manuring creates resistance in the crop. Farm yard manure carries considerableamount of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash as well as calcium, magnesium, zinc, boron, copper, iron,sodium etc. Both macro and micro-nutrients add to the better development of the cotton corp. It alsoadds to the texture of the soil. The good-textured soil will hold water and will assist the grower in thecontrol of white-ants by suffocating them.

UUssee ooff cclleeaann sseeeedd

Certified seeds free of inert materials, pests and diseases should be used for raising a new crop. Thehibernating larvae of the pink bollworm are found in the double seed of cotton and they can be killedeasily by fumigating the seed in the ginneries. Cotton seed is to be cleaned with 10 % solution of sul-phuric acid. Only the cleaned seed is to be cultivated. The seed floating on water surface is to be avoid-ed.

22.. MMeecchhaanniiccaall

HHaanndd ppiicckkiinngg//ddeessttrruuccttiioonn

It is done when insects are large, easily seen and easily accessible. e.g. Grubs of mustard sawfly. Adultsand egg clusters of lemon butterfly.

UUssee ooff hhaanndd nneettss && bbaagg nneettss

They are used for flying insects e.g. when pyrilla shifts from wheat to sugarcane.

BBeeaattiinngg && hhooookkiinngg

Beating of housefly by fly flappers, locusts by brooms, insects of coconut palm by hooking from holes.

SSiieevviinngg && wwiinnnniinng

They are used especially stored grains insects. E.g. grubs of Trogoderma granium infesting wheat.


MMeecchhaanniiccaall eexxcclluussiioonn

Insects are physically excluded e.g. screening windows, wrapping individual.

SShhaakkiinngg aanndd jjaarrrriinngg

It is done in cold areas. Insects drowned in water trenches or kerosene-ized tubs.

UUssee ooff lliigghhtt ttrraappss

Light traps are effectively used to monitor and control Helicoverpa armigera. However, care may be takento trap the beneficial insects.

33.. PPhhyyssiiccaall mmeetthhooddss

HHeeaatt

Exposure of cottonseed for 5 minutes upto 52C destroys hibernating larvae of pink bollworm.

CCoolldd

They are subjected to lower temperatures and are killed

HHuummiiddiittyy

Each insect has its requirement of humidity and so adverse conditions are provided to kill them

SSoouunndd

Different frequencies are used to control them

44.. LLeeggiissllaattiivvee ccoonnttrrooll

It is done by implementation of legal procedures as part of national policy. Indonesia has banned a largenumber of chemical insecticides which were developing resistance among the insects.

PPrroommuullggaattiioonn ooff ddiiffffeerreenntt oorrddiinnaanncceess

Various control measures are announced for cultivation dates, growing of recommended verities,removal of stubbles etc.

PPllaanntt && aanniimmaall qquuaarraannttiinnee

There are legal procedures for export and import of living material

55.. CChheemmiiccaall aattttrraaccttaannttss

It involves various methods of sterilizing insects, the use of sex attractants and genetic manipulation.

57

Inherited sterility, dissociation of obnoxious properties and introduction of lethal traits are the genetictools, which can be introduced through genetic means. Management of pink bollworm (PBW) by mat-ing disruption has been one of the most successful examples of pheromone use in the USA, and in theworld. An estimated 21,300 hectares of cotton were treated PBW mating disruption products during1999, down from 46,800 in 1997 (Pacific Biocontrol Corporation, 620 E. Bird Lane, Litchfield Park,Arizona 85340 USA). In Pakistan, the sex-pheromone traps for monitoring and management of pink,American and spotted bollworms have proved very effective (CCRI, Multan).

BB.. BBiioollooggiiccaall mmeetthhooddss..

"The control measures in which living organisms are used to control the pest population". These livingorganisms are predators, parasites and pathogens. In this method of insect control, natural enemies areencouraged and disseminated by man. Examples of biological control are as follows.

IInnsseeccttiivvoorreess:: mmoolleess,, sshhrreewwss aanndd iinnsseeccttss..AAvveess:: pprreeddaattiinngg uuppoonn iinnsseecctt.. TThheeeelliiaarr uuppoonn bboollllwwoorrmmss..AAmmpphhiibbiiaannss:: lliikkee ffrrooggss && ttooaaddss..MMaannyy ffiisshh- ssppeecciieess aarree iinnsseecctt eeaatteerrss

WWeeaakknneesssseess ooff bbiioollooggiiccaall ccoonnttrrooll

This requires a large number of friendly insects as biocontrol agents.To reach the population of bio-control agents to the level of control, much time is required for augmen-tation of the bio-agents but by then, the pest population may reach to an alarming level.

PPeesstt ssccoouuttiinngg aanndd EEccoonnoommiicc IInnjjuurryy LLeevveellss

Sucking insects such as whitefly, jassid and Thrips are observed and counted on leaves; first on upperpart, second on middle part and third on the lower part of the plant. Both adults and larvae/pupae mustbe counted. Aphids and mites attack in the patches and their attack are not uniformed throughout thefield. Usually their presence is noticed on the upper 1/3rd part of leaves.

The eggs and larvae of American bollworm Helicoverpa armigera, spotted bollworm Erias insulana andpink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella are observed on the upper 1.50-2 feet part of plant in buds,small bolls etc. General EILs for bollworms are given (Table.4a) and sucking insect pests (Table.4b).


Table.4a. General Economic Injury Levels of cotton bollworms

Economic Injury Level Growth Stage of Crop Loss in Yield 1 insect per 5 plants 2 leaves stage

2.5 insects per 5 plants 4 leaves stage 1 insect per 1 plant When plant is 10-20cm high

1.5 insect per 1 plant When plant is 21-50cm high 2 insects per 1 plant When tassels appear in plants

3 insect per 1 plant When growth completed and grains are set

2% which is equal to 60kg/ha.or equal to Rs.

480/ha which should be equal to the cost of control.

Market value being Rs. 8/kg

Source: Irshad, 2005.

BBiioollooggiiccaall ccoonnttrrooll aass BBMMPP

Pest management in cotton is increasingly making use of beneficial insects and research is identifyingcritical habitats, resources needed to maintain them and ways of encouraging their activity. Groups of neighboring cotton farmers work together to implement Integrated Pest Management (IPM)practices and so reduce their use of broad-spectrum pesticides. This helps conserve and encourage ben-eficial insects and spiders.

Transgenic cotton producing toxic proteins from the bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is now wide-ly used to help control Helicoverpa, but it is possible the moths could become resistant. Refuge crops(with no Bt) are grown with the transgenic cotton to produce large numbers of susceptible moths andso help to reduce the risk of resistance developing. These crops, along with trap crops which are grownto lure Helicoverpa away from cotton, could be useful sources of beneficial insects.

Recent research has demonstrated that parasitic wasps can cause significant mortality to Helicoverpa,that their populations are high in early- and mid-season legumes, and it may be possible to augment theirpopulations using the right type of on-farm crop diversity. (Australian Cotton Cooperative ResearchCentre, Cotton Research and Development Corporation).

The biological control is aimed at establishing a natural balance among the pests and natural enemiesprotecting the agro-biodiversity and environment. Although, the cotton crop is grown on annual basis,cotton agro-ecosystems contain surprisingly varied and complex predators and parasite fauna. As bio-logical control of any pest is concerned in many agro-ecosystems, parasites, predators and pathogens areimportant causes of pest mortality. The important natural enemies of cotton pests are given below(Irshad, 2003); (Irshad and Khan, 2005):

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Table.4b. Economic Injury Levels of different cotton insect pests

S.No. Name of insect pest Economic Injury Level

1. Thrips 8-10 adults/nymphs per leaf 2. Jassids 1 adult/nymph per leaf 3. Whitefly 5 adults/nymphs per leaf 4. Mites On appearance of damage symptoms 5. Aphids On visible damage on top sprouts

Source: Central Cotton Research Institute, Multan, 2006.

Bemisa tabaci (Genn.). Parasitoids : Aspidiotiphagus mohyuddini Shafee, Encarsia lutea (Masi), E. tricol-or Foerst., Encarsia sp., Eretmocerus aligarhensis Khan & Shafee, E. corni Haldeman, E. mundus Mercet,Prospaltella aurantii (Howard), P. flava Shafee, P. lutea Masi, Prospaltella sp. (Aphelinidae : Hym.),Apanogmus fumipennis Thompson (Cerophoronidae : Hym.), Adelencyrtus femoralis Comp. & Annecki(Encyrtidae : Hym.), Predators : Brumoides suturalis (F.), Catana parcesetosa (Sic.), Coccinella septem-punctata L., Leis dimidiata F., Menochilus sexmaculatus (F). (Coccinellidae : Col.), Chrysoperla carneaSteph. (Chrysopidae : Neur.).

Pectinophora gossypiella (Saund.). Parasitoids : Goniozus sp. (Bethylidae : Hym.), Agathis sp., Apantelesangaleti Mues., Apanteles sp., Bracon gelechiae Ashm., B. greeni Ashm., B. hebetor Say, Camptothlipsisdravida Gupta & Bhat, C. gossypiella Gupta & Bhat, Chelonus sp., Microdus faliae Nixon, Phanerotomahendecasisella Car., Rogas aligharensis Qadri, Rogas sp. (Braconidae : Hym.), Brachymeria tachardiiCam., Eucepsis sp., Euchalcida sp. (Chalcididae : Hym.), Elasmus johnstoni Ferr., Elasmus sp. (Elasmidae: Hym.), Pediobius imbreus Wlk. (Eulophidae : Hym.), Eurytoma sp. (Eurytomidae :Hym.),Brachygoryphus nursei (Cam.), Goryphus zonalis Townes & Gupta, Hemiteles sp., Pristomerus microdonCushman, Scambus simulator Gupta & Tikar (Ichneumonidae : Hym.), Catolaccus crassiceps (Masi),Habrocytus sp.? chrysos Wlk., Habrocytus sp. (Pteromalidae : Hym.),

PPrreeddaattoorrss : Anthicus bremei Laf., Endomia bivitatus (Trg.), Formicomuscaerulcipennis Laf. (Anthicidae : Col.), Chelaenius pictus Chd. (Carabidae :Col.), Laius malleifera Champ. (Melydridae : Col.), Paederus fuscipes Curt.(Staphylinidae : Col.), Euborellia flavipes Bey-Beinkon (Carcinophoridae :Der.), Labidura riparia (Pallas), Nala lividipes (Dufour) (Labiduridae : Der.),Orius (Demorphella) albidipennis (Reut.) (Anthocoridae : Hem.), Geocoris tri-color (F.), Remaudiereama annulipes (Bar.) (Lygaeidae : Hem.), Creontiadespallidas (Ramb.), Deraecoris sp. nr. indianus Carv. (Miridae : Hem.), Coranusspiniscutis Reut., Polididus armatissimus Stal., Rhynocoris fuscipes F. (Reduvidae : Hem.), Chrysopa sp.,Chrysoperla carnea (Steph.) (Chrysopidae : Neur.), Pathogens : Bacillus cereus Frankland & Frankland,Streptococcus sp. (Bacteria).Earias fabia (Stoll). Parasitoids : Apanteles sp., Microbracon greeni Lefroy (Braconidae : Hym.),Brachymeria bicolorata Khokhar, Qadri & Ahmed (Chalcididae : Hym.). Karachi, Rawalpindi, Tandojam.E. insulana (Boisd.). Parasitoids : Apanteles sp., Bracon greeni Ashm., Rogas sp. nr. pallidator Thnb.(Braconidae : Hym.), Brachymeria bicolorata Khokhar, Qadri & Ahmed (Chalcididae : Hym.)Helicoverpa (Heliothis) armigera (Hnb.). Parasitoids : Exorista xanthaspis Wied., Palexorista sp.,Turanogonia smirnovi Rohd. (Tachinidae : Dip.), Apanteles sp., Bracon greeni Ashm., Harbobracon ?hebetor Say, Microplitis demolitor Wilk., M. similis Lyle (Braconidae : Hym.), Campoletis chlorideaeUchida, Charops bicolor (Szepl.), Dichrogaster schaffneri Schmied, Ecphoropsis sp.? perdistinctus Viet.,Enicospilus sp., Mesochorus sp., Metopius sp., Netelia ocellaris Thomson, Netelia sp., Nythobia sp.(Ichneumonidae : Hym.), Catolaccus crassiceps (Masi), Pteromalus sp. (Pteromalidae : Hym.),Trichogramma chilonis Ishii (Trichogrammatidae : Hym.), Pathogens : Bacillus thuringiensis Berl.(Bacteria), Neoplectana sp. (Nematode).

The need to grow cotton as an annual crop and the diversified complex of pests which attack it in anyparticular region make it a difficult crop on which to practice biological control (Greathead, 1994).

To develop biological control based Integrated Pest Management (IPM) trials were carried out from 1994


to 1997 in Pakistan. In 1994 twelve plots of two-acre-each belonging to big and sixteen plots one-acreeach belonging to small farmers, in 1995 eight plots of small farmers, in 1996 eighteen plots and in1997 ten plots of small and big farmers were used. During 1994 plots of big farmers received threetreatments. In one treatment farmers sprayed according to their practices up to 13 sprays (farmer'spractices). In the second treatment biological control based IPM was tried and no insecticides weresprayed and in the third treatment no control measures were taken. The plots of small farmers in 1994and fields of all the farmers during 1995, 1996 and 1997 received two treatments i.e. farmer's practicesand IPM (Mohyuddin & Qureshi, 1999).

Mostly yield was higher in IPM than with insecticides but in some cases farmers got more yield withinsecticides. However, when the expenses on insecticides and their application were added cost of cot-ton production was higher with insecticides than with IPM Table- (Mohyuddin, & Qureshi, 1999a).

In Pakistan the biological control based IPM is becoming popular for control of cotton pests. With theelimination or reduction in the use of insecticides resistance, insecticides will be eliminated or reducedin a few generations through natural selection (Mohyuddin, & Qureshi, 1999).

CCoommmmoonn IIPPMM MMooddeell ffoorr CCoottttoonn

At present, different models of IPM are being used globally in Australia, USA, Egypt, The Philippines andCIS countries. These have common features mostly based upon reduction of the use of chemical insec-ticides in cotton up to the acceptable level.

In fact IPM of cotton pest processes encompasses all those steps which are involved in Integrated CropManagement (ICM) of cotton because each of the management process is directly or indirectly linkedwith pest population. Therefore, one cannot clearly distinguish between IPM and ICM during the man-agement of insect pests and diseases.

In the context of cotton IPM, removal of cotton residues such as cotton sticks and bolls from the fieldsoon after the harvest is highly effective to check the carry over of pink bollworm infestation. If thisis further linked with grazing of cotton by cattle, it also minimizes the chance of carry over of pinkbollworm. When the ginning is completed, all the debris lying in the ginning factories may be burnt down.The infestation of bollworm complex and whitefly is generally higher in weedy and unclean fields where inter culturing had not been done. Therefore, timely inter-culturing helps manage the pests.Excessive thick stand are attractive to whitefly, which may be avoided. Plant population affects the pest population build up, therefore, the recommended plant populationlevel i.e. 40,000-50,000 plant/ha ensures good crop with balanced population of pests and their natural enemies. The high dose of fertilizer causes the pest population to flare up. It was found that the cotton crop,which receives 168 kg of nitrogen/ha, harbored significantly higher number of whitefly than that which received 84 kg/ha or remained unfertilized. The crop rotation and destruction of weeds or other alternate hosts also help in minimizing the pestincidence.Avoiding cultivation of alternate hosts such as beauty-lawn near the cotton crop helps manage spotted bollworm larvae as this provides them hibernating site.Avoiding over irrigation helps manage aphid population and general flare-up of pests.

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Treated cotton seeds with chemicals having active ingredients like amidachloperd etc. helps preventinfestation.It has been proven in the cotton growing countries across world that cotton crop may be saved frompest infestation if sown early. Excessive use of fertilizer may be avoided as it encourages aphid population. Clean cultivation and removal of weed lowers the population builds up. Avoiding cultivation of malvaceous and solanaceous hosts near the cotton crop helps low the pest populations.Growing of trap crops in March to April and burning them before sowing of cotton help in decreasing the population densities of white fly. Guara and ladyfinger (Bhindi) may be used as trap crops.Semio-chemicals that act intra-specifically between individuals of the same species are pheromones.Communication disruption between male and female pink bollworm using hexalure also have a practical potential.Different formulations of neem oil with the active ingredient of Azadirachtin give good control ofsucking insect pests. (Stoll, 1992).

NNeeeemm OOiill aass oonnee ooff tthhee bbeesstt iinnsseecctt ppeesstt''ss rreeppeelllleenntt

Neem oil is a broad spectrum botanical insecticide, miticide and fungicide derived from the seeds of theneem tree Azadirachta indica. Neem trees are native to South East Asia, and are grown in many coun-tries throughout the world, including India, Myanmar and Australia.

Neem has the primary role of disrupting insect's metamorphosis. The principal active ingredient,azadirachtin, acts as an insect growth regulator (IGR) preventing exoskeleton development and imped-ing the molting process. It is most effective on younger stages of an insect when insect populations arelight to moderate. Its extremely bitter flavor can make many insects stop feeding on the host plant. Neemoil can also suffocate mites, whiteflies, aphids and other types of soft bodied insects on contact. Thesemultiple modes of action make it unlikely that insects and plant pathogens can develop resistance toneem compounds. Neem has both contact and systemic action in many plants. When it is applied to soilas a drench, some plant species absorb it through their roots and will translocate it through the planttissue.

Application and use: Neem is used in both ornamental and food crops. Raw neem seed oil (not extractsof neem oil) can be mixed with water and used as an emulsifying agent such as pure castile soap. Thegeneral purpose application rate is to use neem oil at 1% ratio to water with an emulsifying agent or non-ionic spray adjuvant. Some commercial products containing clarified hydrophobic extract of neem oilcontain a surfactant that accomplishes this emulsifying process.

Use raw neem seed oil at a Ratio of 0.5to 2.0% depending upon the targeted use. Apply it as a foliar spray keeping it agitated during application to keep well mixed. It must be used within 8 hours after mixing with water.

Source: Stoll, (1992)

DDiisseeaasseess


Diseases of the cotton can cause heavy damage thereby reducing yield. The first symptom of cotton rootrot is the sudden and complete wilting of plant. A plant affected with root rot can be very easily pulledout of the soil and the roots as well as secondary roots are seen to be rotten. On pressing the root of afreshly wilted plant, a yellowish thick sticky and bad smelling liquid oozes out. The bark of the root isshredded off.

CCoottttoonn LLeeaaff CCuurrll VViirruuss

Cotton Leaf Curl Virus (CLCV) is the most dangerous disease of cotton and almost all major cotton grow-ing countries. There is no authentic way to control cotton leaf curl viral disease (CLCV) except develop-ing resistant varieties (Hashmi, et al., 1993). This is also true for many other diseases. However, its inci-dence can be reduced by a number of management practices.

The cotton leaf crumple virus (CLCV) is transmitted by the white fly Bemisia tabaci an optimum tem-perature of 32C under experimental condition, and by grafting techniques. Numerous plant species inthe Malvaceae and Leguminosea are also host. Plants are infected at all stages of development.

Symptoms are most severe in perennial cotton. Leaves curl downward due to hypertrophy of interreg-nal tissue. There is frequent vein distortion and clearing and a mosaic appearance to leaves. Radish spotssome time occur in chlorotic, interregional tissue of senescent leaves. Floral parts tent to be irregular-shaped. Stunting commonly occur in perennial cotton. Although of all ages may become diseased. Yieldlosses are most severe when plants are infected early in the growing season (Robert, 1999).

MMaannaaggeemmeenntt ooff CCLLCCVV

Grow resistant and tolerant cultivar.Control weeds hosts.Eliminate diseased perennial cotton.Sow clean seed

BBlloocckk BBoollll RRoott

Aspergillus niger survives saprophytic ally on several kinds of infested plants residue. Conidia are pro-duced from mycelia and are disseminated by wind to host plants, where they germinate and enter bollsthrough wounds. In irrigated areas, boll rot is more sever when excessive moisture has occurred late inthe growing season.

Initially, a soft pinkish rot develops on the side or base of boll. Eventually, the color of the rot changesfrom pink to brown and abundant production of black spores in the diseased areas gives the boll a blocksooty appearance (Robert, 1999).

MMaannaaggeemmeenntt

Avoid practices that promote rank growth, especially excessive nitrogen.Use correct timing and control of irrigation.Control insects after boll development.Shield equipment to reduce mechanical injuries.

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Use bottom defoliation and two-stage harvesting to reduce exposure.Keep cotton free of weeds.Use skip-row planting.Rotate cotton with other crops.Plow under residues to prevent rotating bolls from being a source of inoculum.

TTrrooppiiccaall CCoottttoonn RRuusstt

Phakopsora gossypii (syn. Aecidium desmium, Cerotelium desmium, Doassansia gossypii, Kuehneolagossypii, and P. desmium). Dissemination is by airborne urediniospores. High relative humidity favorsdisease.

Leaves are primarily affected, but other above ground plant parts may also become diseased. Initially, theupper leaf surface is marked by small, brown spots, which are uredinia immersed in host tissue. Thespots coalesce into large patches and cause defoliation Telia normally is not present, but if present, theyare found on lower leaf surface (Robert, 1999).


Grow resistant cultivarDo not sow seed from diseased plantsRemove infested residue.

SSoorreesshhiinn oorr DDaammppiinngg OOffff

Rhizoctonia solani survives as sclerotia in soil or residue and as mycelia growing saprophytic ally oninfested residue of many plant species. Sclerotia germinate to produce mycelia that infect hypocotylsnear the soil line, and in very humid weather, fungus grows up the external surface of the stem.

During, cool, wet weather, seedling may damp off either preemergence or postemergence. Hypocotylsare infected near the soil line and become necrotic, which causes cotyledons to droop, then, wilt. Duringworm, dry soil conditions, hypocotyls lesions become radish-brown, sunken cankers that are superficialand grow slightly into cortical tissue, or that may completely girdle stems near the soil line. If the soilremains warm and dry, plants partially recover by producing new roots above the diseased areas of thestem or hypocotyls (Robert, 1999).


Sow after soils have "warmed up." Temperature warm up faster on a bed than in furrow or on levelsoil.Rotate cotton with other crop; however, R. solani has a wide host and exists saprophytically for several years in the absence of a host crop.Adjust soil pH to 6.0 to 6.5.Ensure that soil fertility is adequate.Avoid chemical injury.Sow only healthy, high-quality seed treated with a seed-protectant fungicide.Treat soil with an in-furrow granular or spray fungicide.


RRhhiizzoopphhuuss BBoollll RRoott

Rhizophus nigricans (syn. R. stolonifer) survives as mycelia and spores in infested residue and soil. Undermoist and warm weather conditions, spores infect bolls.

Diseased areas of the boll are olive green initially but become black as they dry up. Fungal growth con-sisting of mycelium, sporangiophores, and sporangia forms a dark gray mold over the boll (Robert,1999).


Avoid practices that promote rank growth, especially excessive nitrogen.Use correct timing and control of irrigation.Control insects after boll development.Shield equipment to reduce mechanical injuries.Use bottom defoliation and two-stage harvesting to reduce exposure.Keep cotton free of weeds.Use skip-row plantings.Rotate cotton with other crops.Plow under residues to prevent rotting bolls from being a source of inoculum.

CCeerrccoossppoorraa LLeeaaff SSppoott

Cercospora gossypina, teleomorph Mycosphaerella gossypina, survives as conidia and mycelia on seedand in infested residue. Primary infection occurs byconidia or by ascospores disseminated by wind to host plans. Secondary inoculum is provided by coni-dia produced in spots on diseased leaves.

SSyymmppttoommss

Symptoms are observed first on older upper leaves and eventually on younger leaves. Initially, leaf spotsare barely visible reddish points, but eventually spots enlarge to approximately 2cm in diameter, areround to irregular-shaped, and have white centers surrounded by a purple margin. Conidia growing ondiseased areas give both the diseased lower and upper leaf surfaces a dark appearance. The centers oflesions may drop out as they enlarge and give a "shot-hole" effect to the lesion. Diseased leaves turnbrown and dry up, resulting in partial or complete defoliation. Young squares and bolls may fall fromplants. The main terminal and upper fruiting branches may die back under severe disease conditions.Other branches may be unaffected (Robert, 1999).


Treat seed with a fungicide seed protectant.Maintain proper soil fertility.Avoid insect and mechanical injury.Plow under residue.Grow later-maturing cultivars rather than the more susceptible early maturing cultivars that fruit heavily.

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Post-Harvest Practices

PPoosstt-HHaarrvveessttiinngg

All the crop management measures in view of productivity enhancement, environmental safety and pestmanagement carried out after crop harvest are generally called as post-harvest practices. Post-harveststage in cotton covers decisions or operations that need to be considered for a given field, after harvest,regardless of whether it will be planted to cotton again in the following season. A range of BMPs arebeing practiced for effective post-harvest management in cotton:

Early cultivation will kill any non-diapausing pupae remaining in the soil. Early cultivation also increases the chance of later rain events sealing up any remaining pupae emergence tunnels, preventing moths from emerging. Minimum tillage planting strategies for planting rotation crops may lead to poor pupae control. The stubble of other summer crops may also harbor Helicoverpa pupae. Sample to assess pupae densities under these crops as soon as possible after harvest and pupae bust if warranted. Grain crops not infested with Helicoverpa larvae by early March will not harbor diapausing pupaeunless there has been regrowth.Rotation crops may be planted for a number of reasons, including favorable price, improving soil structure and nitrogen fixation (legumes). The selection of a rotation crop also has implications for pest management. Some rotation crops provide an overwinter host for pests, such as faba beans (mites, aphids), safflower (mites, mirids), chickpeas (Helicoverpa) or cereals (H. armigera and Thrips). Some may also affect carry over of disease.The choice of rotation crop should take these issues into account.Options for managing pests in rotation crops should also be considered. For instance, use of broad-spectrum insecticides such as pyrethroids or organophosphates to manage Helicoverpa or aphids inrotation crops may have a serious detrimental effect on beneficial insect populations and potentially diminish the number of predators later moving into cotton crops. Similarly, control of mirids in


safflower often results in outbreaks of mites, which then move into adjacent cotton crops.Regrowth of cotton after harvest can provide a food source for Helicoverpa spp., spider mites, and aphids. Regrowth should be controlled by slashing or by use of a defoliant.Weeds provide overwinter hosts for a number of pests including Helicoverpa, mites, aphids, cutworm, armyworm and whitefly. Poor in-field hygiene is particularly a problem with spider mites andmirids as these pests can move off the weeds and onto cotton seedlings in the following season.

SSoommee ssppeecciiffiicc BBMMPPss rreellaatteedd ttoo ccoottttoonn aafftteerr ppiicckkiinngg::

Do not store picked cotton in shady and moist places. Store it at a dry place in the sun on a plastic sheet, cotton cloth or turpaulin. Before weighing pick out the contaminants carefully from the picked seed cotton. Fill the picked cotton in cotton bags only and use cotton ropes/twines for stitching these bags. While transporting cotton seed to ginning factory cover the cotton filled tractor trolleys with cottoncloth or cotton made nets (Trangars).

Do not use jute cloth for covering trolleys.

Environmental Impacts of Cotton Cultivation

CCoonntteexxtt

In Pakistan pesticides worth billions of rupees are imported every year. Of these 70 to 80% are sprayedon cotton. As a result of work on economic thresh-hold levels by Central Cotton Research InstituteMultan, the numbers of sprays on cotton have been considerably reduced. Normally sprays based onthresh-hold levels give satisfactory control of cotton pests. But when attack of the pest such as Americanbollworm Helicoverpa armigera flares up it cannot be controlled even with repeated applications ofinsecticides (up to more than 15) because it has a number of overlapping generations and the pesticideskill only early instar larvae.

IImmpplliiccaattiioonnss ooff ppeessttiicciiddeess uussee

As a result of excessive and indiscriminate use of pesticides most of cotton pests have either becomeresistant or are in the process of developing it. Development of resistance to pesticides was first report-ed in 1914 by Melander. Following introduction of synthetic organic pesticides, the number of speciesthat have become resistant to pesticides has increased tremendously. In 1991, 504 species of insects andmites were reported to have developed resistance to one or more pesticides (Georghiou and Tejeda,1991). In addition to this, these are also increasing cost of production in the cotton industry. The fightthat man had launched against insects has shifted to fight against development of resistance in the pestspecies. Secondly, the farm workers health during chemical sprays has become of very serious concernfor public health in most of the countries. According to an estimate, helath of about 400,000 to2,000,000 people is adversely affected every year. Out of these 10,000 to 40,000 die, mostly in thedeveloping world. In most of the developing countries including Pakistan, a high proportion of chemi-cal pesticides consist of Persistent Organic Pollutants which don't degenerate but become part of the foodchain year after year.

67

The damage to health by insecticides is enormous (Irshad, 2005). It has been estimated that thousandsof farmers are poisoned due to pesticide exposure, 63% households experiences sicknesses, 1% are hos-pitalized, 0.01% die with poisoning in cotton zone of Punjab. This survey showed that every householdhas reported pesticide related sickness like 25% were vomiting, 12 % with dizziness/breathing problemand 63% with other symptoms. Also about 40% fruits and vegetables are found contaminated and 17%unsuitable for human consumption due to high maximum residual limit (MRL) values in various partsof Pakistan. About 29% of water sample from different areas of Pakistan were contaminated. Animal andhoneybee poisoning, killing of wildlife and birds and loss of biodiversity are other side effects (FAO,2001). The blood samples of cotton pickers in Multan district showed that 88% contained pesticideresidues. Out of 250 samples of fruits and vegetables 93 (37.2%) in Karachi were contaminated withpesticides and 48 % were exceeding maximum residue level. (Masud and Hasan, 1992; 1995; Masudand Parveen, 1998).Pesticide causes fatigue, dizziness, headache, hand tremor, staggering gait, convul-sion, loss of consciousness, coma, muscle weakness, muscle cramps twitching eyelid, excessive salvation, sweetening, and eye tearing, blurred vision, stomach cramps. Nausea, vomiting dichromate, chest tight-ness, wheezing, cough and running nose (Aziz and Yasmin, 2005).

To address the issue of farm worker's health, and better effect of chemical control, a number of consid-erations need to be taken into account. Since insecticides are extremely toxic compounds, a little bit ofcarelessness in their handling might cause dreadful consequences. The following precautions as BMPsmust be adopted for the safe handling of pesticides:

The pesticides should be kept in original containers.The pesticides should be kept under the lock and key and out of reach of children.The name brand and label should not be removed from the containers.The instructions on the label should be read carefully.Pesticides should never be stored in kitchen or in almirah with pharmaceuticals.Always use gloves and protect clothing and mask while handling pesticides and spraying or dusting.The empty containers of pesticides should never be used for any other purpose and should be disposed off properly.When the wind is blowing, spraying or dusting should be stopped because of the wastage of pesticides and because of the danger of exposure of the applicator to the drifts.Never allow direct contact of concentrated pesticides with bare hands or other parts of the body.Mixing or stirring should be done with a stick and with never hands.Don't smoke, drink water or eat any thing while handling or applying the insecticidesThe contaminated clothes should be immediately removed, and body washed with soap and water.The overall, hand gloves and other clothing should be washed to remove the pesticide residues fromthem after every use.Don't wash the sprayers or empty containers in a stream or water channel.Clean the spraying machines after every use by washing with clean water and allow them to dry.Never allow the pesticide solution to stay in the tank of the sprayer for long time in order to avoid corrosion of metals and damage to the washers etc.

Source: Shahid, 2003


Efficient Marketing Practices

CCoonntteexxtt

An efficient marketing system is a prerequisite for sustained agricultural development. It affects bothproducer income (through prices farmers receive for their products) and consumer welfare (via pricesconsumers eventually pay for agricultural commodities). In the ultimate analysis, the efficiency of thefarm sector depends not just on farm production, costs, and yields, but equally on what happens to theproduct from the time it leaves the farm to the time it reaches the consumers. At present, a large num-ber of agricultural commodities are completely in hands of private sector, with no restriction on theirmovement. On the other hand, there is substantial public sector involvement in marketing of the mainfood grains and cash crops. The Government of Pakistan intervenes extensively in marketing by settingminimum support prices for nearly all major crops, regulates their marketing, physically procures alarge proportion of the marketed surplus of certain crops, and is a major exporter of Pakistan's mainagricultural exports, rice and cotton.

With the timely announcement of favorable cotton policy and reduction in the fertilizer prices, the cot-ton growers will gain the confidence in Pakistan. The cotton crop is faced with lack of price incentives,non availability of good quality seed, high cost of fertilizers, pest disease infestations, cultural practicesetc. (Baluch and Ahmed, 1976). The alleged defects of Pakistan cotton are non uniformity of the fiberand the relative high non lint content combined with poor ginning preparations (Hassan, 1976).

No agricultural commodity in the world has exercised such a profound influence on men's matter as cot-ton done for time immemorial (Sethi et al., 1960). The name of Indus civilization is mixed in legendsand history pertaining to cotton. The only wild cotton of South East Asia is in the arid and stony hinter-lands of Karachi. The earliest American cotton was introduced probably by Portuguese in 16 the Centuryin Goa (Afzal, 1969).

Pakistan is the ancient home of cultivated cotton and the relics excavated at Mohen jadaro are a testi-mony to the proficiency of Indus civilization in the use of cotton as back as 3000 B.C. The first varietyof American cotton was grown on about 2,000 acre in 1914. The American cotton started replacingwith Desi cotton (PCCC, 1983).

The fiber characteristics of commercial varieties show pronounced variation due to place and seasonaleffects besides getting admixed with other varieties thereby loosing the original fiber characteristics(PCCC, 1996).

In some of the North American countries, two most common systems of marketing are being practicedsuch as Cotton Pool Marketing and Cotton Cooperative Marketing in the following ways:

PPooooll MMaarrkkeettiinngg

The pool marketing alternative offered by Plains Cotton Cooperative Association (PCCA) to its membersin the United States has grown throughout the years in both volume and popularity. This attractive mar-keting alternative allows producers to focus on cotton production, leaving the crop marketing to trained

69

professionals, with added oversight of a committee of pool members.

PCCA's Marketing Division is responsible for selling the pool cotton, with guidance and oversight fromthe Marketing Pool Committees. Cotton is sold to U.S. textile mills, foreign textile mills and the cottonmerchant trade, only after analyzing each offering price and comparing it to the equity goals establishedby the Committee. PCCA staff monitors farm program benefits, futures markets and other hedging mech-anisms, and all cost factors on a daily basis to optimize total returns to members. All farm program ben-efits related to marketing are processed by PCCA staff and distributed back to the members in the pay-ments for their cotton. Unlike some other pools, PCCA pays full loan premiums and has the added capa-bility and flexibility to make further quality adjustments during the year in case market differences varysignificantly from loan differences.

Prior to harvest, an initial advance payment is set by PCCA's Board of Directors. The amount of theadvance is decided by a number of market factors. Cotton that is eligible for the loan is advanced the loanvalue as a minimum. Cotton not eligible for the loan does not have a guaranteed advance, but is usuallyfixed at a reasonable discount to the loan level with adjustments made later in the year. Periodic progresspayments are made throughout the year as cotton is sold. After PCCA's year-end on June 30 each year, adividend is declared and book credits of approximately $1.50 per bale are allocated, which should beretired in later years.

Pool members receive the full value achieved from the sale of their cotton less an administrative fee com-posed of the costs incurred in marketing. PCCA's fee is the lowest among pools who disclose their fees,and is generally one or two dollars a bale below the cheapest competitor. Year-in and year-out, PCCApool members will pay much less for marketing than they would selling through other avenues, and theywill always receive the full benefits of price achieved, quality and weight gains, and any savings in ship-ping and handling costs.

Each pool has a Marketing Pool Committee of representatives elected from among its members. TheCommittees meet with PCCA staff on a regular basis, where they receive market reports, discuss salesstrategies, and authorize the marketing division to sell cotton according to current conditions.Members wishing to participate in the pool sign a marketing agreement which can be obtained throughlocal coop gins or from PCCA's Grower Services Department. This marketing agreement is a contract foracreage, not for a specific number of bales. The contract can be for whole-farm or tracts. The agreementremains in effect from year to year unless it is cancelled by the member during the one-month "sign-in/ sign out period" each year, which is in January for the South Texas pool and in April for pool membersin West Texas/Oklahoma/Kansas.

CCooooppeerraattiivvee MMaarrkkeettiinngg

Through Farm Service Agency's (FSA) Cooperative Marketing Association (CMA) Program marketingcooperatives can obtain FSA marketing assistance loans and loan deficiency payments (LDPs) on behalfof their members. After obtaining a loan or LDP, cooperatives subtract their own administrative chargesand distribute the remaining funds to eligible cooperative members. Cooperatives may also pay eligiblemembers additional net proceeds at the end of the marketing season.

The CMA program, begun in 1934 for cotton cooperatives, is funded through USDA's Commodity CreditCorporation.


The CMA program offers participants the same marketing loan and LDP benefits provided to individualeligible producers. Marketing assistance loans and LDPs give cooperatives the financing to store harvest-ed crop production rather than immediately selling the crop. Cooperatives can then market the commod-ity throughout the entire marketing season to obtain the highest market value. Obtaining loans and LDPsthrough cooperatives can provide individual producers more leverage for marketing a commodity.The Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 (2002 Farm Bill) added pulse crops (dry peas,lentils, and small chickpeas) as eligible commodities.

PPaarrttiicciippaattiinngg ccooooppeerraattiivveess mmuusstt mmeeeett aallll ooff tthhee ffoolllloowwiinngg rreeqquuiirreemmeennttss::

at least 50 % of their allocated equity must be owned by active members; at least 50% of their board members must be active members of the cooperative; at least 50% of total annual deliveries for each commodity authorized for a loan or LDP must be delivered by members; a uniform marketing agreement must be initially approved by FSA and executed with each member involved in a loan or LDP; form CCC-846, "Application for Approval of Cooperative Marketing Association for Loan and Loan Deficiency Payments (LDPs)," must be submitted to the Director, Price Support Division, at the address below; a balance sheet prepared by an independent certified public accountant must be submitted to FSA. The sheet must be dated within the previous 12 months and show the cooperative has at least $1 ofcurrent assets for each dollar of current liabilities; and the cooperative must have the capability to electronically transmit program data to FSA. Approved cooperatives must maintain their approved status by annually filing for recertification onform CCC-846-1, "Loan and Loan Deficiency Payment (LDP) Recertification for Approved Cooperative Marketing Associations (CMAs)."Participating cooperatives must use purchase, pricing, seasonal, and other types of commodity poolsin conjunction with loan and LDP activities on the commodity. Separate pools may be established asneeded for different quantities of an eligible commodity. A commodity pool is eligible only if:all of the commodity in the pool is eligible for loans and LDPs; and The commodity was delivered by eligible members covered by an approved uniform marketing agreement.

SSeeeedd MMaarrkkeettiinngg

The recommended/notified and released improved varieties of seeds must be available to the farmerswell in time in sufficient quantity so that the planting schedule is not disturbed. The cost of such highquality seed should moreover be within the reach of average farmer. Therefore, seed marketing is a vitalactivity controlling the supply and price of seeds for the progress in crop production and productivity.The linkage between timely availability of the end product (certified or truthfully labeled seed) with theproduction pipeline is monitored and the quantity of seed of the kind or variety to be produced beingadjusted on the basis of demand calls fro meticulous planning to keep the seed market alive.

CCoonncceepptt

It covers all activities involved in the flow of seeds from production to consumption, i.e. from the firstmultiplication stag of the source/basic seed material upto the distribution of the converted end product,

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multiplied to adequate quantity, to the farmers. Organized marketing of seed would aim at providing thefarmer with adequate quantity of high quality seed of the best varieties so that, he may fully exploit theresults of research on crop improvement and cultivation. Following business functions could be identi-fied in a comprehensive marketing scheme:

Distribution or selling of basic seed (i.e. Foundation seed) produced by National Seed Corporation/State Seed Corporation/Agricultural Universities to seed growers at prices which should not adversely affect the cost of certified seed production.Procurement or collection of seed produces by the seed growers.Processing the seed lots produced into appropriate packages/bags conforming to seed rues.Selling at reasonable price.Making seed available to the buyers in condition which will fulfill specific equipment ( i.e. treatment,packaging, transportation, etc.) and arranging for delivery to a convenient place at a suitable time facilitating the buyers to lift the seed as per demandAdvising seed growers/farmers on best packages of production schedule incorporating the latest technologies developed through research.

BBaassiicc RReeqquuiirreemmeennttss ffoorr SSeeeedd MMaarrkkeettiinngg

Marketing of seeds require special skill. Those who are in charge of such operations should have a broadknowledge of agriculture and commence and should be well aware of the new developments in agricul-ture. Implementation of a sound marketing system, aiming at the eventual improvement of agriculturalproduction and productivity will depend upon the following conditions:

A clear cut national policy for developing the seed industry, defacing the task and responsibilities ofthe public and private economic sections involved.Availability of well defined and adapted varieties.Availability of official information on new varieties, that have been notified and released fro crop production.Ensure variety maintenance and basic seed supply for multiplication.Effective legally enforced control procedures to ensure maintenance for uniform quality level,according to international standards.Comprehensive marketing intelligence to indicate consumer demand and costs.Adequate production, storage, processing and testing facilities for producing and maintaining seed quantities and qualities in accordance to the established standards.Intermediate storage and transportation facilities for the wholesale and retail sales sectors.Reliable information system to keep official and private institution updated on production and supply pattern.

Thus, successful marketing of seed is closely linked to the overall seed situation of a county. It is basical-ly related to the seed industry and is a major component in the country's economic development. Theorganizational chat of a comprehensive seed marketing enterprise is shown in figure.


Recommendations for BMPs in Cotton

Various models have been developed to assess whether crop growth is taking place in a normal wayand inputs are supplied in time and in sufficient quantities. One of the major outcomes of these models is the decision on when to stop irrigation to maximize cotton yield. They are thus an important contribution to BMP in irrigated cotton that may be introduced in Pakistan. Conduct Training of Trainers (TOT) and Farmer Field School (FFS) for the local communities to raiseawareness and train farmers and extension workers in BMPs for cotton. This will raise opportunities to grow more cotton with BMPs.Cotton seed to be planted is necessary to be certified. Any un-certified seed could give low production as well as may transmit any disease or any not-required and not-recommended gene pool.The cotton seeds/varieties like FH-901, BH-160, N-111, CIM-707, CIM-499, CIM-506, VH-142 require first irrigation after 30-40 days of plantation, while the seeds/varieties like CIM-497, CIM-473, CIM-496, FH-900, FH-1000 and N999 need first irrigation after 40-50 days. In other words,the later list of seeds requires comparatively less water as compared to the former one. Varieties withless juicy leaves, more hairy structure and less attractive leaf-color will not attract the pests and thusshowing less vulnerability to the attack of insect pests.Fertilization schedule should be completed before start of September. Application of the fertilizer particularly Urea leads to excessive vegetative growth, which attract heavy pest pressure, and delayin maturity with poor yields.There are several options for adoption of irrigation systems as mentioned before. However, there isneed to develop a low-cost technology drip irrigation system making this accessible to small farmersin Pakistan. We must try to manage the irrigation schedule properly during the month of September. The best way is to apply light irrigation with short interval as per requirements. In this way we shall also beable to manage our cotton field in case it rains.Keeping in view small farmers' case, strip tillage would be more appropriate while preparation ofthe land, as it would leave part of the soil surface covered, while providing a smooth seedbed for planting operations.Higher plant densities provide an earlier cover and thus reduce competition for water from weeds. They also tend to shorten the length of the growing period. As harvesting in small scale farming operations is generally done by hand and higher plant densities of cotton are harvested mechanically this is not an option for small holders. However, twin row cotton, where two rows of cotton are

73

planted on the same bed, could be the intermediate solution, as it will increase plant density while still permitting manual harvesting.There is need to prepare and widely publicize the safe and efficient use of chemical insecticides forthe sake of farm workers health, and effective and timely management of insect pests and diseases of cotton and sugarcane.While pest scouting of cotton fields, it is very useful to take help from qualified persons of pesticidescompanies or of Government Agriculture Departments. These professionals can help us best ofavailable options. The best spraying time to control bollworms is in sunshine excluding noon hours.In order to implement public safety health measure, government should announce a policy framework for the owners and farm workers to use protective clothing as a compulsory measure for application of chemical pesticides.Availability of Sex-pheromone traps is a big problem in Pakistan. These need to be introduced undera mega awareness project so that farming communities are attracted to adopt such products as partof their IPM and ICM programmes.Improve the existing mass-rearing techniques of natural enemies with emphasis on Chrysoperla carnea, Trichogramma chilonis and coccinellid beetles as these could not be still promoted at the commercial level in Pakistan as BMPs for cotton growers.Bio-pesticides such as neem oil, plant extracts and oil based insecticides such as DC-Tron, and microbial pesticides as well as insect growth regulators to be promoted in Pakistan as they have nohazardous impact neither on natural enemies nor on the environment.IPM programme must be very efficient during September because only this month brings about morethan 60% of total yield. Therefore we need to remain very alert and attentive. We must visit our fieldsdaily & our spray program should be according to the requirements.Print brochures, pamphlets, etc. for providing proper guidelines to the farmers for application ofBMPs.Demonstration of cotton BMPs over large areas with the involvement of farmers to disseminate theinformation for ultimate objectives of productivity enhancement in the context of environmental conservation.Organize workshops involving Agriculture Extension Department because Governments are important stakeholders at mass-scale. They have more access to field level crops. Without their involvement, BMPs in cotton cannot be promoted at the community level.Help and train willing farmers to establish their own facilities for promotion of identified and provenBMPs.Supervise farmers' biological laboratories and field releasesOrganize BMPs study tours of the farmers from one cotton area to other. This will raise the level ofawareness and promote the approach of community IPM and cooperative farming among them.Conduct awareness workshops for women on IPM as one of the important tools of BMPs for harmful effects of insecticides especially during cotton picking. Women are greatly exposed to insecticidesduring cotton picking season in Pakistan. They need to be educated as part of public safety and farmworkers safety programmes.The level of advocacy may be enhanced to convince government for preparing a sound BMPs policywhich could be implemented by equal involvement of NGOs and Government.The partnership Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) may be signed with major NGOs and Research Institutions in the country to demonstrate and replicate the BMPs for overall benefit of thefarming communities. The new varieties should be selected on water use efficiency, drought resistance and length of growing period. Research into the feasibility of the introduction of promising varieties in other cotton


growing areas is therefore recommended.Careless handling of cotton during picking and transport results in its contamination with moisture,immature bolls, twigs, leaves, human and animal hair, cigarettes, jute twines, ropes, shoppers, plastic fibers, toffee wrappers etc. To avoid contamination, start cotton picking only when 50% bolls areopen, do not pick half-opened bills and pick cotton when dew dries off. Pickers should completely cover their head with a cloth made of cotton and use cotton cloth as picking `pallies.' Begin pickingfrom lower parts of plants and go upwards gradually.

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Soil Health and Fertility

Soil and organic matter

Addition of organic matter in soil improves the physico-chemical and biological properties of soil. Thecultivated soils in tropical tracts may contain 2-5% organic matter. 1-2% organic matter is considered anormal level of cultivated soils. In arid and semi arid regions, the organic matter is considerably low dueto oxidation process. The soil having less than I% organic matters are organic deficient soils (Azam et al.,2001). The organic deficient soils are sick soils that can not enrich plant nutrients. Plant growth is stunt-ed and plants give pale appearance (Malik, 2006).

There are various sources of organic matter or farm-yard manure (FYM), green manure crops insequence or as an intercrop, sugar mills waste (filter press cake and bio-compost in cane fields), cropresidues (Nasir & Qureshi, 1999a).

FYM is often used for improving land productivity for better crops yields. To obtain potential yields; 50%of total N requirements should be made available in the form of FYM and 50% applied in the form offertilizer (Fasihi and Malik, 1989). In some later studies it was concluded that N application @ 112KgN ha' in the form of chemical fertilizer in addition to a basal dressing of FYM @ 56 Kg N ha was an opti-mum dose to obtain good yield of cane. The FYM if applied alone may be considered as a good soilimprover rather than nutrient supplier. High pH soils are known to pose problem of P fixation thusreducing nutrient availability to plants. Application of inorganic fertilizer to soils, after thorough mix-ing with well rotten FYM, has been found to reduce the fixation of applied phosphorus and enhancescrop yields (Sharif et al., 1966; Chaudhary and Qureshi, 1980). It was observed that FYM mobilizesother nutrients especially P for better uptake by plant. The FYM @ 350 Kg ha applied in furrow at plant-ing in conjunction with basal fertilizer dose of 50:84:168 NPK half, followed by later application of N175 Kg N, gave the highest yield of cane over NPK fertilizer alone treatment. This small amount of FYMchanges the micro-climate around seed setts, lowers pH and brings the salts like P, Zn, Mn, Bo into avail-able form.

During cane harvesting, cane trash is left on surface of the fields, and cane growers mostly get rid of thetrash by burning, while stubbles are up rooted. Burning cane trash is a usual practice in Indo-Pakistansub-continent. But, if stubble roots and trash are retained cane act as very useful mulch and when thisvoluminous mass is turned under in soil, it is the valuable organic matter.

Intensive cultivation changes soil and failure to understand these changes in chemical and biologicalproperties has been responsible for fall of great civilization of the past. Sugar centre throughout theworld having high standards of mill technology and strong capital position often neglect field research(Humbert, 1968).

Some salts that are harmless in lower concentration may actually become toxic to cane in high concen-trations. Boron, Lithium are examples of ions that are toxic even in lower amount and chloride andbicarbonate are examples which are toxic when present in high concentrations (Rizk and Normand,1966; Russell, 1950; Shaw, 1952).

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9. PART-II : SUGARCANE

Trash Mulch increase soil temperature during winter & decrease temperature during hot dry weather,increase in soil temperature save the crop from frost hazards, decrease in soil temperature help decreasesurface evaporation, conserve moisture and check evaporation losses of water, suppress weed growth;cane grows with out weed competition for nutrients and shade, preserves parasites and predators, favor-able micro-climate for soil bacteria and microbes, increase organic matter in soil and accelerate miner-alization and recycling of nutrients (Malik, 2006).

In Australia almost all the crop is harvested green by chip cutter harvesters. While using chip cutter har-vesters, green tops and trash is automatically turned into small shredders and is simultaneously blownaway to settle on cane field in a uniform layer as a blanket, called as green cane trash blanket (GCTB).Later on as the shoots start emerging, GCTB is slightly removed from cane rows with special implementsand staked in inter-row spaces. Thereafter as the stubbles complete sprouting the GCTB is incorporatedin the inter row spaces of the cane field.

GGrreeeenn mmaannuurree

Sugarcane monoculture or exhaustive crops in rotation deplete the soil fertility and land productivity hasto be replenished by incorporating organic manures, farm yard manure in soil. Since organic manuresare not available in desired quantity, green manuring is the best option to sustain the productivity ofland. The best selection would be a legume crop with good vegetative growth. The use of legume crop asgreen manure is due to its ability to trap atmospheric nitrogen in its roots through complex bio-chemi-cal process.

LLeegguummeess aass iinntteerrccrroopp iinn ssuuggaarrccaannee

Among the winter legumes, inter cropping of Berseem, Lentil and Peas reduced cane yield by 31.6, 24.3and 17.3% respectively over the yield of autumn cane alone (Singh and Yadav, 1992). But when legumecrops were grown as fodder like Berseem, Lucerne and Metha were incorporated in inter-row spacesduring December and January, gave an increase in yield of cane over cane alone. Juice quality was alsoimproved. The intercrop is also a source of income in interim period. Unlike other exhaustive crops,growing legumes sustains the soil productivity, reflecting its effect on the following crop.

While planting a green manure crop, it may be kept in view that the crop variety grown for seed doesnot show luxuriant growth to shadow the cane rows. Intercrop legume showing luxuriant growth if isburied under soon would increase the yield of cane. TSE and shiue (1965) stated that cane yieldincreased up to 80% when legumes crops were intercropped. Mung followed by soybean was the mostprofitable, while sesame was not worth.

Ishaq and Ali (1972) studied the economic aspects of intercropping of sugarcane with mung under nor-mal conditions and found inter cropping of mung in cane did not show any adverse effect on cane yieldbut on the other hand increased seed production of mung and increased security against financial lossin case of poor yield when mung was grown alone.

Chougule and Sangahavi (1977) found intercropping of Lady finger and soybean affected cane growthparameters and final yield, but not germination. While the profit was greater from intercrop + canethan from cane alone, lady finger + cane proved to be the most profitable combination.


Narwal and Bhel (1978) observed that when sugarcane was intercropped with different crops, the yieldwas highest (627.6 Q/ha) and was obtained from cane planted at 90cm aparted and intercropped withokra.

Yamaguchi (1979) compared planting of 67.50cm row × 60cm with the standard 135cm row × 30cmplant spacing maintaining same number of the plants per acre in each case he found that intercroppingmung gave good result and cane yield over standard planting.

Shantha et al., (1986) conducted trial for two seasons when sugarcane was intercropped with soybeanCv Monetta or grown in mono culture. The benefit cost ratio was highest when 2 rows of soybeans weregrown in the inter rows.

SSuuggaarrccaannee pprreessss mmuudd // ffiilltteerr ccaakkee

Sugarcane press mud, filter mud or filter cake is a major cane processing waste, typically recovered frompress and vacuum filters when sludge from the clarification process is dewatered. Nasir and Qureshi(1999b) estimate that the Pakistan sugar industry produces around 1 Mt of filter cake each year. Paturau(1989) suggests that around 3.5% filter mud per weight of cane is typically produced, containing col-loidal organic matter, some 15-30% fiber, 5-15% crude protein, 5-15% sugar, 5-15% crude wax andfats and 10-20% ash, including oxides of Si, Ca, P, Mg and K.

For disposal purposes, filter mud can be handled dry or it may be mixed with water and then dischargeddirectly, settled or impounded (UNEP, 1982). In addition to its possible value as a fertilizer / soil amend-ment, various other uses have been recognized for filter mud, notably in animal feeds and as a source ofwax (Paturau, 1989).

The overall impact of unprocessed mud as well as the processed mud as compost has been found high-ly encouraging in different sugarcane growing areas of Pakistan although some of the farmers andDepartment of Agriculture Extension have some reservations.

IImmppaacctt ooff tthhee PPrroocceesssseedd MMuudd

The yield of the crops has been quite encouraging where compost was applied compared to those crops where it was not used. Similarly, the number of harmful insects was also low where compostor unprocessed mud had been used by the growers and Mills Management.

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Processed mud compost contains 60 - 70% organic matter that enhances land fertility and increases sugarcane yield by 85%. Mud compost contains nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and sulphateswhich are highly useful to enhance land fertility. It also possesses water conservation capacity, whichfulfils water requirement of the lands. Mud compost can be used for all types of soils. However, it isvery useful for sandy and deserted lands.In a sugar factory Filter Press Cake (FPC) is derived during the process of clarification of cane juiceand constitutes the precipitated impurities removed in filtration process. Composition of FPC varieswith cane variety, cane harvesting system and the chemicals used Considering the comparative composition of deification FPC and the carbonation FPC, the former is more useful as slow release organic fertilizer due to high organic matter and higher N P K contents.

While the FPC is kept lying in heaps, in open environment, may catch fire with rise in temperatureand gradually burn to ashes. It thus looses nutrients and carbon compound. For its proper utilization it should either be enriched to make it a stable compound or it should be shifted to field a freshas it is hauled out of the factory.

Effective Microorganism (EM) solution is reported to accelerate the composting process in FPC (Hussain et al., 1998). The EM solution is claimed to contain some photosynthetic and lactic acid bacteria, yeast, actinornycetes and fermenting fungi, which accelerates the fermentation and decomposition process of FPC.

Composting of distillery effluent with press mud has given the best results in enhancing the nutritive value of the compound. The press mud is treated with 25%of the distillery affluent in open areaand it almost takes 30 days for stabilization of composting process. Nutritional value of Bio-compostis far greater than the nutrient value of FPC and farmyard manure (Afghan and Qureshi, 1994).

Generally the FPC contains large amount of NPK and other elements that can enrich the soil fertility. The N is present in proteins and other more simple amino acids or in nitric form. The N contentbecomes available on microbial degradation of FPC. The phosphorus is present as complex organiccompounds such as phospholipids, nucleoproteins and calcium phosphate formed during clarification process. Potassium content is low to the extent of 0.6 to 0.8%, unless enriched by addition ofdistillery waste the vinase and or fly ash.

The bio-compost applied @ 20 t/ha alone and with fertilizer (100 Kg N ha) gave a significant increase in yield of cane. In another study bio-compost prepared from filter cake and stillage gave23.5% higher yield of cane than obtained from control. The bio-compost increased the fertilizer useefficiency of NPK thus saving in the use of costly fertilizer through complimentary effect (Nasir et al., 1994).

WWaatteerr

Sugarcane is a crop that requires higher quantities of water. Currently, we are facing a water shortageproblem in the country. Water requirements and water situation in the country is presented below.

Concerns over exploitation of available water resources for cane cultivation have been identified asmajor limiting factor to cane cultivation. The development of strategies to improve the efficiency of caneirrigation can concentrate on increasing the application of efficiency of water applied that is stored in


the root zone; varying the timings and quantities of water applied to maximize the crop response(Robertson et al., 1997). It is important to consider estimation of crop water requirement, monitoring ofwater use, irrigation scheduling, irrigation system characteristics, source of irrigation water, mainte-nance of irrigation infrastructure and availability of knowledge and training (Cheesman, 2004).

Following are the suggested method for reducing quantity of water

Improvement of on farm water storage system,Cultivation of drought tolerant varieties,Management of fertilizer application,Soil amendments,Foliar application of fertilizers,Weed control,Planting time,Row spacing (Cheesman, 2004).

The unplanned sugarcane planting without keeping in view the water availability results in the dilutionof resources and ultimately the crop suffers from various biotic and a biotic stresses giving very pooryield and production of poor quality cane with low sugar contents (Akhtar, 2004).

FFeerrttiilliizzeerrss

Imbalanced use of fertilizers not only reduce cane yield but also affects the sugar recovery. Applicationof fertilizers increases the shoot and root ratio in the soil deficient in nutrition (Rao and Negi, 1956;Varahalu, 1936). Excess of bagass and cane trash of cleaning plants at the mill have been used effective-ly to improve the physical condition of many soils and thus increase cane and sugar produced (Ewartand Humbert, 1960). It has been demonstrated that phosphate and potash fertilizer when broadcast andmixed into the surface soil, become fixed and consequently there is lower efficiency than when proper-ly placed in relation to the root system (Prummel, 1957).

The appropriate use of fertilizers and agro chemicals in the cultivation of sugar (and other) crops canbe an important factor in maintaining soil fertility and preventing devastating crop losses associated withweed infestations and outbreaks of pests and diseases. However, poorly managed applications can resultin very serious environmental pollution and have consequences for human health. A range of fertilizers,pesticides and other agrochemicals are used in the cultivation of sugar crops. The specific substancesused, their application rates and means of application vary considerably between localities, and theirenvironmental fate is dependent on a range of factors, including soil type, climate and land use manage-ment practices (Knappe and Haferkorn, 2001).

Samneles et al., (1952) reported decreased cane tonnage and sucrose percentage with the application ofN beyond 189 kg/ha. Lower doses were not harmful for sugar cane either to sucrose content or tonnage.Siddiki et al.,(1967) at Tandojam found that the application of 90 kg N/ha in two split doses increasedthe yield of sugar cane by 16 tons per hectare and recommended it an optimum and economical dosefor Hyderabad region. George (1995) suggested that in general, cane yield increased by about one tonper every 7 kg N/ha applied in the form of commercial fertilizer. The addition of 45 kg P2O5 along with67 kg K2O /ha increased the yield of sugar cane by about 5 tons than the use of 67-122 kg N alone.

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According to Toit (1957), the response of sugarcane to nitrogen application too was far greater in ratoonas compared to plant crop.

Okas and Skow (1969) reported that N at 160 kg/ha or more produced significant increase in cane yieldand sucrose percentage. Although P2O5 and K2O application in the same quantities did not appreciablyinfluence the yield. The use of these elements in the absence of N did not increase the yield over con-trol. They further noticed that the sucrose content of plant crop was significantly less than the sucrosecontents of ratoon crop. In the second and third ratoon crop, sucrose content decreased progressively.The unfertilized cane tended to reduce sucrose contents.

NNuuttrriieenntt MMaannaaggeemmeenntt

A sound soil fertility program is the foundation upon which a profitable farming business must be built.The fertilizer nutrients that have potential to become groundwater or surface water pollutants are nitro-gen and phosphorus. In general, other commonly used fertilizer nutrients do not cause concern as pol-lutants. Because erosion and runoff are the two major ways nonpointsource pollutants move into sur-face water resources, practices that reduce erosion or runoff are considered Best Management Practices(BMPs) (Benjamin, 2000).

A crop well supplied with N can produce substantially higher yields, on the same amount of water, thanone deficient in N. Properly fertilized crops use both N and water more efficiently, thus improving envi-ronmental quality and profitability. Excessive nitrate concentrations in water can accelerate algae andplant growth in streams and lakes, resulting in oxygen depletion. Nitrate con-centrations above a certainlevel in drinking water may injure some animals or human infants (Benjamin, 2000).

CCoonnsseerrvvaattiioonn TTiillllaaggee

Conservation tillage practices have a positive impact on improving or maintaining water quality in addi-tion to reducing soil erosion. Sediment and chemicals (pesticides and plant nutrients) are the two maintypes of contaminants in surface runoff. The reduced soil erosion from conservation tillage systems,compared with conventional tillage systems, beneficially decreases the problems associated with sedi-ment in water. Conservation tillage practices also affect the chemical losses in surface runoff water andsediment. Surface drainage water and sediment can carry dissolved nutrients and pesticides into rivers,bayous and lakes (Benjamin, 2000).

Conservation tillage usually reduces the amount of runoff, but the amount of reduction is highly vari-able. Less runoff generally means less chemical loss, but this depends on the amount of plant litter onthe soil (soil exposure) and the timing and duration of rainfall. Following are the other related conser-vation practices in the context of soil and water management (Benjamin, 2000):

LLaanndd SSmmooootthhiinngg

The removing of irregularities on the land surface by use of special equipment. This improves surfacedrainage, provides for more effective use of precipitation, obtains more uniform planting depths, pro-vides for more uniform cultivation, improves equipment operation and efficiency, improves terracealignment and facilitates contour cultivation.


RReegguullaattiinngg WWaatteerr iinn DDrraaiinnaaggee SSyysstteemm

Controlling the removal of surface runoff, primarily through the operation of water control structures.It is designed to conserve surface water by controlling the outflow from drainage systems.

SSuurrffaaccee DDrraaiinnaaggee - FFiieelldd DDiittcchh

A graded ditch for collecting excess water in a field or for irrigation water drainage. This practice inter-cepts or collects surface water and carries it to an outlet.

IIrrrriiggaattiioonn CCaannaall oorr LLaatteerraall

A permanent irrigation canal or lateral constructed to move water from the source of supply to one ormore farms. The conservation objectives are to prevent erosion or degradation of water quality or dam-age to land, to make possible proper water use and to move water efficiently.

CCoonnttrroolllleedd DDrraaiinnaaggee

The control of surface water through the use of drainage facilities and water control structures. Its pur-pose is to conserve water and maintain optimum soil moisture. It is designed to store and manage rain-fall for more efficient crop production. It improves surface water quality by increasing infiltration,thereby reducing runoff that may carry sediment into nearby water bodies.

LLiinneedd WWaatteerrwwaayy oorr OOuuttlleett

A waterway or outlet having an erosion-resistant lining of concrete, stone or other permanent material.The lined section extends up the side slopes of the outlet. It provides for efficient flow of runoff withoutdamage from erosion.

OOppeenn CChhaannnneell

The constructing or improving of a channel, either natural or artificial, in which water flows with a freesurface. It provides discharge capacity required for flood prevention, drainage or a combination of thesepurposes.

GGrraasssseedd WWaatteerrwwaayyss

These are natural or constructed channels that are shaped or graded to required dimensions and estab-lished in suitable vegetation for the stable conveyance of runoff. They are designed to convey runoffwithout causing erosion or flooding and to improve water quality.

FFiieelldd BBoorrddeerrss

Similar to vegetated filter strips, field borders provide a physical separation between adjacent areas, suchas between a crop field and a body of water. Unlike filter strips, field borders zones may not necessarilybe designed to filter water that flows through them.

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CCoorrrriiddoorrss

A corridor is any combination of grasses, legumes, shrubs and trees used to link separate wildlife habi-tats and provide cover for wildlife to travel between habitats. Corridors, like vegetated filter strips, mayprovide some filtering of pollutants from nearby croplands, but primarily provide benefits for wildlifeand divert wildlife from adjacent fields.

RRiippaarriiaann ZZoonneess

A riparian zone consists of the land adjacent to and including a stream, river or other area that is at leastperiodically influenced by flooding in a natural state. Similar to vegetated filter strips, plants in riparianareas effectively prevent sediment, chemicals and organic matter from entering bodies of water. Unlikefilter strips, riparian zones use plants that are of a higher order, such as trees or shrubs, as well as grass-es or legumes. Vegetated filter strips are often used in riparian areas as initial filtering components nextto crop field borders.

MMaannaaggiinngg SSooiill EErroossiioonn

In agronomic terms, soil erosion is a major problem, resulting in absolute loss of fundamental resourceor redistributing organic matter and nutrient-rich material at a landscape scale, along slopes(Schwertmann, 1986). Soil erosion also represents a substantial environmental threat, through landdegradation and the washing of sediments, associated nutrients and agro-chemicals into surface waters.The erodability of soil varies considerably with soil type, depending upon the stability of soil aggregatesand the percentage of coarse primary particles resistant to erosion (Morgan, 1986).

The presence of vegetation including crops reduces the risk of erosion by consolidating the soil and pro-tecting bare ground against direct exposure to water inputs.

In addition to modified tillage and mulching, following measures are useful BMPs to reduce soil erosion:

Field layout (Landrey, 1978b)Terracing (Landrey, 1978b; Armas et al., 1991; Gardiner and Cazalet, 1991; Ferrer and Venegas Chacon and Vos, 1999).Contour planting (Lio, 1972; Armas et al., 1991; Gawander, 1998a; Venegas Chacon and Vos, 1999).Strip tillage / planting (de Boer, 1997; Bakker, 1999; SASA, 2002).Hedgerows / vegetation 'live barriers' (Garrity, 1993; Mangisoni and Phiri, 1996; Gawander, 1998a,b).Drainage ditch design (Liao, 1979; Vanegas Chacon and Vos, 1999).Cover crops (Scandaliaris et al., 2002).Enhanced vegetation of watercourses (Landrey, 1978a; Tudor-Owen and Wyatt, 1991).Soil amendments (Peng and Twu, 1980; Finegan, 1990).

BBeetttteerr ssooiill mmaannaaggeemmeenntt ffoorr ffoooodd sseeccuurriittyy

Soil bulk density which measures of compactness, greatly affects the plant growth by restricting rootpenetration. Soil bulk density is increased due to use of heavy machinery, erosion and loss of soil organ-ic matter (SOM) (Sabir and Ghafoor, 2006).


About seven million hectares is salt affected which is increasing due to shortage of good quality waterand use of brackish groundwater (having high EC, SAR and RSC). Shortage of good quality water, lowand variable rainfall pattern compels farmers to use brackish groundwater for irrigation.

About 70-80% underground water is brackish and unfit for irrigation. Water-logging results in salini-sation due to solublization of the salts present in lower layer and movement to surface. Water-loggingadversely affects crop growth. Water erosion has affected about 7.2 million hectares. Erosion leads to theloss of top-layer productivity and decreases potentials of crop growth. Wind erosion is common indrought hit areas and about two million hectares is affected due to it.

Farmers use high rates of nitrogen, low rate of phosphorus and no potassium. The NPK ratio in Pakistanis 1:0.26: 01 against the 1:0, 4:0.27 in Europe and 1:0.4:0.2 in China. As a result soil nutrients aredepleted and result in poor crop stand and low Yields.

The better management strategies can be enumerated as follows:

Using adequate and balanced fertilizers. Improving fertilizer use efficiency. Improving water use efficiency. Economical and safe use of brackish water for growing crops. Improving organic matter contents of soils. Reclamation of salt-affected and waterlogged soils.Reducing water erosion c\by better harvesting of water during rainy season and maintaining soil cover.

Seed Health, Plantation and GMOs

SSeeeedd qquuaalliittyy

Seed quality is the sum of all attributes contributing to seed performance. The quality of seed can decidewhether the farmer's crop will be good, bad, or indifferent. Seed quality is determined by the followingcharacteristics (Nazir et al., 1998).

Genetic purityPhysical purityGermination percentage or viabilityIncidence of seed-born diseases Density (weight per volume or number)VigourMoisture contentStorability

FFaaccttoorr aaffffeeccttiinngg sseeeedd qquuaalliittyy

The following factors affect the storage life of seed.

85

HumidityTemperatureAir (oxygen and carbon dioxide content)Direct sunlightKinds of seedKinds and number of fumigationEffect of seed treatmentAttack by rodents, insert, and moulds

In addition to fertilizers and pesticides, chemical ripeners may be applied to sugarcane crops to facili-tate harvesting and increase sugar recovery. According to Alexander (1985) conservation or even zerotillage in order to control a range of environmental problems is associated with the cultivation of sugarcrops. However, increased (deep) tillage has also been recommended in a number of cases, to addressparticular issues. For example, where soils are compact, deep tillage may be practiced in order to loosenthe subsoil. However, this has the potential to do more harm than good (according to soil type and localconditions), impairing soil quality in the surface layers and possibly even resulting in greater compactionproblems in the longer term. In some systems, deep tillage has been recommended to enhance water con-servation and reduce soil erosion, as in cane cultivation in Sulawesi (Subagio and Mumwandono, 1992).

UUssee ooff IImmpprrooppeerr VVaarriieettyy aanndd PPoooorr QQuuaalliittyy SSeeeedd

Availability of the seed of the improved varieties has always been a problem, particularly when a newvariety is released. There is a greater possibility that the seed being used by the farmers may be infestedwith some diseases. Proper seed treatment, like hot water and fungicide treatment, is not practiced.

VVaarriieettiieess

Healthy seed of improved recommended varieties of sugarcane should be cultivated. This can increasecane yield from 20 to 30 per cent. Sugarcane varieties Co-1148 and Disko are cultivated on large scalein the Punjab and Upper Sindh. Both are late maturating and have low sugar content. Since there is noincentive for higher sugar content varieties; therefore farmer go for these varieties. Recommended sug-arcane varieties for various provinces as per (Akhtar, 2004), are:

PPuunnjjaabbEarly maturing: BL-4, BF-162, CP 43 -33, CP 72-2086, CP 77- 400, SPSG-26, CPF-237, HSF-

240, SPF-234. (New varieties developed by Sugarcane Research Institute,Faisalabad are HSF - 242, SPF - 245 and CPF - 243).

Mid Season: SPF-213Late maturing COJ-84

SSiinnddhhLower SindhEarly maturing: BL-4, Thatta- 10, SPSG-26Mid Season: PR-1000, BF-129Late maturing NIA- 98


UUppppeerr SSiinnddhhEarly maturing: BL-4, L-113, L-116, Triton, SPSG-26Late maturing NIA-98

NNWWFFPPEarly maturing: CP- 48 -103, CP- 51-21, CP- 65- 357, CMP-13, CO-132, Mardan 93, SPSG-26Mid Season: CP-77- 400, CP 44- 101, IM-61, L-62-96, Mardan-92, Bannu-1.

Source: Akhtar, 2004

The sugarcane clones which showed better performance in second selection cycle were promoted tothird selection cycle for further varietal improvement (Panwar et al., 2003) and evaluation of varietiesfor quality characteristics must be studied (Habib et al., 1992; Zafar et al., 2003).

A couple of years back, Pakistan fell short of new sugarcane varieties. More than 95% of the area wasunder BL4. However, gradually the variety stated deteriorating and consequently, the yield potential ofthe variety declined. This affected the economic generating capacity of the growers mostly in the mid-dle and upper Sindh areas and Punjab However the situation started improving after the introduction ofnew varieties A majority of the growers are still not able to achieve the maximum benefits out of thesevarieties because a majority of them are not aware of the production technology of the individual vari-ety.In general thin sugarcane varieties have more potential as compared to the thick varieties because ofeasy management, less irrigation water, resistance to pests, better ratooning capabilities (Table.5).

UUssee ooff llooww SSeeeedd RRaattee

Proper plant population is the master key to get maximum crop yields provided that all other manage-ment factors are properly applied. Germination in sugarcane is usually 40% to 60% depending upon theseed source, part of the cane used as seed and soil conditions. In sugarcane most of the farmers usuallyuse very low seed rate which results in lower plant population, causing a serious reduction in final caneyield.(Akhtar, 2004).

87

SSeeeedd ttrreeaattmmeenntt

Dipping of seed setts in fungicide solution disinfects the cut ends and provides protection against inva-sion by soil born organisms. Fungicides could be either sprayed on the setts or the seed pieces could bedipped into the following fungicide solutions for 5 minutes.

i) Dithane M-45: One kg fungicide in 400 litres of water. 1 kg fungicide is sufficient to treat seedof one acre.

ii) Benlate: 1 kg fungicide in 1600 litres of water. 250 gms. of fungicides are sufficient to treat cane seed for one acre.

iii) Vitavax: 1 kg fungicide in 800 litres of water. 500 gms.of fungicides are sufficient to treatcane seed for one acre.


Table.5. Cane yield potential and sugar recovery of some commercial sugarcane varieties in the country:

Variety Province Maturity group

Cane yield

(t ha-1)

Sugar recovery

(%)

BL-4 Punjab Early 100 10.2

CP 77-400 Punjab Early 100 12.7



CPF-237 Punjab Early 110 12.5

SPF-213 Punjab Mid 100 12.0

BL-4 Sindh Early 200 11.2

BF-129 Sindh Mid 200 10.3

BL-19 Sindh Early 180 11.0

Trition Sindh Early 200 10.7

Mardan-92 N.W.F.P. Mid 100 12.0

Mardan-93 N.W.F.P. Early 100 12.5

CP 77-400 N.W.F.P. Mid 80 11.8

CP 65-357 N.W.F.P. Early 70 12.8

Source: Akhtar, 2004

CCuullttiivvaattiioonn ooff VVaarriieettiieess wwiitthh LLooww SSuuggaarr CCoonntteenntt

Sugarcane varieties CO-1148 and Disko occupy a large acreage in the Punjab and Upper Sindh, respec-tively. Both of these varieties are late in maturing and have low sugar contents. At the start of the crush-ing season, these varieties result in the drop of sugar recoveries to an undesirable level. Since there is noincentive on high sugar content varieties, cane growers prefer to plant varieties like CO- 1148 and Diskofor their higher cane yield, and better ratooning.

AApppplliiccaattiioonn ooff GGeeooggrraapphhiicc IInnffoorrmmaattiioonn SSyysstteemm ((GGIISS))

There is little understanding of GIS for sugarcane crop production in Pakistan. Geographic InformationSystem (GIS) and its growing interest/utilization in the sugar industry world wide for mapping, inter-preting, analyzing and modeling data. GIS is well established in many industries dealing with geograph-ical distribution of resources. It is estimated that up to 70% of all information about cane could be linkedto a specific location and could be better used through GIS.

1. Increased environmental pressures on the sugar industry in Pakistan increase the need for environmental information. This technology has the potential to be used to map sugarcane varieties, crop water stresses, nutritional deficiencies, crop response to ripeness, drainage and irrigation problems,pest and this ease infestations and soil characteristics. Early warning regarding the above would allow timely management interventions and improved profits.

2. Soil erosion is one of the major environmental impacts of sugarcane agriculture. While there is noaccurate procedure for estimating soil erosion potential for catchments, empirical equation such asthe Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) have been widely used for this purpose. Use of the USLE in a GIS environment allows mapping of soil erosion potential based on GIS coverage of Soil erodability - derived from soil maps such as the Land Type map series, Rainfall ero - derived from relationships with mean annual rainfall, slop length and steepness - derived from an altitude grid, land used- derived from satellite data, management practices.

PPllaannttiinngg ttiimmee,, MMeetthhoodd aanndd SSeeeedd rraattee

There are two planting seasons: fall and spring. Fall planting starts from the first week of September andcontinues to mid-October in the Punjab and Sindh, while in the NWFP planting is done in October andNovember. Spring planting starts from mid-February and lasts until the end of March in the Punjab andSindh. These planting times are strictly observed because late planting can reduce the yield by as muchas 30%.

Both dry and wet methods of planting are used depending upon the soil condition, water availability,planting time, etc. Double-cut setts are placed end to end in furrows at a depth of 8-12cm and coveredwith 5-6cm soil. In the dry method, immediate irrigation is essential, with subsequent irrigations at shortintervals. However, in other cane-growing countries of the world, seed pieces are usually planted inmechanically formed furrows about 25cm deep and then covered with soil to a depth of about 5cm orless.

Sugarcane should be planted in September rather than in Feb.-March at a row spacing of 90cm to 1 m,as September planted crops usually produces 20% to 35% higher cane yield. Two budded double setts

89

should be placed end to end in the furrows dowered with 2 to 3cm soil layer. About 80 to 100 maunds(3.25 to 4 tonnes) seed of thin cane varieties and 100 to 120 maunds (4 to 5 tonnes) seed of thick vari-eties is sufficient to plant one acre (Akhtar, 2004).

In Java, the practice is to only partly covering the seed pieces in the moist planting season, which favoursgermination, and then to earth up when the plants have germinated. In cooler or drier climates a some-what deeper planting depth can be advantageous. The best depth to cover the seed pieces is largely afunction of climate and soil drainage. In developed countries, planting machines are used which save agreat deal of labour

SSeeeedd rraattee aanndd ppllaannttiinngg ppaatttteerrnn

Appropriate seed rate and spacing are often ignored by farmers, with the result that the optimum plantpopulation, which is the key factor in sugarcane production, is not achieved in the field. The seed rateand spacing between rows differ with variety. Thick-cane cultivars like 'BL-4', 'Triton', and 'PR-1000'require a higher seed rate and more space between the rows than thin and medium-cane varieties. Eightto nine tonnes of stripped cane per hectare for thick varieties, and six to seven tonnes for medium to thinvarieties is sufficient to produce a desired plant population of about 0.15 million canes/ha. A spacing of1 m between the rows of thick varieties, and 0.60-0.75 m for thin to medium varieties allows sufficientspace for operations like interculture and earthing up.

Strip planting. A versatile system of planting sugarcane in well-spaced, double-row strips without affect-ing the number of rows and seed rate/ha has been designed and studied intensively for five years in theDepartment of Agronomy of the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (UAF). This system has proved tobe superior to the conventional 60cm-apart, single-row planting system. Paired-row strip planting with90cm between the strips and 30cm between the two rows of each strip has not only given higher caneyield than the traditional single-row planting system (Table.6), but has also shown the following advan-tages:

Facilitates interculture and earthing up of the crop without damaging the roots. Affects a 50% reduction in the number of inter-strip ditches/furrows, thus conserving irrigation water and saving almost 50% in labour and time required for earthing up. Allows efficient and expeditious interculture and earthing up with tractor or bullock-drawn implements. Permits systematic planting and handling of intercrops without affecting the associated cane crop. Moreover, planting of the main and intercrop competition, but also enables the grower to meet thevarying fertilizer requirements, growth patterns, and planting times of different crops. Eliminates the chance of patchy crop stands since the rows are closely planted. Facilitates easy application of herbicides since the strips are well spaced. Prevents lodging in case of unusual wind or rain since the strips provide plant support. Improves the air circulation and light penetration which enhances the photosynthetic efficiency ofthe plants and thus their growth and quality. Causes better ratooning and also allows more effective stubble shaving, which promotes sprouting. Reduces crop damage from trampling by wild boars looking for a space to rest.


PPiitt ppllaannttaattiioonn

This technology was developed at UAF in which sugarcane is planted in 100 x 100cm pits, 50cm apart,with a seeding density of 30 two-budded setts per pit, instead of the standard 90cm apart double-rowstrip planting system with a planting density of about 10 two-budded setts per square meter. The plant-ing densities per hectare in the pit method and the double-row strip system were 133,320 (4444pits/ha) and 100,000 two-budded setts, respectively. Pits were dug to a depth of 60 cm and refilled tothe level of 45cm with the same soil along with 5 kg of well-rotted FYM per pit mixed well with the soil.The pits were irrigated using the basin method and the flat-planted plots by the flood method. Pits weredug at zero tillage, and no hoeing or earthing up was done to the pit-planted sugarcane, while the flat-planted crop was given normal tillage operations including hoeing and earthing up. Fertilizer at the rateof 150-100-100 kg NPK/ha was placed inside the pits, while in the case of flat planting it was appliedclose to the rows of each strip. The cultivar used was 'BF-162'. The sugarcane was planted in Septemberand harvested the next year in November. Sugarcane planted in pits gave substantially higher cane yield(222-289 t/ha) than the flat, double-row strip planting system (133-138 t/ha). It also has the follow-ing agro-economic advantages:

Reduces lodging since the plants are firmly anchored in the pits, thereby increasing leaf area, promoting air circulation, and allowing penetration of light. All these contribute towards improving thequality of the cane and extending its growth until late in the season. Conserves irrigation water and applied fertilizers and manure. Compared to planting on flat land,the irrigation interval in pit-planted cane can therefore be increased by four to five days without riskof water stress. Enables the intercropping of lentil, pea, gram, and wheat in autumn-planted cane; and mung, mash,and cowpea in spring-planted cane without competition for moisture with the sugarcane, because the crops grown on the raised beds between the pits have their own root zone. Eliminates expenditure on tillage, hoeing, and earthing up because pits are dug at zero tillage, and no subsequent tillage operations are carried out in the pit-planted crop. Facilitates mulching to conserve soil moisture and efficient use of herbicides and pesticides. Promotes better ratooning, permitting three to four ratoons without soil compaction on weed infestation.

To raise a healthy crop of seed cane, it is essential that seed be taken from a well-nourished crop free ofpests and diseases. To grow healthy seeds, separate seed nurseries are maintained. Ton ensures betteravailability of nutrients to germinated setts, an additional dose of 25-30 kg N/ha is applied to a seedcrop. Generally, commercial crops or ratoon crops are not used for seed.

91

Table.6.Cane yield as affected by single, double, and triple-row strip planting geometry (t/ha).

Year Crop Single-rrow strips60 cm apart

Double-rrow strips90 cm apart

Triple-rrow strips120 cm

apart

Variety used

1987 Spring (p) 103.23 130.59 110.11 BL-4 1988 Autumn (p) 99.00 133.98 101.04 BL-4 1989 Spring (r) 80.99 102.08 92.91 BL-4 Gross average 96.64 110.77 106.90 -

p-plant crop; r-ratoon crop; *intercropped in wheat. Source: Department of Agronomy, University ofAgriculture, Faisalabad

If new fields are planted at the same time the mature crop is harvested, then the top internodes from theharvested cane bearing the sheath of the upper leaves (top seed pieces from excellent planting material,as is evident from the data in Table.7.

Special fields are usually prepared to grow planting material. Depending on the density of planting, thearea of planting material required varies from 1/4 to 1/20 of the final field area. Seed fields should bewell fertilized and irrigated since this affects germination, tillering, and yield of the crop. Seed fieldsmature in about 6-10 months. Cuttings from old stems, except for top seed pieces, are less satisfactoryas planting material. Young seed pieces and the nodes from the upper stalk germinate more readily.Generally, seed pieces 25-40cm long with two or three buds are used. Longer pieces or whole stalks areconsidered to be wasteful since the older buds develop slowly and may be inhibited by the presence ofactively growing young buds. The presence of sheath on cutting impedes shoot growth, but it can pro-mote the development of more buds and increase tillering and even yield.

Experiments conducted at the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, have shown that germination of twoto four-budded setts is significantly higher than that of single and five-budded setts. The number of mil-lable canes and the yield of stripped cane per hectare were highest with three budded setts, followed byfour and two budded setts, respectively (Table. 8).

Germination or growth of the buds is affected by their nearness to the apex and the orientation of seedpieces. Pieces planted horizontally germinate sooner than those planted vertically. The endogenous levelof auxin, i.e. auxin produced inside the plant, is considered to be a controlling factor. However, such dif-ferences due to orientation are not so apparent under field planting conditions. After planting, upwardpointing buds germinate faster than downward pointing buds (King et al., 1953).

Pre-planting treatment with poor quality cuttings (from old stems, etc), various pre-treatments havebeen found to enhance germination. Soaking cuttings and treating with running water for 48 hours


Table. 7. Cane yield as affected by various planting material

Planting mater Germination (%) Cane yield (t/ha) Top seed 42.56 112.84* Middle seed 34.65 101.76 Bottom seed 26.87 93.61 Mixed seed 34.50 105.94

Two-year average Source: Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad

Table. 8. Effects of single and multi-budded setts on germination, number of millable canes,and cane yield per hectare of 'L-116'

Type of sett Germination (%) Number of millable canes (000/ha)

Yield of stripped cane (t/ha)

Single-budded 13.07 109 34.33 Two- budded 29.00 144 56.19 Three- budded 33.17 193 72.15 Four- budded 29.20 148 57.53 Five-b\ budded 23.25 138 51.18

Source: Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad

sometimes enhances germination of old cuttings. Soaking in hot water (500Co) for 20 minutes greatlyenhances germination. This, however, is difficult to control at a practical level. Treatment with runningwater has been suggested to remove fermentation products and inhibitors from the cutting. Indoleaceticacids (IAA) or naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) treatment enhances root growth but delays bud develop-ment. Acetylene promotes the growth of the cutting. Substances including ethyl alcohol, ammoniumphosphate, complete nutrient solution, and ferrous sulphate have all on occasions proved beneficial togermination. On the other hand, at the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, experiments have shownthat soaking cane setts in water, cow urine, and 2% KmnO4 solution before planting reduced yield(Table. 9).

Where labour costs are low, topping of the seed cane a few weeks prior to cutting may induce lateralbuds to develop and speed germination on planting. It is important to remember that seed setts shouldalso be treated with approved fungicides before planting.

DDiisseeaasseedd aanndd ppeesstt pprrootteeccttiioonn

Soaking setts before planting with Agallol, Aretan, Benlate, Topsin M, ensures protection against pests. Itis very important to use healthy seed for planting. The practice of heat therapy is becoming more com-mon at seed-production centers to rid seed of ratoon stunting disease, grassy shoot, and leaf scale. Thistreatment consists of submerging the cane setts in water heated to 520Co for two hours. In the hot airtreatment or the moist hot air treatment, whole cane stalks are treated at 540Co for eight and four hours,respectively. The most hot air treatment is preferred, however, because the hot air treatment injures thebuds which ultimately reduce germination. When planting a new crop, it is essential to use seed fromsamples of the best patches of cane crop, free of disease and insect pests. Disease-free, good-quality seedincreases yield by 10-15%.

PPllaanntt GGrroowwtthh RReegguullaattoorrss

Ethephon (Ethrel or Ethephon 2) is used to prevent flowering of 6- to 15-month sugarcane. Floweringin the first year of a two-year crop will reduce cane growth and the sugar content at harvest due to ces-sation of top growth and initiation of many immature lateral shoots. The only alternative non-chemicalmethod to control flowering is to withhold irrigation to stress the crop prior to flower initiation (usual-ly in September), but untimely rainfall can ruin this strategy and when successful, cane tonnage may bereduced. In addition to controlling flowering, ethephon was shown to significantly increase cane ton-nage.

Glyphosate (Polado L) is used as a preharvest ripener to increase sugar content. Six to eight weeks beforeharvest, each field usually receives a single aerial application of Polado at 0.25 to 0.75 lb a.i. per acre.

93

Table. 9. Effects of various pre-planting seed treatments on the cane yield of Co L-54.

Treatment Cane yield (t/ha) Normal setts (unsoaked) 82.76 Soaked in water 62.05 Soaked in cow urine 61.19 Soaked in 20% KmnO4 67.16

Source: Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalaba

Some fields with high cane tonnage may require two applications with the total amounts not exceeding1 lb a.i. per crop. An alternative non-chemical ripening method is to water stress the crop sufficiently toslow vegetative growth and induce sugar storage. Ripening using glyphosate has been shown significant-ly better for increasing cane juice quality and sugar yield compared to ripening by water stress. Untimelyrainfall can negate the efforts of ripening by irrigation withdrawal. The normal cultural practice is touse moderate water stress in combination with Polado for ripening. (Hawaii Agricultural StatisticsService. 1999).

Agronomic Practices and Farm Layout

Farm-Layout

Proper farm-layout and application of relevant agronomic practices play an important role in sustain-able cane production. SASA (2002) recognizes that all natural and cultural assets, including uncultivat-ed areas, of the farm form part of a natural resource that can be utilized, but which needs to be appro-priately managed, preferably through the development of a management plan. SASA (2002) suggeststhat uncultivated areas of the cane farm should be mapped, as part of the development of a manage-ment plan; natural habitats can be restored on areas of degraded land, providing wildlife corridors, afunction also served by well-maintained watercourses. In a number of sugarcane cultivation systems,fragments of natural habitats persist within the agricultural landscape, and these can represent impor-tant refugia for indigenous biodiversity.

SASA (2002) notes that, in addition to appropriate management of uncultivated land for conservationpurposes, it may be possible for cane farmers to develop public recreational areas within the farm land-scape. Although this has potential costs, in terms of provision and maintenance of facilities, it can alsoact as a tangible demonstration of the farmers' commitment to the conservation of natural resources,particularly if accompanied by the installation of signboards, maps, etc. Access may need to be restrict-ed at certain times of the year for protection of fire prone areas but provision of activities such as fish-ing, hiking and mountain biking can enhance the relationship between the farmer and the wider com-munity, as well as demonstrating environmental credentials, particularly if this is done in collaborationwith local interest and conservation groups. Although, these specific examples apply to South Africa,they illustrate measures that can be taken in the management of the farm landscape which recognize theimportance of human dimension. Some studies indicate that local communities may wish to see naturalhabitats preserved within a cane growing landscape (Mallawaarachchi and Quiggin, 2001;Mallawaarachchi et. al., 2001).

There is increasing recognition in some parts of the world of the need to protect natural habitats againstthe impacts of cane cultivation. Natural habitats within the farm landscape require appropriate plan-ning and management, including the restoration of degraded land to provide wildlife corridors andmaintenance of water courses. Farm and landscape plans, of all sorts from informal agreements to hightechnical documents, provide a mechanism to gain productivity and to reduce impacts. Knowledge of thetypes and characteristics of soils is very important as soil characteristics have a major influence onrequirements for irrigation, drainage, nutritional management and variety. Uncultivated areas of thefarm should be mapped (according to recognized habitat classification system) as part of the develop-


ment of a management plan. (WWF-Publication: Encouraging Better Management Practices in SugarProduction).

EEaarrtthhiinngg-uupp iinn ssuuggaarrccaannee

Being one of the important agronomic practices earthing-up prevents sugarcane lodging, expatiatesgrowth, helps in management of borer pest, root system is strengthened, enhances water uptake efficien-cy, expedite sugarcane maturity, there is overall increase of weight and recovery. A well maintained pro-ductive multi rationing system should help to reduce the cost of production. Sugarcane planting is donein October-December and February-March. Autumn planting is considered high yielding but it vulner-able to lodging. In general thin sugarcane varieties have more potential as to thick varieties because theyare easy to be managed, needless irrigation water, resistant to pests, and have better ratooning capabili-ties.

Studies shows that roughly 70% of total root hairs surface is concentrated in the first foot of soil and ofthese 90% is distributed at a distance greater than one foot from the centre of stool. Correlation co effi-cient of 0.85% was obtained between the weight of cane and weight of root. Thus there exists growthcorrelation between shoots and roots (Evans, 1936).

PPoooorr MMaannaaggeemmeenntt ooff RRaattoooonn CCrroopp

More than 50% of the cane crop is kept as ratoon. Farmers usually consider the ratoon crop as a bonus.Although farmers save money on land preparation, seed, and planting cost, etc. the management ofratoon crop is a little difficult. If the crop is managed well, ratoon crop can give similar yield as a plant-ed crop. However, in actual situations, its yields are usually much lower than the planted crop due topoor management, the use of low level and imbalanced nutrients, poor plant population, lack of effec-tive insect and disease control.

SSaalliinniittyy aanndd WWaatteerr llooggggiinngg

Maclean (1975) compared land which had been under sugarcane for 90 years with adjacent cultivatedland; and chemical and physical character were very similar except for compactness and lower porosi-ty in inter rows of canes. During the first month after planting the germinating plant functions almostentirely by the set roots (Lee and Weller, 1927)

The root system of ratoon crop is less well developed than that of plant crop (Evans, 1935; Hardy andSmith, 1954). There is great importance of shoot/root ratio (Chu et al., 1949; Roxas and Villiano, 1930;Stevenson and McIntosh, 1935). A mature field at harvest in Louisiana will have 25,000 to 30, 000stalks per acre (Herbert et al., 1967).

Salt free, well drained and fertile soils are required to obtain maximum cane yields. Marginal soils affect-ed by salinity and water logging are also being used for cane cultivation in many areas of the country.Salinity affects the cane growth drastically and sugar contents have negative correlation with differentdegrees of salinity of the soil (Akhtar, 2004).

CCaauusseess ooff llooww ssuuggaarrccaannee yyiieelldd iinn PPaakkiissttaann

Sugarcane is a deep-rooted crop and proper land preparation plays an important role in the develop-

95

ment of the cane root system and growth of the crop. Usually farmers prepare the land with simple cul-

tivator, which does not plough the land to the required depth. This type of improper land preparation

affects the root development, growth and yield of the crop (Makhdoom, 2004).

LLaanndd PPrreeppaarraattiioonn

Deep plough tillage, contour ridging, vetiver grass hedges and strip plantation are required to reduce soilerosion. Installing adequate drainage systems could minimize many of soil-related problems. In Egypt,for example, the installation of drainage systems effectively reduced the soil salinity. The average yieldfor wheat increased from one tonne/ha before drainage to about 2.4 tonnes/ha. Similarly, the yield formaize increased from 2.4 tonnes/ha to 3.6 tonnes/ha after the drainage infrastructure war completed.Drainage is a critical element of irrigation projects, which, however is poorly planned and managed.Water logging can also be reduced or minimized, in some cases, by using micro-irrigation which applieswater more precisely and can more easily limit quantities to no more than the crops needs.

Organic sugarcane varieties need to be developed like 45 varieties developed in South Africa. Varietieshaving short duration, high recovery with good ratooning capacities should be promoted. Similarly,salinity resistant varieties need to be developed for saline area particularly for Sindh.

SSuuggaarrccaannee eennvviirroonnmmeennttaall ffaaccttoorrss

Sugarcane is originally a tropical crop, but its cultivation has extended rapidly over the subtropicsbetween latitude 30?N and 35?S.There are two planting seasons: fall and spring. Fall planting starts fromthe first week of September and continues to mid-October in the Punjab and Sindh, while in the NWFPplanting is done in October and November. Spring planting starts from mid-February and lasts until theend of March in the Punjab and Sindh. These planting times are strictly observed because late plantingcan reduce the yield by as much as 30%. Both dry and wet methods of planting are used depending upon the soil condition, water availability,planting time, etc. Double-cut setts are placed end to end in furrows at a depth of 8-12 cm and coveredwith 5-6cm soil. In the dry method, immediate irrigation is essential, with subsequent irrigations at shortintervals. However, in other cane-growing countries of the world, seed pieces are usually planted inmechanically formed furrows about 25cm deep and then covered with soil to a depth of about 5cm orless.

It is best adapted to areas where the minimum mean monthly temperature is 210C or above. Optimaltemperatures for growth appear to be between 27 and 380C. In equatorial regions that have adequatewater, cane reaches maturity in only one year. Excessive humidity, however, results in high tonnage withlow sucrose content, and a lot of late tillering due to the growth of buds on the stalk, also detrimentalto good sugar yield. In subtropical regions, cold temperature or drought greatly limits growth, and acrop can take two years to reach maturity. The effect of temperature on germination is particularlynoticeable. The optimum temperature for germination ranges from 32 to 380C, while temperaturesbelow 210C slow or stop germination. Early investigators showed that hot water treatment of seedsresulted in increased germination when seeds are planted in cool soils (Blackburn. 1984). SunlightSugarcane is a sun-loving species. Plants that grow in full sunlight have thicker and shorter stalks, broad-er and greener leaves, and a higher percentage of dry matter than those not so exposed. A lot of sun-shine is also essential for high sugar yields. An example of the effect of reduced sunshine on yield andsugar content is given in Table. 10.


Irrigation PracticesIIrrrriiggaattiioonn

Water requirements of sugarcane vary with the planting season, the fertility of the soil, and the varietyof cane. Rapid infiltration of rainfall and adequate aeration are two important reasons for cultivation ofthis crop (Baver, 1954). Autumn planting requires a higher quantity of water than spring planting.Water requirements on an average range from 120-160cm for the spring crop, and 200-250 cm for theautumn. During the dry period, sufficient water should be applied at relatively short intervals to avoidmoisture stress. Toward the end of the growing season, the length of the intervals should be increased,with irrigation ceasing 25-30 days before harvest to induce normal maturity.

It is important to take care of the irrigation requirements of sugarcane, particularly in summer months.Farmers must plan their acreage to be planted under cane crop according to the available water at theirfarm. Keep in mind that each field should get at least 16 to 20 irrigations during the crop year adjustingthe irrigation schedule according to rainfall in summer.

It has been reported that cane yield in Natal increases of 23.8% for furrow irrigation in dry land culturewhile sprinkler irrigation increased yields of 46.6% over a 10-year period (Pearson, 1961). It is estimat-ed that 1 inch of effective irrigation in 12-15 days will give adequate protection against drought in thewinter and sufficient scope of promoting growth in summer (Cleasby, 1959).

In addition to its direct effects on cane development, irrigation can influence the relationship betweenthe crop, its pests and diseases and their control. For example, Parsana et al., (1994) and Mrig et al.,(1995) studied the effect of irrigation on the incidence of insect pests on sugarcane such as Chilo infus-catellus, Emmalocera depressella, Saccharicoccus sacchari in India. Mrig and Chaudhry (1993) studiedthe efficacy of different insecticides, combined with different irrigation levels for control of C. infuscatel-lus and E. depressella.

97

Table. 10. Comparison of sugarcane plants grown in high and low sunshine areas

Treatment High sunshi ne area Low sunshine area Cane (tones) 69 24

Sugar (%) 11.1 8.7 Sugar (tones) 7.8 2.1

Source : Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad.

In the North West Frontier Province (NWFP), Sarwar et al., (2001) concluded that when water for irri-gation is abundant and farmers have full control over its supply, they tend to over-irrigate their crops.Studies in Australia suggest that canes growers are often are often unaware of the quantities of waterthat they are applying, leading to wastage (Shannon et al., 1996). Pressures for the adoption of betterpractices may come from a range of sources. For example in Australia, (Attard et. al., (2003) note thatincreasing community awareness of environmental issues has raised expectations for irrigators toimprove practices, minimize off-site impacts and maximize productivity from scarce water resources. InSawaziland, McGlinchey (1998) reports that irrigation was highlighted as one of the most important andcostly agricultural inputs in the sugar industry and that the need for industry expansion with limitedwater resources, combined with likely introduction of new water laws, prompted renewed efforts tofine-tune water management.

There is evidence that effective better management practice (BMP) recommendations can be developedfor sugarcane irrigation. Klok et al., (2003) report on field trials in the Burdekin Delta region inQueensland, Australia, comparing conventional and BMP irrigation systems. Trials were conducted ondifferent soil types and the BMP applied was site specific. BMP irrigation reduced the amount of waterapplied by an average of 15% and increased yields on three of six sites by approximately 6%. Irrigationis also amongst the issues covered in an impressive set of generic BMP recommendations for conserva-tion and environmental management in the South African Sugar Industry (SASA, 2002).

A number of studies examine the responses of sugarcane varieties to different irrigation methods andother management variables. In addition to these, a number of more generic comparisons of differentsugarcane irrigation systems have been made. For example in the northern areas of KwaZulu-Natal andMpumalanga, Schmidt (2000) considered the small proportion of sugarcane under pivot (6%) and dripsystems (4% but increasing) to be more efficient that the 90% under overhead sprinkler systems. InSawaziland, Magwenzi (2000) estimated that water application efficiencies were 72-89% under dripand center pivot systems, 49-88% under dragline and 48-75% under furrow irrigation. Using agronom-ic and economic data, Qureshi, et al., (2002) compared profitability of growing sugarcane under dif-ferent irrigation systems in the Burdekin Delta, Australia. Furrow irrigation on well-draining soil had the


Irrigation Schedule

MMoonntthh NNuummbbeerr ooff IIrrrriiggaattiioonnss IInntteerrvvaall

MMaarrcchh-AApprriill 2-3 20-30 days

MMaayy-JJuunnee 5-6 10-12 days

JJuullyy-AAuugguusstt 3-4 15-20 days (if no rainfallthen 8-10 days)

SSeepptteemmbbeerr-OOccttoobbeerr 2-3 20-30 days

NNoovveemmbbeerr-FFeebbrruuaarryy 2-3 40-60 days

TToottaall 19-14

Source: Department of Agriculture, Government of Punjab, Pakistan, 2006-07

highest NPV, followed by use of centre pivot systems on moderately draining soil, then furrow irrigationon poorly draining soil and drip irrigation on well-draining soil. However, when volumetric watercharges were used instead of area-based charges, the ranking changed. Use of the centre pivot on mod-erately draining soil had the highest NPV, followed by furrow irrigation on well-draining soil, furrowirrigation on poorly draining soil and drip irrigation on well-draining soil. Under the volumetric watercharging option, the overall NPVs for each irrigation system were lower than the NPVs for area-basedwater charges. Ascough and Kiker (2002) compared cane irrigation systems in South Africa, and esti-mated average application efficiencies of 83.6% for centre pivot, 73.5% for dragline, 76.7% for floppysprinklers and 78.9% for semi-permanent sprinklers. These authors also examined uniformity of waterapplication, which increased through semi-permanent sprinklers, dragline, floppy sprinklers, drip andcentre pivot systems, and concluded that good maintenance and correct operation were key considera-tions. Robertson et al., (1997) concluded that application efficiency increases from furrow to sprinklerto surface drip to subsurface drip irrigation systems.

MMeeaassuurreess ffoorr EEffffiicciieenntt DDrraaiinnaaggee

Where irrigation is practiced, it must be accompanied by effective and appropriately managed drainage.Otherwise, there is substantial risk that environmental degradation will occur, and irrigated cultivationwill become uneconomic (Meyer, 1997). Simple surface drainage systems such as a network of shallowditches intercepting drainage flow in the cane furrows (row drainage), can assist in removing excesswater (Smedema, 1983). However, the subsurface drainage characteristics of soils are critical. Soil withpoor drainage characteristics are less suitable for crops with the greatest irrigation requirements (suchas sugarcane), as they are particularly prone to water-logging and salinisation (Gajja et al., 2000).Shallow water tables can provide substantial contributions towards meeting a cane crop's water require-ment. However, irrigation scheduling in areas affected by shallow water tables should be modified toavoid excess irrigation and to promote increased water use efficiency. Shallow water tables are general-ly associated with areas of low elevation in the landscape, and there is evidence that they are commonthroughout the sugar industry (Sweeney et al., 2001a).

IIrrrriiggaattiioonn rreettuurrnn ffllooww

It is that portion of water that returns to its source after being used to irrigate crops. The term "irriga-tion return flow" has been extended to include irrigation water that makes its way to any body of waterafter its use on a crop. There are three basic approaches to reducing pollutants in surface return flows(Benjamin, 2000):

Eliminating or reducing surface runoffEliminating or reducing soil lossRemoving pollutants from irrigation return flow

The first two approaches are achieved by properly designing, operating and managing irrigation systems.The third approach involves using grass buffer strips, artificial wetlands, settling basins and ponds andsimilar structures to remove pollutant-bearing sediments.

Proper irrigation water management means timing and regulating water applications in a way that willsatisfy the needs of a crop and efficiently distribute the water without applying excessive amounts ofwater or causing erosion, runoff or percolation losses. Good irrigation water management can reduce

99

moisture extremes and associated plant disease problems, which in turn may reduce the need for pesti-cides. The sugarcane producer should have a good understanding of the factors influencing proper irri-gation scheduling and water management. The timing of irrigation and the total amount applied per irri-gation should be based on both the crop's water use and the moisture content of the soil, as well as onexpected rainfall (Benjamin, 2000).

DDeevveellooppmmeenntt ooff ssttrraatteeggiieess ffoorr iimmpprroovveedd iirrrriiggaattiioonn ssyysstteemm

Robertson et al., (1997) suggest that the development of strategies to improve the efficiency of can irri-gation can concentrate on increasing the application efficiency (the proportion of water applied that isstored in the root zone) or varying the timings and quantities of water applied so as to maximize the cropresponse. In addition to the influence if local climatic and other environmental factors, a range of tech-nical aspects need to be considered when developing irrigation management strategies for sugarcane. Alack of technical information and its application will only inhibit moves towards more efficient wateruse. Relevant technical aspects of sugarcane irrigation systems are discussed by a range of authors,including Combres et al., (1996), Torres et al., (1996), Robertson et al., (1997), Muchow and Keating(1998), Singels et al., (1998), Schmidt (2000), Attard et al., (2003) and Plunkett and Muchow (2003).Important considerations include:

Estimation of crop water requirementMonitoring of water useIrrigation schedulingIrrigation system characteristicsSource of irrigation water Maintenance of irrigation infrastructureAvailability of knowledge and training

For better management of irrigation water, following measures need to be adopted:

Available resources of water should be used judiciously depending upon needsCrop lands to be protected from different species of weedsWater channels to be properly cleaned so that water flow is smooth and uninterrupted by weeds andherbs.Moderately irrigate the crop in the beginningFor the crop to compete draught conditions, maximum effort should be made to conserve moisturein the soil after sprouting starts.Proper land leveling is highly important to get uniform irrigation in the fieldsKeeping in view the ongoing draught conditions in sugarcane growing areas of the country, drip andsprinkler irrigation methods need to be adopted.

Source: Ayub Agriculture Research Institute, Faisalabad, Department of Agriculture, Government ofPunjab, January 2006.


Insect Pests and Diseases

SSuuggaarrccaannee ppeessttss

Sugarcane is attacked by a variety of insects including stem, top and root borers, Pyrilla, scale insects,mealy bugs and mites. Stem borers, Chilo infuscatellus Snell and Bissetia steniellus (Hamp.) and the topborer, Scirpophaga nivella F. attack sugarcane crop throughout Pakistan. Their damage is extensive,affecting farmers who suffer loss in yield, the mill owners in recovery of sugar. Farmers were using pes-ticides, mill owners encourage farmers to spray their crops and the government resorted to aerial spray-ing. This lead to disturbance of environment and non-economical control and outbreak of non-targetpests. Natural enemies of sugarcane pests have been explored by Ashraf et al., 1993; Irshad andRahutullah, 1982; Irshad and Siddique, 1982; Mohyuddin, 1981; Mohyuddin and Khan, 1982;Mohyuddin and Qureshi, 1999; Mohyuddin et al., 1982).

Pyrilla perpusilla Wlk. was a serious pest of sugarcane in the North West Frontier Province (NWFP). Tocontrol this pest million hectare area was sprayed twice a year, for almost two decades. Even with thesesprays, infestation could not be brought to below economic threshold level. Pyrilla had developed resist-ance against hydrocarbon group of insecticides. This disturbed the ecosystem and environment andminor insect pest's outbreak. For its control redistribution of nymphal and adult parasitoid, Epiricaniamelanoleuca Fletcher, which was abundant in the Punjab, and absent in the NWFP, was undertaken. In1975 it was redistributed from the Punjab into the NWFP. The impact of redistribution was not knownimmediately. However it was recorded in high numbers not only in the released sites but throughout thesugarcane growing areas of the Province later on (Irshad and Rahatuulh: 1982; Mohuuddin, 1981).That was the start of successful story of IPM in Pakistan It became successfully established and spreadwidely in a short time. By 1977 it gave complete control of Pyrilla. Aerial spray for Pyrilla was no morerequired and was discontinued. Thus it paved the way for conservation of this beneficial insect. Till todate it is giving excellent results. Millions of rupees have been saved by not resorting to aerial spraying.E. melanoleuca was also distributed from the Punjab into Sindh. It became established and gave goodcontrol.

Farmers burn trash after harvesting sugarcane. In trash 100% eggs of Pyrilla are parasitized in Januaryand February by the egg parasitoids. It was ensured not to burn the trash till end of March. Where someof the trash was not burnt but kept on the sides of the fields excellent control was achieved. The earlyavailability of the egg parasitoids was ensured. At present, this method is extensively used in Sindh(Mohyuddin and Qureshi, 1999a, 2000).

Control of stem borers was achieved through introducing a larval parasitoid, Cotesia flavipes (Cam.)from Indonesia, Thailand and Barbados through augmentative releases of Trichogramma chilonis Ishiiand undertaking cultural practices such as earthling up of stubbles, mixed cropping and mechanicalcontrol by removing infested tops. In Sindh, a hybrid between the Indonesian strain and the local strainof C. flavipes has preference for sugarcane. It was established on maize borer and adapted to the ecolog-ical conditions of Sindh and released. Since then it has been recovered from sugarcane stem borersthroughout the year and is well established. Augmentative releases of egg parasitoid T. chilonis were alsostarted in Sindh. Incidence of the parasitoid rose to almost 98% where releases were made and intern-odes damage was usually below 5% compared with 16% in the control. The significant control of bor-

101

ers was achieved. The techniques developed have attained popularity and a lot of sugarcane mills haveestablished biocontrol laboratories.

The larvae of Gurdaspur borer B. steniellus remain in diapause in sugarcane stubbles and resume activ-ity after first monsoon rains. Gurdaspur borer infestation was drastically reduced where stubble is cov-ered with earth in June because the moths could not emerge. The emerged moths lay eggs in clustersand the subsequent emerging larvae enter the cane stalks in-groups. Such affected stalks can be seen eas-ily. These are cut and crushed with hammer thus killing the larvae. Internodes damage and larval pop-ulation is much higher in the fields where stubble is not covered with earth and infested internodes notcut. Even mechanical control of Gurdaspur borer by cutting the tops during appearance of early symp-toms of attack alone also provides economic relief. The symptom of attack is the dried up upper leavesof sugarcane (Mohyuddin and Qureshi, 1999a; Irshad et al., 1982).

Cooperative approaches in preventing the spread of pests are also an important component of IPM(Mauremootoo, 2001). Koul et al.,. (2003) review some of the constraints and practices associated withIPM programmes in general.

IPM programmes in the Asia-Pacific region are discussed by Ooi et al., (1992). Integrated methods forthe control of cane pests in Pakistan are reviewed by Mohyuddin (1992) and Mohyuddin et al., (1994).

SSaammpplliinngg aanndd TThhrreesshhoollddss

Few studies have undertaken the task of sampling for sugarcane stem borer eggs and larvae. Studies con-ducted in the Caribbean and in Florida have shown that stem boring pyralid larvae have random oraggregated spatial patterns, depending on sample size used and field size. Most sampling for stem bor-ers in sugarcane involves looking for injury such as leaf feeding and tunneling within the stem.Most sampling of Mexican rice borer larvae for management decisions has documented percentagebored internodes (ratio of number of internodes with tunnels to total internodes present) as an indirectmeasure of larval density. However, currently there is no known relationship between larvae per stemand percentage bored internodes. This is important since the currently used action threshold for a chem-ical control program is 10% leaf sheath infestation by young larvae and is not correlated with an actu-al insect density.

There are a large number of natural enemies (Irshad, 2003; Irshad and Khan, 2005).

Table 2. Natural Enemies of Sugarcane Pests

AAlleeuurroolloobbuuss bbaarrooddeennssiiss MMaasskk.. Parasitoids : Azotus delhiensis Lal., Encarsia flava Shafee, Eretmocerus ali-garhensis Khan & Shafee, Eretmocerus sp., Prospaltella flava Shafee, P. udaipuriensis Shafee (Aphelinidae: Hym.), Euderomphale sp., Tetrastichus sp. (Eulophidae : Hym.), Amitus aleurolobi Mani(Platygasteridae : Hym.), Predators : Brumoides suturalis (F.), Catana parcesetosa (Sic.), Coccinellaseptempunctata L., Menochilus sexmaculatus (F.), Oenopia sauzeti Muls., Scymnus sp. (Coccinellidae :Col.), Chrysopa sp., Chrysoperla carnea Steph. (Chrysopidae: Neur.).PPyyrriillllaa ppeerrppuussiillllaa ((WWllkk..)). Parasitoids : Lestrodryinus pyrillae Kieff. (Chalcididae : Hym.), Anagyrus sp.,Neodusmetia sangwani (Subba Rao), Ooencyrtus malayensis Ferr., Ooencyrtus papilionis Ashm.,Ooencyrtus sp. (Encyrtidae : Hym.), Parachrysocharis javensis Girtault (Eulophidae : Hym.), Platygastersp. (Platygasteridae : Hym.), Epiricania (Epipyrops) melanoleuca Fletcher (Epipyropidae : Lep.), Predators


: Brumoides suturalis (F.), Coccinella septempunctata L., Coccinella undecimpunctata L., Menochilussexmaculatus (F.), Micraspis cardoni (Wse.) Verania allardi Muls. (Coccinellidae : Col.), Chrysopa sp.(Chrysopidae : Neur.).

BBiisssseettiiaa sstteenniieellllaa ((HHaammppssoonn)). Parasitoids : Cotesia (Apanteles) flavipes Cam., Stenobracon deesaeCameron (Braconidae : Hym.), Trichogramma chilonis Ishii (Trichogrammatidae : Hym.).

CChhiilloottrreeaa iinnffuussccaatteellllaa ((SSnneellll..)) Parasitoids : Chelonus sp., Cotesia (Apanteles) flavipes (Cam.), Myosomasp., Stenobracon deesae Cameron, Phanerotoma sp. (Braconidae : Hym.), Hyperchalcida sp. (Chalcididae: Hym.), Cremastus sp., Isotima sp. (Ichneumonidae : Hym.), Trichogramma chilonis Ishii(Trichogrammatidae : Hym.), Pathogens : Amphimermis sp. (Nematode).

SScciirrpphhoopphhaagg iinncceerrttuullaass WWaallkk.. PPaarraassiittooiiddss :: Apanteles sp., Bracon chinensis Szepl, B. johannsoni (Vier.),Bracon sp., Chelonus sp., Isotima sp., Rhaconotus oryzae Wilk., Shirakia schoenobii Vier., Stenobraconnicevillei (Bingham), (Braconidae : Hym.), Tetrastichus schoenobii Fier. (Eulophidae : Hym.),Trichogramma evanescens Westw. (Trichogrammatidae : Hym.), Telenomus dignius (Gah.) (Scelionidae: Hym.), Pathogens : Mermis sp. (Nematode).S. nivella (F.). Parasitoids : Rhaconotus scirpophagae Wlk., Stenobracon deesae Cameron (Braconidae :Hym.), Elasmus zehntneri Ferr. (Elasmidae : Hym.), Isotima javensis (Cam.) (Ichneumonidae : Hym.),Telenomus dignoides (Gah.) (Scelionidae : Hym.)

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is the application of interconnected set of methods for managingpests including pest prevention techniques, pest monitoring methods, biological control, pest attractants,repellents, biopesticides as well as the chemical pesticides at the last resort. Sugarcane is one of the mostimportant crops of Pakistan, which is badly affected by insect pests as well as indiscriminate use of insec-ticides to control the insect pests. Sugarcane insect pests include sugarcane leafhopper Pyrilla perpusil-la, top borer Scirpophaga excerptalis, stem borer Chilo infuscatellus, whitefly Aleurolobus barodensisand termites. During the last three years, Eco-Conservation Initiatives (ECI) used a range of natural ene-mies against various insect pests of sugarcane such as Epiricania melanoleuca & Parachrysocharis javen-sis for pyrilla, Trichogramma spp. and larval parasitoid Cotesia flavipes for borers, Azotus delhiensis,Eretmocerous sp. and Amitus aleurolobi for whitefly. Similarly other IPM measures were also integratedto show measurable results in various parts of sugarcane growing areas. The data collected during lastthree years indicated on average that due to biological control based IPM interventions, the populationof major insect pests decreased to negligible level and the recovery of sugar increased from 8.05 in 2002to 9.0 in 2004 on average. Currently, the challenges of WTO regime are ahead, which aim at havingminimum residues of chemicals and need to improve phyto-sanitary conditions. Therefore, this isrequired to redefine agro-biodiversity to protect our available natural resources. It can be only possibleif we adopt such technologies which are environmental friendly.

The side effects of pesticides in the shape of resistance to pesticides, resurgence of secondary pests,destruction of natural enemies of pests, polluting soil, water and food with contaminants are now wellknown world wide (Pimentel et al., 1993). Insects reported to be resistant to pesticides in the world are504 and of these, 481 are injurious to human beings and 23 are beneficial. The figure for Pakistan iseight (Irshad, 2000). Work on resistance to pesticides is mostly confined to cotton and storage insectpests in Pakistan. This does not mean that resistance phenomena is not severe in Pakistan but actuallylittle work has been conducted in the country on this issue. Resistance phenomena puts extra burden on

103

use of pesticides as pests are not killed at recommended dose and this dose has to be increased. In cer-tain cases, the resistance factor is so high that the pest is not killed on very increased dose. This resultsin tremendous loss to the farmers. To reduce reliance on the concept of chemical control, Integrated PestManagement (IPM) emerged as the latest strategy.

The data collected during the last three years indicated that due to biological control based interventions,population of pyrilla, whitefly and borers decreased to negligible level and the sugar recovery increasedfrom 8.05 in 2002 to 9.0 in 2004 on average.

BBMMPPss ooff PPyyrriillllaa MMaannaaggeemmeenntt iinn PPaakkiissttaann

Redistribution: As a result of survey carried out in the Punjab and NWFP it was discovered that thenymphal and adult parasitoid Epiricania melanoleuca which was abundant in the Punjab was absent inthe NWFP. In 1975, it was redistributed from the Punjab into the NWFP. It became successfully estab-lished and spread widely in a short time. By 1977 it gave complete control of Pyrilla. Aerial spray forpyrilla was no more required and was discontinued. The cost of the project was US$ 8,165 and the costof pesticides and their application was over US$ 1.22 million per year.

In 1983, pyrilla was recorded for the first time in Sindh. Most probably, it was introduced with sugar-cane seed from the Punjab or NWFP. It became a serious pest in a very short time. In 1984, E. melanoleu-


Fig. 4. Population trends of Pyrilla perpusilla and parasitism of Epiricania melanoleuca where insecticides were sprayed and where these were not

sprayed in Central Punjab - 2002.

020406080

100120140160

April May June July Aug

Months

No.

of n

ymph

s &

ad

ults

of p

yrill

a pe

r le

af

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

% a

ge p

aras

itism

of

E. m

elan

oleu

ca

Parasitism w here insecticides sprayed

Parasitism w here insecticides not sprayed

No. of nymphs and adults of pyrilla per leaf w here insecticides sprayed

No. of nymphs and adults of pyrilla per leaf w here insecticides not sprayed

Source: Proceedings of XXXVII Annual Convention of Pakistan Society of Sugar Technologists, 26 - 27August 2002, Karachi, Pakistan.

ca was distributed from the Punjab into Sindh. It became established and gave good control.

Conservation: While carrying out survey, in Sindh;' for P.perpusilla and its natural enemies, it was observed thatfarmers burn trash after harvesting sugarcane. In trash100% eggs of pyrilla were parasitized in January andFebruary by the egg parasitoid Parachrysocharis javensis.Therefore, recommendation was made not to burn the trashtill end of March. Where some of the trash was not burntbut kept on the sides of the fields excellent control wasachieved. Brochures in Urdu and Sindhi were produced forfarmers and in English for extension workers. At present,this method is extensively used in Sindh. The savings fromthe cost of pesticide application came to about Rs. 50 mil-lion. The unquantified benefit to the ecology has not beenquantified.

105

Fig.4a. Population trends of Scirpophaga excerptalis and mean parasitism of its parasitoids in sugarcane fields where releases

were made compared with where releases were not made in Sindh - 2000

0

10

20

30

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMonths

Perc

ent

inte

rnod

e da

mag

e

020406080100

Para

sitis

m

Parasitism w here releases made Parasitism w here releases not made

Pest density w here releases made Pest density w here releases not made

Source: Proceedings of XXXVI Annual Convention of Pakistan Society of Sugar Technologists, 27 - 28August 2001, Lahore, Pakistan.

Sugarcane stem borers appear to more severely damage stressed plants than unstressed plants. Whetherthis relationship is due to higher larval densities on stressed plants or the degradation of natural planttolerance, is not known. In Pakistan, mass releases of Trichogramma chilonis is being effectively carriedout as one of the BMPs for stem borer and that of Telenomus dignus for Top borer supplemented withmechanical and cultural control practices. Agronomic practices such as good plant growth managementthrough appropriate fertilization and irrigation schedules are an obvious advantage towards improvedstem borer management.

Another cultural control technique that has sparked interest is the use of pheromones for mating dis-ruption. In Texas, the pheromone for Mexican rice borer was identified and studies were initially con-ducted to use it as a monitoring tool. Continued research has made available the potential use ofpheromone in reducing borer populations by mating disruption (Shaver and Brown 1993). This tech-nique is designed to permeate the area with pheromone so that males are unable to locate and mate withfemales. Mating disruption has had some success in the cotton and tree fruit agro-ecosystems. Use of sex-pheromones is a practicable tool for effective management of sugarcane borers in many sugarcanegrowing areas of the world (Balasundaram, 2004)


Fig.5b Population trends of Chilo infuscatellus and mean parasitism of its parasitoids in sugarcane fields where releases were made compared with

where releases were not made in Sindh - 2000.

0

5

10

15

20

25

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Months

Perc

ent i

nter

node

dam

age

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Para

sitis

m

Parasitism w here releases made Parasitism w here releases not made

Pest density w here releases made Pest density w here releases not made

Source: Proceedings of XXXVI Annual Convention of Pakistan Society of Sugar Technologists, 27 - 28August 2001, Lahore, Pakistan.

Eco-Conservation Initiatives (ECI) is the pioneer organization of biological control based IPM inPakistan. It has shown tremendous achievements in the sugarcane IPM as well as training of farmingcommunities in this environmental friendly technology. The main aim of ECI is the broad based manage-ment of crops through IPM involving all the steps from preparation of land to harvesting of the crops.Until now, ECI has not only trained a large number of farmers but also transferred its various biocon-trol laboratories to communities with promise of every help as and when needed to them in future.

According to Qureshi, (2005) for better management of crops, following methods should be followed:

Regular monitoring and pest scoutingWeed managementConservationAugmentationRedistributionChemicals only at least resortEstablishment of biological control IPM labs at each sugar millsRegular pest scouting and monitoring by the cane departmentsRaising an organized campaign for trash conservation throughout the sugarcane growing areas

107

Fig.3. Population trends of sugarcane whitefly Aleurolobus barodensis where parasitoids Encarsia sp. & Azotus delhiensis and coccinellids were released, insecticides sprayed and where nothing was done in central

Punjab

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

1000

I-Sep II-Sep I-Oct II-Oct I-Nov II-Nov I-Dec II-Dec I-Jan Months

No. of whitefly per leaf

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

%age Parasitism

Parasitism where releases made Parasitism where insecticides used Parasitism where nothing done Infestation where releases made Infestation where insecticides used Infestation where nothing done

Source: Proceedings of XXXVIII Annual Convention of Pakistan Society of Sugar Technologists, 25 - 26August 2003, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Encouragement to weed management practices Careful and judicious intercropping if requiredEffective utilization of processed press mud in the fields and balanced used fertilizers based upon soilanalysisProper irrigation management as and when requiredRegular training and education for farmer communities

Currently the challenges of WTO regime are ahead, which aim at having minimum residues of chemi-cals and need to improve phyto-sanitary conditions. Therefore, this is required to redefine agro-biodi-versity to protect our available natural resources.

AAuuggmmeennttaattiioonn aanndd rreelleeaasseess ooff nnaattuurraall eenneemmiieess

TTrriicchhooggrraammmmaa cchhiilloonniiss

Trichogramma are dark colored tiny wasps and the female wasp. The entire cycle is completed within 8-12 days. The tiny adult wasps search for the host (pest) eggs in the field and lay their eggs into the eggsof the pests. The parasitized host's eggs turn uniformly black in 3-4 days. The Trichogramma eggs onhatching, feed the embryonic contents of host's egg, completes its development and adult comes out ofthe host egg by chewing a circular hole. A single Trichogramma, while multiplying itself, can thusdestroy over 100 eggs of the pest.

The parasitisation of Trichogramma spp., in laboratory condition on one cc eggs of Sitotroga cereallela,which are uniformly spread and pasted on a card measuring 15cm x 10 cm is called as Trichocard.

For Controlling sugarcane early shoot borer: Start releasing 6000 parasites per week per acre area, fora period of 5 weeks, starting from 4th week of planting i.e., as soon as the adult make moths of earlyshoot borer are noticed in the field, a total of 30,000 parasitized eggs to be released per acre. Additionalparasitoids may also be released depending upon the crop and pest density.

BBeetttteerr uussee ooff ''TTrriicchhooccaarrdd''

The Trichocards are to be used before the emergence of the adult parasitoid. Cut or tear each Trichocardinto small pieces and distribute them all over the field. The pieces may be stapled to sugarcane leaf at 7-8 m distance. Care is to be taken to release the parasitoids either in morning i.e., during cool hours inwindward direction and there should not be any pesticide spray. Before releasing the cards, the infectedshoots are to be cut to ground level and buried inside the soil so as to avoid secondary infestation.

AAddvvaannttaaggeess ooff uussiinngg TTrriicchhoo ccaarrddss

Less cost, more effective,Field application (releases) is very simple as compared to other methods.Records show higher yield in sugarcane, as secondary infestation is avoided while using Trichocards.Cost of pest control is very nominal.Environmental pollution is minimized.


PPrreeccaauuttiioonnss

The following precautions are required to use Tdrichocards:

Trichocards should be packed in such a way that the parasitized surface is on the inner side,Emergency date should be specified on cards for the guidance of the users.Cards should be stapled in morning hours and just before emergence to avoid predation.Farmer should refrain from using pesticides in the field where Trichogramma are released. Ifneed arises selective / safer pesticides can be used and it is to be ensured that pesticides are used 15 days before or after release of Trichogramma.

LLaaddyybbiirrdd bbeeeettlleess

Ladybird beetles have been recognized by many cultures for their predatory behaviors for centuries.Coccinelidae contains over 4,000 species, almost all of these species are predators and feed on many dif-ferent kinds of soft-bodied insects (aphids and scales).

The male longevity is 30-35 days. Adult female lay eggs @ 600-800 eggs/female on an average. The eggsare stalked and green in color. The eggs are laid singly or in clusters. Egg stage lasts 3-4 days.(Source: ECI Publications 2005, 04, 03)

CCrroopp RReessiissttaannccee

Plant resistance has been an important management strategy in most sugarcane-growing regions aroundthe world against stem boring pyralids (Mathes & Charpentier 1969). In Louisiana, plant resistance hasbeen a component of the sugarcane IPM program against sugarcane borer for many years and has beena successful management strategy when used alone or in combination with other strategies (Bessin et al.,1990).

In Texas, the relative susceptibility of sugarcane progenitors and clones to stem injury by Mexican riceborer has been measured in field studies under natural infestation conditions. Results suggested largevariability in bored internodes among progenitors such as Miscanthus floridulus (Labill) Warb.Erianthus bengalense (Retz.) Bharadw. E. trinii (Hack.), Saccharum spontaneum L., and S. officinarum L.Screening of commercial (cultivars) and noncommercial sugarcane clones showed variability in E. lof-tini injury (Pfannenstiel & Meagher 1991). Field evaluation of sugarcane germplasm for internodesbored by E. loftini has continued since 1989 (R.L.M. unpublished data).

Many researchers have tried to determine the factors and mechanisms of sugarcane resistance.Ovipositional resistance has been deemed not to be responsible for lower stem borer populations in sug-arcane, but recently characters such as leaf pubescence was shown to confer resistance against sugar-cane borer.

Tolerance has been suggested as a resistance mechanism in the sugarcane - sugarcane borer crop sys-tem, a conclusion based on genotypes possessing high levels of injury such as bored internodes, but lowlevels of damage such as dead tops, adventitious shoots, secondary tillering, and cane weight loss (White1993). Overall, breeding of sugarcane for resistance to stem borers is difficult because of hereditarycharacteristics of the plant and limited knowledge of specific resistant characters.

109

Differences in adult oviposition among genotypes in laboratory, greenhouse, and field studies wereslight: therefore ovipositional preference is probably not important in conferring resistance with thispest.

Laboratory experiments indicated that differences in larval establishment could be an important resist-ance character. Mexican rice borer larvae showed preferences for establishment in certain genotypes,and it appears larval preference may be locationally directed among different leaf sheaths within a stem(Meagher et al., 1996).

DDiisseeaasseess

The diseases of sugar are whip smut and red rot. These heavily damage the crop and also lower the qual-ity of the sugar (Akhtar and Amin, 1975; Akhtar et al., 1974).

For controlling sugarcane diseases, use healthy seed which is disease-free and preferably plant disease-resistant varieties. Treat the seed with fungicide/s before planting. The diseased plants from the fieldshould be removed and either buried or burnt. Seed may be treated with hot water at 520 C for 30 min-utes.

Soaking setts before planting with Agallol, Aretan, Benlate, Topsin M, ensures protection against pests. Itis very important to use healthy seed for planting. The practice of heat therapy is becoming more com-mon at seed-production centers to rid seed of ratoon stunting disease, grassy shoot, and leaf scale. Thistreatment consists of submerging the cane setts in water heated to 520 C for two hours. In the hot airtreatment or the moist hot air treatment, whole cane stalks are treated at 540 C for eight and four hours,respectively. The most hot air treatment is preferred, however, because the hot air treatment injures thebuds which ultimately reduce germination. When planting a new crop, it is essential to use seed fromsamples of the best patches of cane crop, free of disease and insect pests. Disease-free, good-quality seedincreases yield by 10-15%.

Post-Harvesting Practices

PPoosstt-hhaarrvveessttiinngg

Harvesting is laborious job. Small landholders do this job manually. Medium level growers do by their


Table.11. Frequency of labor involvement in sugar harvesting.

Medium growers Province

Inter-cult Earthing

Punjab 300 350

Sindh 240 300

NWFP 200 200

tenants and big farmers by tenants and laborers (Table. 11) (Makhdoom, 2004).In harvest operations, a number of environmental impacts are visible. It results in soil removal from thefield and soil compactness is at risk. This may result into soil erosion. In harvesting planning should bedone to take in to account:

topography,soil characteristics,weather,waterway crossings,and loading zone sites Relatively wet and poorly drainer dares should be harvested during dry periods. Vehicles should beappropriately set up and deployed. Trashing rather burning should be practiced where possible. Appropriate agricultural machinery should be selected. Irrigation should be stopped 25-30 days before the harvest of crop and do not leave the harvested crop for longer time in the field. If it remains in the field for longer period then it should be covered by trash. Harvesting of early maturing varieties may be started earlier.Green Cane Trashing Blanketing (GCTB), which is essential for nutrient recycling and water conservation need to be implemented. It will reduce smoke and smut develops from sugarcane trash burning after harvest, deteriorating soil biodiversity and air pollution due to the emission of toxic gases like carbon dioxide or nitrous oxide that poses a threat to the ecosystem. GCTB would contribute in conserving biodiversity of sugarcane. Wetland, floodplain and indigenousbush areas are being conserved and / or rehabilitated.In addition to improvements to soil quality, trash blanketing can reduce the risk of soil erosion (Lugo-Lopez et al., 1981; Sullivan and Sallaway, 1994). SASA (2002) recommends that trashing (mulching) should be practiced on slopes greater than 13%during the wet season, to reduce the impact of raindrop action, if insufficient crop cover has developed. As well as assisting in the conservation of soil, trash blanketing contributes to the conservation of soil moisture. Some early studies questioned this (e.g. Eavis and Chase, 1973), but many subsequent experiments have indicated significant benefits (e.g. Lugo-Lopez et al., 1981; Thind, 1996;Denmead et al., 1997; Murombo et al,, 1997; Swamy et al., 1998; Meier et al., 2002). Yadav (1986),for example, found that trash mulching resulted in a 40% economy of irrigation water. Trash blanketing can also contribute to the conservation of natural enemies of cane pests and suppress weed development (Kuniata and Sweet, 1994), reducing the need for herbicide inputs (SASA, 2002). Other benefits ascribed to green cane harvesting and trash blanketing include reduced diurnal fluctuations in soil temperature and the facilitation of wet weather harvesting (shortening the growingseason) (Garside et al., 1997b). Some disadvantages to green cane harvesting and trash blanketing have been recorded. For example, the shift away from pre-harvest burning in Australia contributedto the re-emergence of the sugarcane weevil borer as a significant pest in some areas (Robertson andWebster, 1995).

Hartemink (2003) suggests that it may also contribute to soil acidification (as pH-increasing ashes areno longer returned to the soil), an idea supported by the results of Noble et al., (2003). Where internaldrainage is poor, there is some evidence that a trash blanket may produce allelopathic effects, with thepotential to suppress development of cane and other plants (Wood, 1991; Garside et al., 1997b).Facilitation of wet weather harvesting may increase the risk of soil compaction, and reduced cultivation

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for weed control reduces the alleviation of compaction associated with soil disturbance. However, expe-riences in other systems with zero tillage and stubble retention suggest that a period of 10 years is oftenrequired before improvements in soil physical quality are recorded (Wood, 1986; Garsside et al.,1997b).

Other disadvantages of green cane harvesting and trash blanketing may include increased harvestingcosts, complications to irrigation and fertilizer application and slowing of tiller emergence. However,these appear to be significantly outweighed by the benefits (Murombo et al., 1997; Bakker, 1999), whichmay include increased yields. The precise effects of green (vs. burnt) harvesting on cane yield factorsand the economics of cane cultivation are difficult to determine, but it is likely that any reduction in yieldfactors under green cane harvesting are compensated for by other cost savings (Wood, 1991; Garside etal., 1997b).

Green cane harvesting and trash blanketing are now widely practiced in some parts of the world, as inAustralia, where uptake of the technique has increased over recent years (Garside et al., 1997b).Ballantyne (1998) estimated that, in 1997, 65% of Queensland cane was harvested green, comparedwith just 18% in 1987. However, the shift away from pre harvest burning has been more rapid in someareas than in others whilst enabling increased production, increased inorganic fertilizer use in Australiahas contributed to degradation of cane growing soils, contamination of ground and surface water andenhanced greenhouse gas emissions Application rates are high by world standards, increased substan-tially in the postwar years and often exceed industry recommendations and levels required to maximizeyields (Garside et al.,1997b)

This is widely accepted that,

Irrigation may be stopped 25 to 30 days before the harvest of crop and should not leave the harvested crop for long in the field. In case it has to be kept for a prolonged period, it should be covered with trash. Different varieties planted may be harvested according to their maturity. Harvesting of early maturing varieties may be started during November, mid season varieties during December and the late maturing varieties during January. The crop harvested during February-March gives good ratoon crop. Best ratoon can also be achievedby harvesting crop comparatively at high temperature e.g. September harvested sugarcane used forseed purpose can be kept as ratoon.

Harvesting is done when,

The crop has fully matured and ripened. Early varieties and ratoon crops are the first to be harvested.When the stem is close to the surface, great vigilance is required in order to cut the maximum portion of the stem, which is valuable both for its weight and sugar content.The harvested cane should be immediately hauled to the mill otherwise weight and sucrose losses may occur. For this purpose, transport should be arranged in advance.


Environmental Impacts of SugarcaneCultivation

RRoollee ooff ppeessttiicciiddeess

Agricultural food production in general strongly depends on the use of pesticides, with herbicides rep-resenting about 50% of pesticides used in many countries (Lanchote et al., 2000). Quite apart fromimpacts on the wider environment, the negative impacts on human health are considerable. Specific fig-ures for sugar crops are not readily available, but, in relation to pesticide use in agriculture in general,the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that there are 25 million cases of acute chemical poi-soning in developing countries each year (Dent et al., 2003). Despite widespread concern over pesticidemisuse, the total value of world sales has increased 2.5 times in the last 20 years, to US$30 billion(Bateman, 2003). Following precautionary measures need to adopt regarding pesticides:

When applying pesticide extreme care should be taken as these are poisonous compounds. Gloves and masks should be used while handling the chemicals. After the use hands and mouth should be washed with soap. Do not spray with the clothes which are used commonly and after the spray these should be changed. If some body gets sick it should be placed in the open and then should be taken to the physician.

Agrochemical companies, which often provide farmers with most of their information on syntheticchemical inputs, are unlikely to develop or promote techniques that reduce pesticide use. However, it isin their interest to promote practices that maintain the longer-term viability of their business (Dent etal., 2003), rather than becoming associated with negative impacts on environment and health. A rangeof methods are available for optimizing pesticide use in agriculture and minimizing undesirable impactson farm workers:

Appropriate planning, for example through the use, at the earliest possible stage, of EnvironmentalImpact Assessments (EIAs), can also contribute greatly to the reduction of impacts of sugar processing (UNEP, 1982).Appropriate management can minimize environmental impacts without compromising productivityand efficiency. Reflecting on the Australian sugar industry in particular, Ballantyne (1998) notes that there is an increasing awareness that sustainability does not necessarily imply reduced productivity and efficiency. Indeed, many measures introduced to reduce environmental impacts have resulted in increased efficiency Murty and Kumar (2003) study of the effect of environmental regulation on the productiveefficiency of water-polluting industries in India reinforces this. Their main empirical finding was that the technical efficiency of firms in the sugar industry increased with their degree of compliancewith environmental regulation and water conservation efforts. Similar synergies between environmental protection and enhanced productivity in Mauritius are noted by Autrey (1999).

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IImmppaacctt ooff ppeessttiicciiddeess

Sugarcane is a high water requirement crop resulting in consumption of a large portion of waterreserves (9.62 Million Acre Feet (MAF). Pesticides are used to control various pests (borers, bugs, pyril-la, and termite) in the crop which pollute the environment. Fungicides are used for seed treatment whichmay result in soil and air pollution, if used un-judiciously. Weedicides used to control weeds in sugar-cane crop may also deteriorate the environment. Higher doses of nitrogen are applied to the cane cropwhich result in nitrate leaching, which pollutes drinking / underground water. By-product of sugarindustry, press mud/filter cake, is burnt in brick kilns resulting in the loss and wastage of millions oftonnes of nutrients through burning and ultimately degrades the environment.

Soil water monitoring has allowed more precise irrigation scheduling, whilst drip irrigation technology(although not necessarily reducing total volume of water used) has increased water use efficiency.Nutrient movement in groundwater and runoff is more widely monitored than previously, and tail waterdams are commonly used to ensure that runoff is captured and reused.Riparian management

Whilst native vegetation is still being cleared to allow an expansion of cane production, there is anincreasing recognition of the importance of riparian vegetation in filtration of nutrient runoff, preven-tion of erosion and siltation, provision of wildlife corridors and reduction of pest problems in adjacentcane fields. Trees are increasingly retained adjacent to waterways, and have been replanted in someareas.

AAcciidd ssuullpphhaattee ssooiillss

An increased understanding of the environmental problems associated with acid sulphate soils hasresulted in the development of more precise land management strategies, leading to positive environ-mental outcomes and improved farm productivity. In addition to these examples, Ballantyne (1998)notes that improved fertilizer management, measures to tackle soil salinisation and consideration ofcoastal/reef water quality issues have imposed a short-term cost on the sugar industry, but have hadlonger-term benefits for farm efficiency and sustainability. Wood et al., (1997) also stress the combinedeconomic and environmental benefits to the Australian sugar industry that would arise from animproved system of fertilizer management in cane cultivation. Stakeholder groups can assist in the propagation of a sense of democracy and local owner ship in rela-tion to environmental issues, as well as the propagation of better practice. In South Africa, for example,the structure of the sugar industry includes a network of Local Environmental Committees (LECs), whichserve this type of role (SASA, 2002). Whilst recognizing the value of voluntary (and incentive based)agreements, Johnson et al., (1997) conclude that external regulation will remain important in ensuringappropriate management of natural resources by the sugar industry, particularly where potential envi-ronmental impacts are most severe, not least because it provides a 'safety net to protect against the recal-citrant few not persuaded by other incentives'.

Mechanisms for communication and information exchange are important means of propagating betterpractice. Recently, electronic mechanisms have come to the fore in some areas, providing a fast andaccessible mean of enhancing the flow of information and knowledge, e.g. between researchers andgrowers. A range of electronic (mostly internet based) resources are available to sugar growers inEurope, for example, aiming to promote efficient, economic and environment-friendly' methods - seeBox 2.3. Electronic information and decision support resources are also available to cane growers in


some parts of the world, for example in South Africa via the website of the South African SugarAssociation (Schmidt, 2000). Rapid communication and uptake of improved methods are also assistedby having a relatively well-integrated industry

An integrated farming system (IFS) approach was investigated for crop rotations including sugar beet byEl-Titi and Landes (1990), who found that IFS resulted in significant reductions in agrochemical con-sumption and nitrogen fertilizer inputs (leading to lower nitrate concentrations in the soil profile) andpositive effects on the abundance and

IImmppaacctt:: TTrraasshh//MMuullcchh

In Australia, community groups have placed pressure on farmers to stop cane trash burning after har-vesting to improve air quality around harvesting time, prevent soil erosion and increase soil health.Retaining trash in cane fields is dependent on the criteria of ratooning success, pest and disease preven-tion, cost benefits of removing trash off field. In a majority of the cane growing countries, trash is notburnt and is incorporated back into the soil thus reducing the smoke pollution and increasing the levelof soil organic matter which contributes in improving the soil structure and stability and soil nutrientholding capacity. In Pakistan, sugarcane fields are frequently burned after harvesting, and sometimebefore harvesting. In Punjab, more than 70% cane growers burned sugarcane trash after harvestingcompared to only 6% in NWFP. The farmers, who supported sugarcane trash burning, perceived fast irri-gation in burned fields as consumption of tube well leads to higher electricity expenses. Some farmershave the perception that burning eliminates sugarcane pests, while some other favor burning for goodratoon sprouting after cane trash burning. The remaining trash and tops obstruct the operations involvedin new or ratoon crop establishment/management as new crop establishment involves ploughing(Hameed, 2004).

Sugarcane produces a thick mulch of trash and tops, and tillage implements can hardly penetrate thefield, especially the small to medium sized tractors. Super large tractors used in pineapple farms can fea-sibly plough under the sugarcane trash. They are expensive and are unaffordable by small-scale farm-ers (average farm size is 13.0 hectares). Even large plantations do not use them due to low net incomederived from sugarcane com pared with pineapple. Meanwhile, ratoon crop establishment requiresstubble shaving. Since hand held bolos or machete is used in cutting stalks, about 2-3 inches of the basalstalk remains in the field. These protruding basal stalks should be cut to "subdue" floating tillers, or toallow basal tillers to emerge, hence, obtaining a good ratoon crop stand. Stubble shaving requires burn-ing the trash and also facilitates inter-row cultivation and fertilizer application.

There are cases/experiences where properly piled trash between cane rows was burned together withthe established cane crop. Reasons cited why this happened are Cigarette butts thrown by passers by,laid-off workers burn the trash in reprisal to their bosses, burning of nearby cane fields can be acciden-tally started especially during windy days. During the field survey, the following environmental relatedissues were identified and the percent farmer's familiarity is given in the table. In Sindh, 16% growerswere familiar with some kind of erosion in newly plant and sugarcane crop compared with 0% in Punjaband 12% in NWFP. Regarding rodents, 52% growers in Sindh, 40% in Punjab and 16% in NWFP werefamiliar. Similarly, salinity and weed control were identified as major issues.

115

Efficient Marketing Practices

CCoonntteexxtt

It is thought that Sorghum officinarum originated in the Pacific area probably in New Guinea and dis-persed by three routes. The first started in the year 8000 B.C and was to Solomon Island; the secondabout 6,000 B.C. by way of Philippines, Java, Malaya and Burma to India and the third between 500 to1100 A.D. from Fiji to Tonga, Tahiti, Hawaii (Deerr,1950). The Islamic conquest of the period 600-800gave impetus to the westward movement of sugarcane by the second route. Its cultivation spread fromIndia to Iran, Syria, and the other Mediterranean countries. For 150 years from the beginning of fif-teenth century to the middle of seventeenth internal trade in Sugar was dominated by Portugal(Blackburn, 1984).

The international sugar agreement signed at Brussels in 1931 was the first mass attempt in solving mar-keting difficulties and unprofitable prices (Swerling, 1949).

MMaarrkkeettiinngg aanndd tthhee mmiillllss

Until 1987, marketing of sugarcane to mills was regulated by the Sugarcane Factories Control Act, underwhich, each mill was assigned a zone or area from which it was required to procure a specified percent-age of its cane requirements. This percentage varied by province. It was 80% in Punjab, 65% in the NWFPand 100% in the Sindh. The growers in mill zones were in turn obligated to sell a similar percentage oftheir cane production to the mill.

The minimum price at which cane could be procured by mills was set by the Government each year. Theuse of cane for Gur (manually prepared sugar cake) was prohibited in mill zones, except for smallamounts to meet the immediate household needs. The Sugar Factories Control Act specifically prohibit-ed the involvement of middlemen in the marketing of sugarcane to the mills.

The mills were required to maintain a grower's register and before the beginning of each crushing sea-son estimate the quantity of cane produced by each grower in their respective zones. On the basis of theproduction assessment made, indents were issued by mills to growers. These indents authorized grow-ers to supply a specified quantity of cane to the mill at a particular place on a given date. These indentshad to be issued in such a manner that purchases from growers were spread equitably over the lengthof the crushing period. The Provincial Cane Commissioner was responsible for the implementation ofthe Act. Supervisory Committees were to be constituted in each mill zone to ensure that no irregularitiesor malpractices took place.

MMaallpprraaccttiicceess iinn zzoonniinngg ssyysstteemm

A number of mills behaved as economic theory would predict when processors have a captive source ofraw material supply. They left prices at the minimum level in their zones and bought marginal amountsat much higher prices at the minimum level in their zones and bought marginal amounts at much high-er prices outside the zone. They also gave some lifting preference to outside suppliers. Some mills wait-ed until mid-season or later to offer higher prices within their zones to attract cane from gur (manual-


ly prepared sugarcane) production. Many farmers viewed these practices as discriminatory and exertedpressures to sell where they could obtain higher prices.

PPrrooccuurreemmeenntt ooff SSuuggaarrccaannee tthhrroouugghh DDeezzoonniinngg

The soils are made up of minerals, air, water and organic matter. The organic matter is formed fromresidues of plants, soil organisms and remains of animals and their by products. The organic matter ispresent in very small proportion (1-2 %) but has a great role in soil forming process and build up of soilfertility and crop productivity. It plays a role far greater than its share of the volume of the soil (Nasir,2004).

Recommendations for BMPs in Sugarcane

Instead of increasing area under sugarcane focus should be laid on per unit productivity enhancement.Sugarcane production and market linkages should be developed in the best interest of growers.Sugar mills and District Governments should be involved for sustainable sugarcane developmental activities for overall socio-economic up lift of the farming communities. Sugar mills should be involved in overall community development activities by utilizing the cess fund.Accessibility of small growers to credit facilities should be improvedCommunity support structure should be developedNational policy to be introduced for adoption of IPM and ICM in sugarcane agriculture in Pakistanas it fulfills the needs of environmental stability, low input costs and higher yields.More emphasis to be laid on sugarcane varietal development programmes with focus on pest and disease resistant varieties and those that need less fresh water resources.Use of press mud compost be publicized at the national level as it has proven qualities of high fertility and low insect pest incidence on sugarcane.There is need to prepare and widely publicize the safe and efficient use of chemical insecticides forthe sake of farm workers health, and effective and timely management of insect pests and diseases of sugarcane.As the biological control based IPM technology has been very successful, government may make it mandatory for every sugar mills to establish their own IPM labs.In order to implement public safety health measure, government should announce a policy framework for the owners and farm workers to use protective clothing as a compulsory measure for application of chemical pesticides.Surface and subsurface drip irrigation systems to be introduced and promoted for efficient irrigationsystems.To reduce quantity of water used in sugarcane cultivation, there is need to improve on-farm waterstorage systems, cultivate draught tolerant varieties, manage fertilizer application, undertake soil amendments, foliar applications and weed control practices. Conduct TOT and FFS for the local communities to raise awareness and train farmers and extensionworkers in BMPs for sugarcane. This will raise opportunities to grow more sugarcane with BMPs.Print brochures, pamphlets, etc. for providing proper guidelines to the farmers for application of

117

BMPs.Demonstration of sugarcane BMPs over large areas with the involvement of farmers to disseminatethe information for ultimate objectives of productivity enhancement in the context of environmental conservation.Help and train willing farmers to establish their own facilities for promotion of identified and provenBMPs for sugarcane.Organize workshops involving Agriculture Extension Department because Governments are impor

tant stakeholders at mass-scale. They have more access to field-level crops. Without their involvement, BMPs in sugarcane cannot be promoted at the community level.Organize BMPs study tours of the farmers from one sugarcane area to other. This will raise the levelof awareness and promote the approach of community IPM and cooperative farming among them.The level of advocacy may be enhanced to convince government for preparing a sound BMPs policywhich could be implemented by equal involvement of NGOs and Government.The partnership MOU may be signed with major NGOs and Research Institutions in the country todemonstrate and replicate the BMPs for overall benefit of the farming communities.Efforts should be made to provide and use Ratoon Stunting Disease free seed. The work on biological control based IPM of sugarcane pests should be expanded to cover all the area in all the mills.A Sugarcane Research Station should be created in breeding group. The agronomists already working on sugarcane should be asked to concentrate on selecting other superior varieties besides concentrating on just selecting drought tolerant varieties as we are short of irrigation water. They shouldbe provided laboratory facilities for quality evaluation, so that selection of varieties on cane yield isgiven full attention.The crushing season in the developed cane-growing countries is kept optimum when high sugar yields are obtained. To increase our sugar yield, we should not continue with our longer crushing season, but find ways to decrease it. The sugarcane price is currently fixed as a minimum on the basis of average recovery without consideration of mill efficiency or farmer's efficiencies. No quality payment has been introduced to match with the developed cane growing countries of the world.This action leads to a reduction of our sugar yield and increases its cost. In addition, the cane priceis on average recovery of each mill without any minimum base. Thus if a cane price of Rs.40 is fixedfor average recovery of 8.5%, the mills getting 7.5% recovery shall pay Rs. 35.29 for 40 kg and themills getting 9.5% recovery shall pay Rs. 44.71. This means that Rs.0.47 shall be adjustable for increase or decrease of 0.1% in recovery from standard recovery fixed as 8.5%. There should be a zoning system. The farmers should not be free to sell their produce to any mill


they like. The present action of de-zoning should discontinue. By this action the development workthat was being done by mills has greatly been reduced. The mills would not like to invest their moneyon development of the farmers unless they are sure to get their cane delivered to their mill. This hasalso encouraged the middleman business, which has increased the cost and decreased the quality ofcane delivered. This has also increased the after harvest losses and transport expanses.The water rates for sugarcane crops are charged on uniform basis. The farmers getting high yields are using more water than the farmers getting lower yield. Therefore the system should be introduced to charge water rates in relation to yield groups might be very high, high, average, low, and very low. This will provide some satisfaction to the farmers getting low yield and very low yields.

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AAllii,, MM..II.. aanndd KKaarriimm,, MM..AA.. ((11999933)) Biological efficacy of some chemical insecticides against cotton jassidAmrasca devastans (Dist.). Bangla. J. Zool. 21(1): 161-167.

AAllii,, MM..II.. aanndd WWaahhllaa,, MM..AA.. ((11999933)) The comparative efficacy of some insecticidal spray schedules againstthe sucking pest insect of FH-686 cotton. Pak. Entomol. 15(1-2) 79-80.

AAnnwwaarr,, MM..,, ZZaakkii,, MM.. MMuuhhaammmmaadd,, DD.. AAffzzaall,, MM..NN.. ((22000022aa..)) Effect of various tillage practices on cottonyield in cotton-wheat cropping system. The Pakistan Cottons 46: (1-4): 7-13.

AAnnwwaarr,, MM..MM..,, GGiillll,, MM..II.. MMuuhhaammmmaadd,, DD.. ZZaakkii,, MM..SS.. aanndd AAffzzaall,, MM..NN.. ((22000022bb)) Effect of relay cropping sys-tem on the yield of wheat and cotton crop. The Pakistan Cottons 46: (1-4) 23-28.

AArrmmaass,, FF..MM..,, GGaarrcciiaa BBaatteeiissttaa,, RR..,, AAllvvaarreezz,, BB..QQ.. aanndd AAllvvaarreezz VVeellaassccoo,, RR.. ((11999911)) Effect of intensive sugar-cane cultivation on some physical properties of a fersiallitic soil. ATAC, Revista de la Asociacion deTecnicos azucareros de Cuba, No. 3-4, pp. 27-36.

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IIrrsshhaadd,, MM..,, BBeegg,, MM..NN.. aanndd SShhaahh,, II.. ((11998822)) Mechanical control of Acigona steniellus Hamp. (Lepidoptera:Pyralidae) the Gurdaspur borer of sugarcane in Pakistan. ISST Entomology. Newsletter, 12: 8-11.

IIrrsshhaadd,, MM aanndd SSiiddddiiiiqquuee,, MM.. ((11998822)) Natural enemies of Pyrilla perpusilla Wlk. (Homopetra: Fulgoride)n northern Pakistan. Pak J. Agric. Res., 3(3): 170-172.

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KKiinngg,, NN..JJ..RR..,, MMuunnggoommeerryy,, RR..WW.. aanndd HHuugghheess,, CC..EE.. ((11993355)) Manual of cane growing, Angus and Robertson,Sudney 375 pp.

KKlleeiinn,, MM..AA..,, FFrraanncckk aanndd RRiimmoonn,, DD.. ((11998866)) Proliferation and franching of cotton seedling: the suspectedcause Thrips tabaci, the influence on yields, and tests to reduce damage, Phytoparasitica. 14(1): 25-37.

KKllookk,, KK..AA..,, CChhaarrlleesswwoorrtthh,, PP..BB.. HHaamm,, GG..JJ.. aanndd BBrriissttooww,, KK..LL.. ((22000033)) Management of furrow irrigation toimprove water use efficiency and sustain the groundwater resource- preliminary results from a casestudy in the Burdekin Delta. Proceedings of the Australian Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, Vol. 25,p.38.

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KKuunniiaattaa,, LL..SS aanndd SSwweeeett,, CC..PP..MM.. ((11999944)) Management of Sesamia infrenes Walker (Lep. : Noctuide ) , asugarcane borer in Papua New Guinea . Crop Protection 13: 488-493

LLaanncchhoottee,, VV..,, BBoonnaattoo,, PP..SS.. CCeerrddeeiirraa,, AA..LL.. SSaannttooss,, NN..AA..GG.. ddee CCaarrvvaallllhhoo,, dd.. aanndd GGoommeess,, MM..AA.. ((22000000)) HPLCscreening and GC-MS confirmation of tiazine herbicide residues in drinking water from a sugar canearea in Brazil. Water, Air, and soil Pollution, Vol. 118, pp. 329-337.

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LLuuggoo-LLooppeezz,, MM..AA..,, AAbbrruunnaa,, FF.. aanndd PPeerreezz,, EEssccoo.. AArr.. RR.. ((11998811)) The role of crop and industrial resides inErisuion control , properties and productivity of some Peutro Ric . Bull. 26. Agricultural experimentalstation University of Perut Rico 26 pp.

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MMaakkhhdduumm,, MM..II..,, MMaalliikk,, MM..NN..AA.. AAhhmmaadd,, FF.. CChhaauuddhhrryy,, FF..II.. aanndd DDiinn,, SS.. ((22000011) Investigations on the phys-ical parameters of the environmental and their impact on cotton crop production in the SouthernPunjab. Pakistan J. Res. (Sci.) 12(2): 147-154.

MMaakkhhdduumm,, MM..II,, MMaalliikk,, MM..NN..AA.. DDiinn,, SS.. aanndd CChhaauuddhhrryy,, FF..II.. ((22000011bb)) Effects of flower buds removal onsome physiological processes in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.). The Pakistan Cottons. 45(3&4): 49-55.

MMaakkhhdduumm,, MM..II.. ((22000022)) Cotton fiber quality parameters as influenced by plant water stress. TextechNational Textile University, Faisalabad. 70-71.

MMaakkhhddoooomm.. AA..HH.. ((22000044)) Socio economic impacts of sugarcane cultivation in Pakistan. National ProjectPlanning Workshop WWP Pakistan sustainable sugar Iniitative pp 38-69.

MMaalliikk,, MM..NN..AA..,, DDiinn,, SS.. MMaakkhhdduumm,, MM..II..,, aanndd CChhaauuddhhrryy,, FF..II.. ((22000022)) The use of thidiazuron as harvest aidin early and late planted cotton. Int. J. Agri. and Biology, 4(1): 71-73.

MMaalliikk,, KK..BB.. ((22000066)) Importance of organic matter and trash mulching in conservation of irrigation waterand improving soil productivity. Workshop on Agriculture pp 1-21.

MMaallllaawwaaaarraacchhcchhii,, TT.. aanndd QQuuiiggggiinn,, JJ.. ((22000011)) Modeling socially optimal land allocation for sugarcanegrowing in North Queensland: a linked mathematical Programming and choice modeling study.Australian Journal of agricultural and Resources Economics, Vol. 45, No. 3, pp.383-410.

MMaallllaawwaaaarraacchhcchhii,, TT..,, BBllaammeeyy,, RR..KK.. MMoorrrriissoonn,, MM..DD.. JJoohhnnssoonn,, AA..KK..LL.. aanndd BBeennnntttt,, JJ..WW.. ((22000011)) Communityvalues for environmental protection in a cane farming catchments in Northern Australia: a choice mod-eling study. Journal of environmental Management, Vol. 62. No. 3, pp. 301-316.

MMaarrii,, NN..DD..,, TTuunniioo,, SS..DD.. AAbbrroo,, AA..HH.. CChhuuttttoo,, AA..BB.. aanndd SSuutthhrraarr,, VV.. ((22000000)) Effect of first and subsequent irri-gation intervals on cotton yield. Pak. J. Agric. Engg. Vet. Sci.16 (1-2):1-4.

MMaassuudd,, SS.. ZZ.. aanndd HHaassaann,, NN.. ((11999922)) Pesticide residues in foodstuffs in Pakistan, organochlorine,organophosphate and parathyroid pesticides in fruits and vegetables. Pak. J. Sci. Ind. Res. 35 (12): 499-504.

MMaassuudd,, SS..ZZ.. aanndd HHaassaann,, NN.. ((11999955)) Environmental toxicology assessment. Eds. Richardson, M. Taylor andFrancis, England. 269-279.

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MMaassuudd,, SS..ZZ.. aanndd PPaarrvveeeenn,, ZZ.. ((11999988)) Multiple pesticide residues in cotton eco system. PAPA Bulletin, 22-26.

MMaatthheess,, RR.. aanndd CChhaarrppeennttiieerr,, LL..JJ.. ((11996699)) Varietal resistance in sugar cane to stalk moth borers, pp. 175-188. In J.R. Williams, J.R. Metcalfe, R.W. Mungomery and R. Mathes [eds.], Pests of Sugar Cane. Elsevier,New York.

MMccGGlliinncchheeyy,, MM..GG.. ((11999988)) Components of the water balance of irrigated sugarcane crop in Swazilan.Proceedings of the annual Congress-South African Sugar Technologists' Association, No. 72, p. 11-116.

MMeeaagghheerr,, RR..LL..,, IIrrvviinnee,, JJrr..JJ..EE.. BBrreeeennee,, RR..GG.. PPffaannnneennssttiieell,, RR..SS.. aanndd GGaalllloo-MMeeaagghheerr,, MM.. ((11999966)) Resistancemechanisms of sugarcane to Mexican rice borer (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 89: (inpress).

MMeeiieerr,, EE..AA..,, TThhoorrbbuurrnn,, PP..JJ.. WWaaggeenneerr,, MM..KK.. aanndd bbaassffoorrdd,, KK.. ((22000022)) A conceptual anylasis of nitrogen fromtrash blankets in the wet tropics Sugarcane international May/June pp 8-11.

MMaaggwweennzzii,, OO..EE.. ((22000000)) Evaluation of irrigation efficiency in the Swaziland sugar industry. Proceedingsof the Annual Congress - South African Sugar Technologists' Association, No.74, pp. 151-156.

MMaannggiissoonnii,, JJ..HH.. aanndd PPhhiirrii,, GG..SS.. ((11999966)) New perspectives on local conservation techniques: a case studyfrom Malawi. In sustaining the Soil: Indigenous soil and Water Conservation in Africa, (eds C. Riej, I.scones and C. Toulmin), pp. 202-212. Earthscan Publications Ltd, London.

MMeeyyeerr,, WW..SS ((11999977)) The irrigation experience in Australia - lessons for the sugar industry. In IntensiveSugarcane Production: Meeting the Challenges Beyond 2000 (eds b.A.Keating and J.R. Wilson), pp.437-454. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

MMiitthhaaiiwwaallaa,, RR..II.. ((11997766)) Cotton breeding and improvement work for the Guddu Barrage. Proc. cottonproduction seminar, ESSO Pakistan Fertilizer Ltd. ENGRO 8591.

MMaahhmmoooodd,, KK.. ((11999955)) The comparative effectiveness of some latest insecticidal spray schedules againstthe jassid of cotton. Amrasca devastans (Dist.) on FH-682. Cotton. M.Sc (Hons) Agric. Thesis. Deptt ofAgric. Entomol. Uni. Agric. Faisalabad.

MMaauurreemmoooottoooo,, JJ.. ((22000011)) Case study 2.15 - Mauritius and La Reunion cooperate to prevent a sugar canepest spreading. In Invasive Alien Species: A toolkit of best prevension and Management Practices (eds R.Wittenberg and M.J.W. Cock), p. 42. CAB International (on behalf of the Global Invasive SpeciesProgramme. GISP), Wallingford, UK.

MMoohhyyuuddddiinn,, AA..II.. ((11998811)) A review of biological control in Pakistan. Proc. 2nd Pak. Cong. Zool. pp. 31-79.

MMoohhyyuuddddiinn,, AA..II..,, RRaahhiimm,, AA.. aanndd IIrrsshhaadd,, MM.. ((11998822)) Studies on population dynamics of Pyrilla perpusilla(Wlk.), its natural enemies in Pakistan and possibilities of its control. PSST, 18: 157-171

MMoohhyyuuddddiinn,, AA..II.. aanndd KKhhaann GG..AA.. ((11998822)) Natural enemies of sugarcane whitefly Aleurolobus barodensis


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MMoohhyyuuddddnn,, AA..II.. ((11999922)) Implementation of integrated pest management of sugarcane pests in Pakistan.In Integrated Pests Management In the Asia-Pacific Region (ed P.A.C. Ooi, G.S. Lim, T.H. Ho, P.L. Manaloand J.K. wage), pp. 73-84. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

MMoohhyyuuddddnn,, AA..II..,, HHaammiidd,, AA.. aanndd MMoohhaammmmaadd,, AA.. ((11999944)) Integrated Pest Control of Sugar-cane borers inthe NWFP. International Institute of Biological Control/Pakistan agricultural Research Council,Islamabad.

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MMoohhyyuuddddiinn,, AA..II.. aanndd QQuurreesshhii,, MM..AA.. ((11999999)) Use of alternative methods of pest control for managementof insecticide resistance in cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)in Pakistan. Proc. of the ICAC- CCRI Regional Consultation. Insecticide Resistance Management inCotton, June 28 - July, 1, 1999, Multan, Pakistan.

MMoohhyyuuddddiinn,, AA..II.. aanndd QQuurreesshhii,, MM..AA.. ((22000000)) History of sugarcane Pyrilla perpusilla (Walk.) and its bio-logical control based Integrated Pest Management in Pakistan. Proc. Ann. Convention Sugar Tech.Rawalpindi, 28-29 August 2000 pp.186-192.

MMoonnsseeff,, AA..AA.. aanndd AA.. KKaasshhkkoooollii.. ((11997788)) The cotton white fly B. tabaci Genn. And its control in theprovince Fars. Di baum wollweissfliege B. tabaci Genn. In Der Provinz Fars and Die kontrolle. Entomol.et pytopathologie appliqués. 46 (1/2 pe pp. 66-77).

MMoorrggaann,, RR..PP..CC.. ((11998866)) Soil degradation and soil erosion in the loamy belt of Northern Europe. In the soilerosion in the European community - impact on Changing+ Agriculture (eds. G. Chisci and R.P.C.Morgan), pp. 165-172. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam.

MMrriigg,, KK..KK.. aanndd CChhaauuddhhaarryy,, JJ..PP.. ((11999933)) Comparative efficacy of different insecticides, applied with dif-ferent irrigation levels for control of sugarcane shoot and root borers. Cooperative Sugar, Vol. 25, No.½, pp. 33-37.

MMrriigg,, KK..KK..,, CChhaauuddhhaarryy,, JJ..PP.. aanndd MMaahhllaa,, JJ..CC.. ((11999955)) Effect of irrigation intervals on the incidence of shootand root borers in sugarcane ratoon. J. of Insect science, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 188-191.

MMuucchhooww,, RR..CC.. aanndd KKeeaattiinngg,, BB..AA.. ((11999988)) Assessing irrigation requirement in the Ord sugar industry usinga simulation modeling approach. Australian J.l of Experimental Agriculture, Vol.38, No.4, pp.143-153.

MMuunnrroo,, JJ..MM.. ((11999944)) The cotton crop In Insect pests of cotton Eds. Matthews, G.A. and Tunstall J.P. CABInternational Wallingford pp3-26.

MMuurroommbboo,, MM..,, TTaakkaavvaattaarrssaakkee,, EE aanndd WWiisseemmeenn,, JJ.. ((11999977)) Green cane harvesting at Mkwasine estate.

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MMuurrttyy MM..NN.. aanndd KKuummaarr,, SS.. ((22000033)) Win-win opportunities and environmental regulations: testing ofporter hypothesis of Indian manufacturing industries. J. of Environmental management 67(2): 139-144.

MMuussttaaffaa,, GG.. ((11999966)) The comparative efficacy of 10 insecticides against jassid on cotton variety CIM-240.Annual report of Entomol. Section, 1996-97 (31-32). Ayub Agri. Res. Insti. Faisalabad.

MMuussttaaffaa,, GG.. ((11999999)) The comparative efficacy of 15 insecticides against cotton white fly, Bemesia tabaci.Annual report of Entomol. Section, 1999-2000 (7-8). Ayub Agric. Res. Insti. Faisalabad.

NNaarrwwaall,, SS..SS.. aanndd BBeehhll.. KK..LL.. ((11997788)) Effect of intercropping on yield of spring planted sugarcane. IndianSugar. 28 (1): 27-29. (Hort. Abstracts. 49 (5): 3896: 1979.).

NNaassiirr,, NN.. MM,, QQuurreesshhii,, MM..AA..,, QQuurreesshhii,, SS..AA.. aanndd AAffgghhaann,, SS.. ((11999944)).. Effect of bio compost on sugarcane cropPak. Sug.J.8(3): 13-16.

NNaassiirr,, NN.. MM.. aanndd QQuurreesshhii,, SS..AA.. ((11999944)) Utilization of bio-compost produced from filter cake and stillageat Shakarganj Sugar Res. Inst. Jhang. Pak. Sug. J., 7(2): 21-26.

NNaassiirr,, NN..MM aanndd QQuurreesshhii,, MM..AA.. ((11999999bb)) Response of sugarcane to biocompost prepared from filtercakeand stillage. Pak. J. of Soil sci., Vol.16, No. 1-2, pp.75-80.

NNaassiirr,, NN..MM aanndd QQuurreesshhii,, MM..AA.. ((11999999aa)) Significant of ethanol stillage for soil and crop improvement. Pak.Sugar J., Vol.14, pp.17-21.

NNaassiirr,, NN..MM.. ((22000044)) Marketing issues of sugarcane and sugar. National Project Planning Workshop WWPPakistan sustainable sugar Initiative pp 97-108.

NNaattaarraajjaann,, KK.. ((11999900)) Natural enemies of Bemesia tabaci and effect of insecticides on their activity, J. Bio.Control. 4(2): 86-88 (Rev. Agri. Entomol., 80(11): 9859, 1992).

NNaazziirr,, SS..,, BBaasshhiirr,, EE.. aanndd BBaanntteell,, RR.. ((11999988)) Crop production. NBF 3rd edition. Aftab Alam Press, Lahore.Pp 118, 133.

NNoobbllee,, AA..DD..,, MMooooddyy,, PP.. aanndd BBeerrtthheellssoonn,, SS.. ((22000033)) Influence of changed management of sugarcane onsome soil chemicals properties in the hundred wet north Queensland. Australian Journal of Research 41;1133- 114.

OOkkaass,, AA..JJ.. aanndd SSkkooww,, OO.. ((11996699)) Sugar cane fertilizer trials in U.S. Virgin Island Sugar Azucar J. 64.28.

OOooii,, PP..AA..CC..,, LLiimm,, GG..SS.. HHoo,, TT..HH.. MMaannaalloo,, PP..LL.. aanndd WWaaaaggee,, JJ..KK.. ((eeddss)).. ((11999922)) Integrated Pest Managementin the Asia-Pacific Region. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

PPaannhhwwaarr,, RR..NN..,, KKeeeerriioo,, HH..KK.. KKhhaann,, MM..AA.. aanndd RRaajjppuutt,, MM..AA.. ((22000033)) Evaluation and selection of superiorclones in second selection of cycle for varietal improvement in sugarcane. Pak. J. Agric. Engg. Vet. Sci.19(2):27-31.


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PPaattuurraauu,, JJ..MM.. ((11998899)) By-products of the Cane Sugar Industry - an International to their IndustrialUtilisation, 3rd end. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

PPcccccc.. ((11998833)) Cotton hand book of Pakistan. Pakistan cotton committee. Time press Ltd, Karachi 253 pp

PPcccccc.. ((11999966)) Quality survey of Pakistan cotton. A summary of cotton fiber and processing tests resultsof crop season 1995-1996. 103 pp.

PPCCCCCC.. ((22000033)) Annual summary progress report. Central Cotton Research Institute Multan, 125pp.

PPeeaarrssoonn,, CC..HH..OO.. ((11996611)) Researches into the use of irrigation water on a sugar cane crop carried out fromthe sugar experiment station, Natal, during the ten-year period 1951-1961. Proc. Intern. Symp. Africaand Irrigation, Wright Rain Ltd., pp. 210-217.

PPeenngg,, SS..YY.. aanndd TTwwuu,, LL..TT.. ((11998800)) Studies on Chemical Weed Control for Sugarcane Intercropping inTaiwan. Reports of the Taiwan Sugar Research Institute, No. 88, 18 pp.

PPeettttiiggrreeww,, WW..TT..,, HHeeiitthhoolltt,, JJ..JJ.. aanndd MMeerreeddiitthh,, WW..RR.. JJrr.. ((11999966)) Genotypic interaction with potassium andnitrogen in cotton of varied maturity. Agron. J. 88:89-93.

PPffaannnneennssttiieell,, RR.. SS..,, aanndd MMeeaagghheerr,, RR.. LL JJrr.. ((11999911)) Sugarcane resistance to stalk borers (Lepidoptera:Pyralidae) in south Texas. Fla. Entomol. 74: 300 305.

PPiimmeenntteell,, DD..,, AAccqquuaayy,, HH.. BBiillttoonneenn,, MM.. RRiiccee,, PP.. SSiillvvaa,, MM.. NNeellssoonn,, JJ.. LLiippnneerr,, VV.. GGiioorrddaannoo,, SS.. HHoorroowwiittzz,, AA..DD..aanndd AAmmoorree,, MM.. ((11999933)) Assessment of environmental and economic impacts of pesticide use. In: The pes-ticide question, environment, economics, and ethics. Eds: Pimentel, D. and Lehman, H. Chapman & Hall,New York & London. 47-84.

PPlluunnkkeetttt,, GG..MM.. aanndd MMuucchhooww,, RR..CC.. ((22000033)) Water extraction by sugarcane on soils of the Ord IrrigationArea. Australian J. of Experimental Agrc. Vol.43, No.5, pp. 487-495.

PPrruummmmeell,, JJ.. ((11995577)) Fertilizer placement experiments. Plant and Soil. 8: 231-253.

QQuurreesshhii,, MM..EE..,, CChhaarrlleesswwoorrtthh,, PP..BB.. BBrriissttoo,, KK..LL.. aanndd WWeeggeenneerr,, MM..KK.. ((22000022)) Profitability of growing sugar-cane under alternative irrigation systems in the Burdekin Delta. Proc. Of the Australian Society of SugarCane Technologist, Vol. 24, pp. 107-112.

QQuurreesshhii,, MM..AA.. ((22000055)) Proc. of Workshop on Agriculture / Process & Engineering, Pakistan Society ofSugar Technologists, 27 June 2005, Faisalabad, Pakistan. 48-56pp.

RRaaffiiqq,, MM.. ((11997755)) Saline, Saline-alkali and waterlogged sols of the Indus Plain-Their characteristics, caus-es of formation and measures needed for their reclamation. Pp. 308-321. In: Proc. Int. Cont. On Waterlogging and Salinity. Oct., 13-17, 1975, Univ. Engg. Tech. Lahore, Pakistan.

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RRaajjaarraammaann,, SS aanndd AAffzzaall,, MM.. ((11994433)) A study of the changes in quality of Punjab American 289 F cottonwith variation in the dates of sowing. Ind .J.Agric.Sci.13.

RRaaoo,, MM..SS.. aanndd NNeeggii,, NN..SS.. ((11995566)) Growth correlation in sugarcane. Proc.9 th Cong. ISSCT 1:13-21.

RRaasshhiidd,, AA.. ((11997766)) The challenge of improved cotton production in Pakistan. Proc. cotton productionseminar, ESSO Pakistan Fertilizer Ltd. ENGRO 13-16.

RRiizzkk,, TT..YY.. aanndd NNoorrmmaanndd WW..CC.. ((11996666)) A field study of some effects of salinity on sugar cane. Sugar Bull.45 (2), 154-155.

RRoobbeerrtt,, FF..NN.. ((11999999)) Field Crop Diseases. 3rd Edition. Iowa State University Press / Ames, USA

RRoobbeerrttssoonn,, MM.. aanndd WWeebbsseetteerr,, DD..EE.. ((11999955)) Strategies for managing cane weevil borer. Proc. AustralianSugarcane TEchnolgists. 17: 83-87.SASA 2002. Manual of standards and guidelines for conservationand environmental management in the South African Sugar Industry. South African Sugar Association.

RRoobbeerrttssoonn,, MM..JJ..,, IImmmmaamm-BBaammbbeerr,, NN..GG..,, aanndd MMuucchhooww,, RR..CC.. ((11999977)) Opportunities for improving the useof limited water by the sugarcane crop. Challenges beyond 2000 Eds. Keating and Wilson. CABIInternational Wallingford pp 287-304.

RRooxxaass,, MM..LL.. aanndd VViillllaannoo.. ((11993300)) Studies on the development of sugarcane plant in Philippines Roots andshoots development. Philipp. J. Sic 43: 367-403.

RRuusssseell,, EE..JJ.. ((11995500)) Soil conditions and plant growth, 8th Ed. Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd., London, NewYork.

SSaabbiirr,, MM.. aanndd GGhhaaffoooorr,, AA.. ((22000066)) Soil management for food security. The daily Dawn, Islamabad Eds.15th July, 2006.

SSaaddiiqq,, MM..,, HHaassssaann,, GG.. KKhhaann,, AA..GG.. HHuussssaaiinn,, NN.. JJaammiill,, HH..FF.. GGoonnddaall,, MM..RR.. aanndd SSaarrffaarraazz,, MM.. ((22000033))Performance of cotton varieties in saline sodic soil amended with Sulphuric acid and gypsum. Pak. J.Agric. Sci. 40 (3-4):99-105.

SSaammnneelleess,, GG..,, LLuuggoo,, MM..AA.. aanndd LLaannddrraa JJrr,, PP.. ((11995522)) Influence of fertilizer on sucrose contents of Sugarcane. Sugar J. 47:49.

SSaannaa UUllllaahh,, MMuuhhaammmmaadd,, MM..WW.. aanndd HHaanniiff,, MM.. ((11997766)) Effect of dates sowing cum irrigation on the yieldof American cotton. Proc. cotton production seminar, ESSO Pakistan Fertilizer Ltd. ENGRO 26-35.

SSaarrwwaarr,, TT.. KKiiyyaannii,, FF..AA.. aanndd KKhhaann,, MM..JJ.. ((22000011)) On-farm irrigation evaluation of sugarcane fields at a civilcanal in NWFP. Sarhad J. of Agric., Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 153-158.


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SSccaannddaalliiaarriiss,, JJ..,, PPeerreezz ZZaammoorraa,, FF.. RRuuffiinnoo,, MM.. RRoommeerroo,, EE.. aanndd MMoorraannddiinnii,, MM.. ((22000022)) Harvest in green asa strategy for reducing the environmental impact of sugarcane. Avance Agro- industrial, Vol.23, no 1,pp. 14-17.

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SSccootttt,, WW..PP..,, SSmmiitthh,, JJ..ww.. aanndd SSnnooddggrraassss,, GG..ll.. ((11998855)) Response of cotton arthropods population in cottonto various dosages of dimethoate and aldicarb applied in the furrow at planting time. J. Eco. Entomol.78(1): 249-257.

SScchhwweerrttmmaannnn,, UU.. ((11998866)) Soil erosion: extent, predication and protection in Bavaria. In soil Erosion inthe European Community - Impact of changing Agriculture (eds G. Chisci and R.P.C. Morgan), pp. 185-200. A.a. Balkema, Rotterdam.

SSeetthhii,, BB..CC..,, DDaassttuurr,, SS..MM.. GGaaddkkaarrii,, RR..HH.. BBaallaassuubbrraahhmmaannyyaaii,, PP..DD.. MMaahhsseehhwwaarrii,, RR.. SSwwaammyy,, PP.. aanndd JJoosshhii,, AA..SS..((11996600)) Cotton in India. A monograph Vol. I. 474 pp.

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SShhaahhiidd,, MM.. ((22000033)) Principles of insect pest management, Higher Education Commission, Islamaabad,Pakistan, 183pp.

SShhaannnnoonn,, EE..,, MMccDDoouuggaallll,, AA..,, KKeellsseeyy,, KK.. aanndd HHuusssseeyy,, BB.. ((11999966)) Watercheck - a co-coordinated extensionprogram for improving irrigation efficiency on Australian cane farms. Proceedings of the AustralianSociety of Sugar Cane Technologists, Vol. 18, pp. 113-118

SShhaanntthhaa vveeeerraa bbhhaaddrriinnee.. SS..MM..,, PPaattiill,, MM..PP.. aanndd RRaajjaappppaa,, MM..GG.. ((11998866)) Companion cropping of the soybeanand sugarcane. Mysore J. Agric. Sci. 20: 3, 176-178.

SShhaarriiff,, MM..,, FFaaqqiirr,, MM aanndd MMuunniirr,, AA.. ((11996666)) Effect of salt on P up take. Nucleus 3 (2):32-34.

SShhaarriiff,, MM.. ((11997766)) Higher efficiency of super phosphate fertilizer by suppressing its fixation in soil. Proc.cotton production seminar, ESSO Pakistan Fertilizer Ltd. ENGRO 59-60.

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SSiinnggeellss,, AA..,, KKeennnneeddyy,, AA..JJ aanndd BBeezzuuiiddeennhhoouutt,, CC..NN.. ((11999988)) Irricane: a simple computerized irrigationscheduling method for sugarcane. Proceedings of the Annual Congress - South African SugarTechnologists' Association, No. 72, pp.117-122.

SSiinngghh,, PP..PP.. aanndd VVaarrmmaa,, GG..CC.. ((11998866)) Comparative toxicity of some insecticides to Chrysoperla carnea andTrichogramma brasiliensis, two arthropods natural enemies of cotton pests. Agric. Ecosys. Envir., 15(1):23-30.

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SSmmeeddeemmaa,, LL..KK.. ((11998833)) Evaluation of field drainage discharge from heavy land in the tropics. Journal ofHydrology, Netherlands, Vol. 67, No ¼, pp.325-337.

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Economics of Zero Tillage hhttttpp::////wwwwww..aaggrr..ggcc..ccaa//ppffrraa//ssooiill//sswwoorrkk11..hhttmm

Institute of Science in Society hhttttpp::////wwwwww..ii-ssiiss..oorrgg..uukk//ii-ssiissnneewwss77-77..pphhpp

India Bans GM Cottonhhttttpp::////eenngglliisshh..aalljjaazzeeeerraa..nneett//NNRR//eexxeerreess//44DDEE6633AA6666-00446611-4488FF44-AA77EE00-BB66CC22221133BBFF00FF33..hhttmm

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World Cotton Weed Losses

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Date: 10th July 2006Grower Name: Mohammad ThieboDeh: ThiebaSector Gate, Hyderabad

Date: On 16th July 2006Grower Name: Mr. Gulam Hussain KhanDeh: Hussain Khan ToraSector Jhan Mori, Hyderabad

Date: On 25th July 2006Grower Name: Ashfaq NizamaniDeh: SoomarkiSector Digh Mori, Hyderabad

Date: On 19 July 2006Name of Grower: Nizamuddin

Manager, Imtiaz Rasool.Deh: SaikiSec: MureedMoori, Hyderabad

Date: On 16 July 2006Name of Grower: Mir Gulam Hussain KhanDeh: Hussain Khan ToraSec: Jhan Mori, Hyderabad

Date: On 25 July 2006Name of Grower: Ashfaq Nizamani, S/O: Haji Shafi MohammadDeh: SoomarkiSec: Digh Mori, Hyderabad

Date: On 13 August, 2006Grower Name: Mr. Tanvir HussainChak No: 19/I -L Thesil: KhanpurUnion Council: 45PDistrict: Rahim Yar Khan

Date: On 13 August, 2006Grower Name: Mr. Muhammad MushtaqChak No: 24 Thesil: KhanpurUnion Consil: 45PDistrict: Rahim Yar Khan

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AAppppeennddiixx-II LLiisstt ooff pprrooggrreessssiivvee ggrroowweerrss ccoonnttaacctteedd

Date: On 13 August, 2006Grower Name: Mr. Rana M. AlamChak No: 117 District: Rahim Yar Khan

Date: On 3 July, 2006Grower Name: Mr. M. H. PanhwarDistrict: Hyderabad, Sindh

Date: On 15 August, 2006Grower Name: Mr. Javed Ali KhanDistrict: Bannu, NWFP


" Ayub Agriculture Research Institute, Faisalabad" Crop Research Institute, Mardan" Central Cotton Research Institute, Multan" University of Agriculture, Peshawar" ECI-FSML Biological Labs" Shakarganj Sugar Mills Limited" Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad." National Agriculture Research Centre, Islamabad

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AAppppeennddiixx-IIII LLiisstt ooff RReesseeaarrcchh && DDeevveellooppmmeenntt IInnssttiittuutteess vviissiitteedd


AAppppeennddiixx-IIIIII MMaappss ooff CCoottttoonn && SSuuggaarrccaannee AAggrroo-eeccoollooggiiccaall ZZoonneess

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Better Management Practices for Cotton and Sugarcane · Integrated Weed Management 44 Insect pests...

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