XFX @ABR_B XAGH
b` Avf Ufssb`
 
 Qfu jrb rbjha`o j eucc vbrsaf` fe tkas lffm, efr erbb!
Xkas lffm as pjrt fe tkb Yahbstf`b b-calrjry wkbrb dfst fe fur
pulcaijtaf`s jrb euccy jiibssalcb efr erbb. Efr jiibss tf dfrb
erbb lffms vasat7 www.sahbstf`b.ifd/calrjry
Hfw`cfjh Eucc ^HE
Uasat tkb Yahbstf`b b-calrjry tf lrfwsb fur b-lffms. Efr j da`adjc
ebb yfu ij` purikjsb j euccy eu`itaf`jc ^HE j`h ly hfa`o sf, yfu
kbcp tf mbbp fur calrjry ru``a`o.
www.sahbstf`b.ifd/calrjry
XFX @ABR_B XAGH
 
Fphrjiktobvbr7 obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h b` obdbb`tb Ba`hkfvb`
Ratobobvb` hffr Yahbstf`b ^rbss, Cbahb`  www.sahbstf`b.ifd
AYL@ 1?;-1>-;;1>-9<1-;
Ufrdobva`o la``b`wbrm b` fdscjo7 Yahbstf`b rbss
Uf`hstftforjb7 Cjurb`s Ducmb`s, JrikbfEftf, Ba`hkfvb`
Eftf fdscjo7 A`orah Mfb`b`, Ytuhaf-AM ftforjb, Lcbagswagm (www.stuhaf-am.`c), ftf vj` Lrj`hbvffrt (prfgbit vj` _assa`o, ruadtbcagmb f`twbrpbrs, Ljrb`hrbikt)= Lrf`zb` ra`o \fdba`sb tagh7 Cjurb`s Ducmb`s, Jrikbfftf, Ba`hkfvb`= Lfhbdprfbc7 Xbf hb Gf`o, obdbb`tbcagm jrikbfcffo, Kbcdf`h.  Jiktbrzaghb7 Fporjva`o Lrj`hbvffrt Ytbpbmfcm-Kjzb`wa`mbc <>>;7 Cjurb`s Ducmb`s,  Jrikbfftf, Ba`hkfvb`.
Ffm lbsikamljjr jcs7  b-lffm (^HE)7 AYL@ 1?;-1>-;;1>-9>:-8
Hbzb pulcaijtab as dbhb dfobcagm obdjjmt hffr7
 
9. Cj`hsikjp b` cj`hoblruam <9
9.:. Obfcfoasikb f`tstjj`sobsikabhb`as <8
9.<. Lfhbd, vbobtjtab b` ju`j 9:
9.9. Ujraírb`h cj`hsikjp 8>
9.8. Cfijtabmbuzb vffr lbwf`a`o 82
8. Ytbb`taghb` 2:
8.:. A`cbaha`o 2:
8.<. @bhbrzbtta`osstruituur 29
8.8. @jtuurcagmb fdobva`o b` vfbhsbcbif`fdab ?:
8.2. Lagzf`hbrb jspbitb` b` if`icusab stbb`taghb` ;9
2. Dbtjjctaghb` ;2
agzbrtagh (;>>-:< vffr Ikr.) ;2
2.:. A`cbaha`o ;2
2.<. @bhbrzbtta`o b` orjdf`udb`t uat hb lrf`stagh ;;
2.9. Fvbraob lrf`staghva`hpcjjtsb` b` djtbraícb iuctuur 1<
2.8. @bhbrzbtta`ob` b` orjdf`udb`tb` uat hb agzbrtagh 12
2.2. Djtbraícb iuctuur uat hb agzbrtagh :>2
2.5. Ufbhsbcbif`fdab b` `jtuurcagmb fdobva`o :>?
2.?. If`icusabs lrf`stagh b` agzbrtagh :>;
5. \fdba`sb tagh :::
(:< vffr Ikr.-82> `j Ikr.) :::
5.:. A`cbaha`o :::
5.9. Djtbraícb iuctuur uat hb \fdba`sb tagh :92
5.8. Ufbhsbcbif`fdab b` `jtuurcagmb fdobva`o :8?
5.2. If`icusab \fdba`sb tagh :22
?. Urfbob dahhbcbbuwb` :2?
?.:. A`cbaha`o :2?
?.9. Djtbraícb iuctuur uat hb vrfbob dahhbcbbuwb` :5:
?.8. Ufbhsbcbif`fdab b` `jtuurcagmb fdobva`o :5:
?.2. If`icusab vrfbob dahhbcbbuwb` :5<
 
;.: A`cbaha`o :59
;.9. Djtbraícb iuctuur uat hb vfccb dahhbcbbuwb` :?2
;.8. Ufbhsbcbif`fdab b` `jtuurcagmb fdobva`o :;9
;.2. Kastfrasikb jspbitb` :;8
1. Cjtb dahhbcbbuwb` :;?
(:<<2-:2>> `j Ikr.) :;?
1.9. Djtbraícb iuctuur uat hb cjtb dahhbcbbuwb` <<>
1.8. Ufbhsbcbif`fdab b` `jtuurcagmb fdobva`o <<1
1.2. Kastfrasikb jspbitb` <9:
:>. @abuwb tagh <9?
:>.:. A`cbaha`o <9?
:>.9. Djtbraícb iuctuur uat hb @abuwb tagh <28
:>.8. Ufbhsbcbif`fdab b` `jtuurcagmb fdobva`o <5:
:>.2. Kastfrasikb jspbitb` <58
::. Jrikbfcfoablbcbah a` Kbcdf`h <5?
Yjdb`vjtta`o <?:
Lagcjob`
hb obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h
<. Fvbrzaikt vj` wjjr`bda`ob` b` fporjva`ob` a` <1? 
hb obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h
 
? 
Xkbf hb Gf`o
A` :;9? trfm bb` ratdbbstbr vj` kbt rboadb`t Kuzjrb` dbt bb` hbrtaotjc dj`-
sikjppb` br fp uat fd f`hbr j`hbrb fp hb kbahb tussb` Hbur`b b` Ucabrhb` cagm-
kbuvbctgbs cbbo tb spattb`, fp zfbm `jjr ur`b` dbt vbrlrj`hb db`sb`lbb`hbrb`,
js b` zj`h. Kbt prbkastfrasikb orjvbch cjo jj` hb cjtbrb ^ftlfsstrjjt. @jjst hb
 wbo vj` Kbcdf`h `jjr Cabrfp wbrh a` kbtzbchb gjjr bb` orjvbch lag Cu`ob`hf`m
fpoborjvb`. Hb vf`hstb` mwjdb` tbrbikt a` hb ifccbitabs vj` kbt \agmsdusbud
vj` Fuhkbhb` a` Cbahb` b` kbt ^rfva`iajjc Ob`fftsikjp vj` Mu`stb` b`
 _btb`sikjppb` a` @ffrh-Lrjlj`t, mfrtwbo kbt @ffrhlrjlj`ts Ob`fftsikjp. : 
Obstaducbbrh hffr hb jj`hjikt vj` hat prfva`iajcb Ob`fftsikjp wbrhb` a` hb
`bob`tab`hb bbuw ffm a` Kbcdf`h fuhkbhb` fpobspffrh. B`mbcb lfhbdvf`hs-
tb` wbrhb` fpob`fdb` a` hb ifccbitab vj` kbt @ffrhlrjlj`ts Ob`fftsikjp b`
vfrdhb` cjtbr dbhb hb ljsas vffr hb ifccbitab vj` kbt @ffrhlrjlj`ts Dusbud. A`
:1<9 wbrh a` kbt cjjtdahhbcbbuwsb mjstbbc vj` Kbcdf`h, mfrt tbvfrb` jj`obmfikt
b` tft obdbb`tbkuas vbrlfuwh, bb` dusbud a`obraikt dbt vffrwbrpb` hab hb ob-
sikabhb`as vj` Kbcdf`h b` kjjr fdobva`o lbcaikttb`. ft hb bbrstb ifccbitabstum-
mb` lbkffrhb` b`mbcb stb`b` lagcb` b` lrf`zb` spbbrpu`tb` hab a` hb `bob`tab`hb
bbuw wjrb` obvf`hb` lag kbt uathabpb` vj` hb orjiktb` rf`h Mjstbbc Irfy b` a`
hb fdobva`o vj` hb _jrj`hb.
A` hb cffp vj` hb twa`taostb bbuw orfbahb hb jrikbfcfoasikb ifccbitab vj` kbt
obdbb`tbdusbud b` wbrh hbzb, vffrjc vj`j hb zbvb`taobr gjrb` jj`obvuch dbt
vf`hstb` uat hb Kbcdf`hsb la``b`stjh. ft :1;> lbstf`h hb ifccbitab lfhbd-
vf`hstb` vffrjc uat tfbvjcsvf`hstb` hab lag orf`hwbrmzjjdkbhb` tbvffrsikag`
 wjrb` obmfdb`. Uj`j :1;> as br fp vbrsikaccb`hb pcjjtsb` la``b` hb obdbb`tb
jrikbfcfoasik f`hbrzfbm vbrraikt. Uf`hstb` wbrhb` lbwjjrh a` kbt obdbb`tbdu-
sbud b` lag hb Kastfrasikb b` Jrikbfcfoasikb Ubrb`aoa`o Kbcdf`t, wjjrvj` hb
cbhb` bb` jitabvb rfc spbbchb` lag kbt f`hbrzfbm. Cjtbr zag` hb dbbstb vf`hstb`
fvbroblrjikt `jjr Ba`hkfvb`, wjjr hb obdbb`tb` Ba`hkfvb` b` Kbcdf`h bb`
obzjdb`cagm vf`hstb`hbpft kbllb` a`obraikt. Hb obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h scfft a`
:11< bb` sjdb`wbrma`osvbrlj`h dbt hb obdbb`tb Ba`hkfvb` b` sa`hshab` wfrht
obwbrmt vj`uat bb` obhbbchb lbcbahsvasab jrikbfcfoab hab as tfbobspatst fp hb satujtab
: Kbrdj`s :;52 (<>:<<)7 15, :>>, <?9.
 
;  
a` lbahb obdbb`tb`.< Hb uatvfbra`o vj` kbt sjdb`wbrma`osvbrlj`h wfrht obrbj-
casbbrh hffr kbt Jrikbfcfoasik Ib`trud Ba`hkfvb` b` Kbcdf`h (JIBK). Uj`j
:11? kbcpb` ffm cbhb` vj` hb Jrikbfcfoasikb Ubrb`aoa`o Mbdpb`- b` ^bbccj`h
dbb dbt fporjva`ob` b` kbt vbrwbrmb` vj` vf`hstb`.
Yjdb`wbrma`o 
Hb jrikbfcfoab vj` Kbcdf`h stf`h hb jobcfpb` gjrb` a` kbt tbmb` vj` kbt wbo-
 wbrmb` vj` hb jiktbrstj`h a` kbt vbrwbrmb` vj` jrikbfcfoasik f`hbrzfbm. Hbzb
jiktbrstj`h as bb` cj`hbcagm b`fdbb` f`tstjj` a` bb` tagh wjjra` hb dfobcagmkbhb`
vffr f`hbrzfbm vjjm lbpbrmt wjrb` tft kbt uatvfbrb` vj` `ffhfporjva`ob`, wjjr-
lag br vffr hb uatwbrma`o juwbcagms f obb` tagh dbbr wjs. Hbzb satujtab as a` <>>?
vbrj`hbrh hffr hb a`vfbra`o vj` hb _bt fp hb Jrikbfcfoasikb Df`udb`tb`zfro.
Hbzb wbt lbpjjct hjt hbob`b hab bb` stum orf`h vbrstffrt a`j`iabbc vbrj`twffr-
hbcagm as vffr hb uatvfbra`o vj` kbt bvb`tubbc `ffhzjmbcagmb jrikbfcfoasikb f`hbr-
zfbm b` hb uatwbrma`o hjjrvj` a` bb` rjppfrt. Kbt wbowbrmb` vj` hb jiktbrstj`h
uat hb vffrojj`hb gjrb` b` kbt vbrwffrhb` vj` bb` sy`tkbsb fp ljsas vj` hbzb
obobvb`s zag` a` <>>? jcs hfbcb` obstbch a` kbt lbcbahspcj` Jrikbfcfoab Ba`hkfvb`
b` Kbcdf`h.9 Fd hbzb sy`tkbsb dfobcagm tb djmb` as `jjst bb` a`vbstbra`o vj` hb
obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h bb` sulsahab f`tvj`ob` vj` hb @bhbrcj`hsb Froj`asjtab vffr
 _btb`sikjppbcagm F`hbrzfbm (@_F) a` kbt mjhbr vj` kbt prforjddj Fhyssbb
hjt brfp obraikt as fd kbt lbcj`oragmstb jiktbrstjccaob jrikbfcfoasikb f`hbrzfbm uat
hb pbrafhb vùùr hb wbtswagzaoa`o jcs`fo tb vbrwbrmb`.8 
Kbt prfgbit dbt lbtrbmma`o tft hb sy`tkbsb F`tstjj` b` vrfbostb obsikabhb`as vj` hb stjh Kbcdf`h  kbbt tft hfbc orap tb mragob` fp hb ruadtbcagmb f`twammbca`ob` b`
hb staikta`o vj` hb stjh f`hbr a`vcfbh vj` hb Kbrtfo Kb`hram A b` kbt Kbrtfohfd
Lrjlj`t. Hat f`hbrzfbm `jjr kbt f`tstjj` b` hb vrfbostb obsikabhb`as vj` hb stjh
as uatobvfbrh hffr Ybd ^btbrs (LJJI, s-Kbrtfob`lfsik) b` kbf hb Gf`o, f`hbr
supbrvasab vj` @aif Jrts (obdbb`tb Ba`hkfvb`). Ffrsprf`mbcagmb vbchtbmb`a`ob`
vj` hb fporjva`ob` vj` kbt Fuhb Kuys zag` a` fvbrcbo dbt HJ@Y (s-Orjvb`-
kjob), b` dbt tfbstbdda`o vj` _ad Kuppbrbtz (Ytaikta`o G.K. vj` Kffyhf`m,
Lrbhj), obsij`h b` obj`jcysbbrh.
^jrjccbc jj` hat prfgbit kbbt hb Ejiuctbat hbr Jrikbfcfoab vj` hb R`avbrsatbat
Cbahb` (A^C) bvb`bb`s bb` @_F-Fhyssbbprfgbit uatobvfbrh dbt jcs tkbdj7
R`aefrdatbat fe pcuraefrdatbat6 Hb a`kbbds-\fdba`sb orjevbchb` vj` Fss-Rssb`,  Dabrcf-Kfut-Y`appb`sikbut b` Obcbb`-Gj`smjdpbrvbch. Hat prfgbit lbkbcst hb uatwbr-
ma`o vj` bb` hrabtjc fuhb fporjva`ob` vj` a`kbbds-\fdba`sb orjvbchb` a` Wuah-
@bhbrcj`h, tb wbtb` Fss-Rssb` (:1?5-:1;>= A^C), Dabrcf-Kfut-Y`appb`sikbut
(:11<-:119= A`statuut vffr rb- b` rftfkastfrab vj` hb R`avbrsatbat vj` Jdstbrhjd
(A^^)) b` Obcbb`-Gj`smjdpbrvbch (:11:= A^C). Kbt hfbc kabrvj` wjs dbbr a`zaikt
tb mragob` a` hb \fdba`sb orjiuctuur. Hat prfgbit as uatobvfbrh hffr Ytag` vj` Js
< Jrts b.j. :1187 19.
9 Lbcbahspcj` Jrikbfcfoab Ba`hkfvb` b` Kbcdf`h <>>?7 :2, <5.
8 Hat prforjddj as bb` sjdb`wbrma`osvbrlj`h vj` kbt @_F-oblabh Obbstbswbtb`sikjppb`, Brofbh
 
1 
(Jrikfc, Cbahb`), f`hbr lbobcbaha`o vj` Jhrab fc (Jrikfc, Cbahb`) b` f`hbr su-
pbrvasab vj` \aikjrh Gj`sb` (Ejiuctbat hbr Jrikbfcfoab vj` hb R`avbrsatbat Cbahb`,
Obdbb`tbjrikbfcffo vj` Fss). Wfwbc kbt \fdba`sb orjvbch a` Dabrcf-Kfut jcs
kbt dahhbcbbuwsb luriktifdpcbx vj` kbt Fuhb Kuys, jcs vrfbostb djiktsib`trud
vffr hb stjh Kbcdf`h, stjj` hjjrdbb `j dbbr hj` twa`tao gjjr fp`abuw a` hb
 wbtb`sikjppbcagmb lbcj`ostbcca`o.
Kbt vbrwbrmb` vj` jccb tft `fo tfb vbrojjrhb jrikbfcfoasikb a`frdjtab tft bb`
jitubbc fvbrzaikt as bb` mcus vj` frdjjt, wjjrjj` vbcb` bb` laghrjob kbllb` obcb-
vbrh, vj`j kbt vbrraiktb` vj` jrikbfcfoasik vbchwbrm, tft jj` kbt a`vb`tjrasbrb`
b` rbstjurbrb` vj` mwbtsljrb vf`hstb`. Bb` orfft hbbc hjjrvj` as fp vragwaccaob
ljsas b` hffr obdftavbbrhb a`zbt tft stj`h obmfdb`.
Lag hb vbrwbrma`o vj` hb f`hbrzfbmshfiudb`tjtab b` kbt vf`hstdjtbrajjc a`
kbt hbpft vj` kbt Jrikbfcfoasik Ib`trud Ba`hkfvb` b` Kbcdf`h (JIBK) as
hj`mljjr oblruam obdjjmt vj` obobvb`s hab vbrzjdbch zag` hffr cbhb` vj` hb
Kastfrasikb b` Jrikbfcfoasikb Ubrb`aoa`o Kbcdf`t. Dbt hb pjrjtb mb``as vj`
vrfbobrb cbhb` vj` hbzb vbrb`aoa`o7 Kb`m Offssb`s, Daikjbc \abtbr, \b`á _accbds
b` kbf hb Gf`o mf`hb` `fo vbbc kbra``bra`ob` b` hbtjacs wfrhb` fpobkjjch.
 J`hbrb gjrb`cj`o jitabvb cbhb` wjrb` f`hbr j`hbrb J`tfa`bttb Kuaglbrs, Gj`us
Ywa`mbcs, Brai @abuwb`kuas, Yj`hbr Oõrtz, Gjiif vj` @adwbob`, Obfrob R`ag,
\bhdbr Uassbr, Oa`j Lfx, Arb`b vj` hb` Lbdh b` Gfs Yb`hbrs. A`frdjtab fvbr hb
prbkastfrab vj` Kbcdf`h kbllb` wb vffr bb` lbcj`oragm hbbc tb hj`mb` jj` Kb`m
Offssb`s. Hj`mzag gjrb`cj`ob vbchvbrmb``a`ob` a` Dabrcf-Kfut kbbt kag bb` orfft
jj`tjc va`hpcjjtsb` f`thbmt uat hb stbb`tagh, agzbrtagh b` \fdba`sb tagh b` stadu-
cbbrhb kag f`hbr j`hbrb hb fporjva`ob` lag hb Kfutsb Lbbdh, Mrfccjj`, Jskfrst-
Y`bppb`sikbut, Hb Mrff` b` havbrsb `bhbrzbtta`ostbrrba`b` a` Lrj`hbvffrt.
Hjjr`jjst zag` vbbc j`hbrb vrab`hb` b` ifccbojs lbtrfmmb` lag kbt vbrzjdbcb`
b` vbrwbrmb` vj` jrikbfcfoasikb vf`hstb` b` laglbkfrb`hb fporjva`oshfiudb`-
tjtab. Uffr kbt sikragvb` vj` hat fvbrzaikt b` kbt djmb` vj` fvbrzaiktsmjjrtb` as
Avf Ufssb` (Frj`gbwfuh) a`obzbt. Kag wbrh a` lbcj`oragmb djtb f`hbrstbu`h hffr
\ffs _ag`b`-Gjimsf`, hab vbcb vf`hstb` j`jcysbbrhb b` havbrsb fporjva`osprfgbi-
tb` tft if`ibptrjppfrtb` vbrwbrmtb. Yj``b Lbudbr, Mrastbc hb Ufs, Ikrastaj``b
Cfuvb`lbro, Darajd bbuwassb, Bbcif Ffdb` b` Kb`m Offssb`s (jccb vaj Ytaikta`o
 JrikbfYbrvaib) vbrwbrmtb` fuhb fporjva`osvf`hstb` b` sikrbvb` if`ibptrjppfr-
tb`. @aif Jrts oj mratasikb fpdbrma`ob` lag hb if`ibptvbrsab vj` kbt kffhstum
fvbr hb stbb`tagh. @jjst lbstjj`hb vbchtbmb`a`ob`, vffrwbrpftfs b` vffrwbrp-
tbmb`a`ob`, zag` `abuwb tbmb`a`ob` b` ftfs obdjjmt. Fporjva`ostbmb`a`ob`
zag` obhaoatjcasbbrh hffr \b`á Lfojbrs (Ytaikta`o JrikbfYbrvaib) b` Ybd ^btbrs
(LJJI). Uffrwbrptbmb`a`ob` zag` hffr Harm Ucjslcfd (JIBK) obdjjmt. Mbbs
vj` Hagm (_agm b` Jjcluro) kbbt a` kbt mjhbr vj` bb` f`hbrzfbm `jjr orags jjr-
hbwbrm tbmb`a`ob` obdjjmt vj` zfwbc orags jjrhbwbrm jcs Mbdpasik jjrhbwbrm uat
Kbcdf`h. Ubbc jjrhbwbrmvf`hstb` uat Kbcdf`h zag` obrbstjurbbrh hffr Kuul hb
 Gf`o (@ub`b`). Uaimy Kjrhy (Jrikbfcfoasikb Ubrb`aoa`o Mbdpb`- b` ^bbccj`h)
kbbt a` kbt mjhbr vj` hat prfgbit cbbrvf`hstb` uat Kbcdf`h obæ`vb`tjrasbbrh, ob-
tbmb`h b` lbsikrbvb`.
 
:>  
Lag`j vabrkf`hbrh jrikbfcfoasikb vf`hstdbcha`ob`, wjjr`bda`ob`, vbchvbr-
mb``a`ob` b` fporjva`ob` a` hb cj`hbcagmb hjtjljsb (J\IKAY) vj` hb \agmshab`st
vffr kbt Iucturbbc Brofbh (\IB) zag` a`obvfbrh hffr Darajd bbuwassb
(Ytaikta`o JrikbfYbrvaib). Jrikbfcfoasikb vf`hstb` zag` obftforjbbrh hffr
Cjurb`s Ducmb`s (Jrikbfftf, Ba`hkfvb`), wjjrlag hb jrikbfcfoasikb vffrwbrpb`
hab a` kbt Obdbb`tbdusbud Kbcdf`h zag` tb`tff`obstbch f a` kbt hbpft wfrhb`
lbwjjrh zag` obftforjbbrh dbt kucp vj` ifccbitabrboastrjtfr Djrif hb Orbb b`
if`sbrvjtfr J``bdabmb Kfobrvfrst (Obdbb`tbdusbud Kbcdf`h).
Kastfrasikb f`hbrstbu`a`o as vbrmrbob` vj` f`hbr j`hbrb Caj vj` Wjca`ob-
Ypffrb` b` Kj`s vj` hb Cjjrsikft (lbahb \boaf`jjc Kastfrasik Ib`trud
Ba`hkfvb`) b` ^abrrb vj` hb Dbucb`kf (Kbbdmu`hbmra`o Kbcdf`h-^bbccj`h).
Kbt mjhjstrjcb da`uutpcj` uat fdstrbbms :;9> as hffr kbf Dbucb`hagms
(Kbcdf`h) obhaoatjcasbbrh b` hjjrdbb jcs lbcj`oragmb lrf` tfboj`mbcagm obdjjmt.
Hb ifõrha`jtab vj` kbt prfgbit wjs a` kj`hb` vj` _accbdab` vj` hb _aghbvb`, Gj`
vj` @abmbrm b` Yfcj`ob Lbbmdj` (obdbb`tb Ba`hkfvb`), Oabc Mbucb` b` @aifcb
Ubrbagmb` (Obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h). Hat jrikbfcfoasik fvbrzaikt as fpobhrjob` jj`
jccb vragwaccaobrs hab ffat kbllb` dbbobwbrmt jj` fporjva`ob` a` Kbcdf`h f lag
hb vbrwbrma`o vj` vf`hstb` uat Kbcdf`h= ffm vffr kb` lbtbmb`t hbzb uatojvb bb`
vbrwbrmt vbrcbhb`.
Xkbf hb Gf`o 
Kbt orf`hoblabh vj` hb kuahaob obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h mb`t bb` cj`ob obsikabhb-
`as. Hffr hb bbuwb` kbb` zuccb` db`sb` vffrwbrpb` kbllb` jj`obtrfb` vj`
vffrojj`hb lbwf`brs djjr pjs vj`j kbt lboa` vj` hb `bob`tab`hb bbuw wfrhb`
hbzb jcs jrikbfcfoasikb vf`hstb` obrboastrbbrh. A` hab tagh zag` kbt vffrjc vffr-
 wbrpb` hab lag tfbvjc jj` kbt caikt mfdb`, zfjcs bb` jj`tjc \fdba`sb du`tvf`h-
stb`, a` :;99 obvf`hb` lag hb Ucabrhb`sb kbahb f bb` jj`tjc ur`b`, a` :;9? lag
Cu`ob`hf`m fpobhfcvb`. Obpfcagstb stb`b` lagcb`, lrf`zb` lagcb` b` cj`spu`tb`
 wbrhb` a` :;8>, :;;5 b` :;;1 a` hb fdobva`o vj` hb _jrj`hb b` lag Irfy ob-
vf`hb`, taghb`s kbt hbcvb` vj` tur f dfbr.2 Bb` jj`tjc vj` hbzb vf`hstb` wbrh
fpob`fdb` a` hb ifccbitab vj` kbt obdbb`tbdusbud vj` Kbcdf`h hjt a` :1<9
 wbrh fpobraikt. Uffrlbbchb` hjjrvj` zag` twbb lrf`zb` cj`spu`tb`, bb` mfobc-
pftgb vj` ^jrjtk-jjrhbwbrm b` bb` lbmbr vj` prftfstbb`ofbh. Hbzb vffrwbrpb`
 wjrb` a` abhbr obvjc jc a` :19< a` kbt lbzat vj` kbt dusbud, fdhjt zag sjdb` dbt
if`sbrvjtfr b` jrikavjras Gji.G.D. Kbbrb` b` bb` oapsb` joabtsbc vj` hb a` :1:> a`
Hbur`b obvf`hb`, ofuhb` \fdba`sb ^bbckbcd zag` joblbbch fp bb` jrikabftf
uat hjt gjjr (jelbbcha`o :).5 Hb lbtrbb`hb vffrwbrpb` lbva`hb` zaik fo stbbhs a`
hb ifccbitab vj` kbt Obdbb`tbdusbud Kbcdf`h (jelbbcha`o < ). Uj`j kbt lboa` vj` hb twa`taostb bbuw `bbdt kbt jj`tjc vf`hstdbcha`ob`
tfb b` wfrhb` jrikbfcfoasikb vf`hstb` b` wjjr`bda`ob` stbbhs `juwmburaobr
obrboastrbbrh. Hb bbrstb faiaícb fporjva`o a` Kbcdf`h wbrh uatobvfbrh a` :1;>.
Hbzb vf`h pcjjts fp kbt vrfbobrb mcffstbrtbrrba` vj` hb Jlhag vj` La`hbrb` b`
 wbrh `jdb`s hb \agmshab`st vffr kbt Fuhkbahmu`hao Lfhbdf`hbrzfbm (tkj`s
\agmshab`st vffr kbt Iucturbbc Brofbh) uatobvfbrh hffr hb uat Obchrfp jmfdstaob
jrikbfcfoabstuhb`tb` _ag`j`h vj` hbr Yj`hb` b` Gfs Hbblb`. Wag wbrhb` lagob-
stjj` hffr b`mbcb vragwaccaobrs vj` hb Kbbdmu`hbmra`o Kbcdf`h-^bbccj`h. Mfrt
hjjrfp vfcohb` fporjva`ob` fp kbt tbrrba` vj` hb Ijrp-jlrabmb`, wjjr hb fvbr-
lcagsbcb` vj` bb` uatzf`hbrcagm dahhbcbbuwsb kfutb` lurikt, kbt Fuhb Kuys,
 wbrhb` fpoborjvb`. La``b` hb kbbdmu`hbmra`o Kbcdf`h-^bbccj`h wjs a`dahhbcs
bb` Jrikbfcfoasikb _brmorfbp fpobraikt, f`hbr cbaha`o vj` hb vffrzattbr Gjiqubs
vj` Kffyhf`m. A` hb gjrb` hjjr`j wbrhb` a` Kbcdf`h dbbrhbrb jrikbfcfoasikb
2 Kbrdj`s :;52 (<>:<<)7 15.
 
:<  
 Jbbcha`o :. If`sbrvjtfr Gji. Kbbrb` a` fmtflbr :19< obeftforjebbrh a` kbt mjstbbc vj`
Kbcdf`h dbt b`mbcb jrikbfcfoasikb stummb` uat kbt dusbud. Hb vffrwbrpb` lbva`hb` zaik `fo
stbbhs a` hb ifccbitab.
 Jbbcha`o <. Ca`ms twbb cj`spu`tb` uat hb lrf`stagh, obvf`hb` a` kbt hjc vj` hb Offrcffp `jlag
hb Bb`sbcjjr. Lbahb lbkfrb` tft hb bbrstb flgbitb` vj` kbt obdbb`tbdusbud Kbcdf`h (a`vb`-
tjras`uddbrs :2 b` :5, tbob`wffrhao ;>-<:1 b` ;>-<<>). \bikts bb` mffmpftgb vj` ^jrjtk-
jjrhbwbrm (hjtbra`o7 12>-::2>) b` bb` lbmbr vj` prftfstbb`ofbh (:<<2-:9>>). Hbzb lfhbdvf`hs-
tb` uat Kbcdf`h lbva`hb` zaik jc a` :19< a` hb ifccbitab vj` kbt obdbb`tbdusbud Kbcdf`h.
9 id
:9
 wjjr`bda`ob` b` mcba`sikjcaob fporjva`ob` uatobvfbrh hffr hb Jrikbfcfoasikb
 wbrmorfbp vj` hb kbbdmu`hbmra`o Kbcdf`h-^bbccj`h b` hffr hb a` :1;8 fpob-
raiktb Kastfrasikb b` Jrikbfcfoasikb Ubrb`aoa`o Kbcdf`t.
ussb` :1;> b` <>>8 wjrb` vffrjc cbhb` vj` hbzb wbrmorfbpb` jitab lbzao
dbt hb vffrobsikabhb`as vj` Kbcdf`h.? Hb jrikbfcfoasikb wbrmzjjdkbhb` vjra-
bbrhb` vj` zfob`jjdhb vbchmjrtbra`ob` b` lfra`ob` tft wjjr`bda`ob` b` sfds
fporjva`ob` (tjlbc : b` jelbbcha`o 9). Mcba`sikjcaob fporjva`ob` vf`hb` tft :1;?
pcjjts f`hbr tfbzaikt vj` hb tfb`djcaob prfva`iajjc jrikbfcffo ^ad Ubrwbrs vj`
hb \agmshab`st vffr kbt Fuhkbahmu`hao Lfhbdf`hbrzfbm b` hjjr`j f`hbr vbrj`t-
 wffrha`o vj` hb obdbb`tbcagm jrikbfcfob` vj` Kbcdf`h7 Ouahf vj` hb` By`hb
(vj`j juoustus :1;? tft djjrt :11<), @aif Jrts (vj`j jprac :11< tft hbibdlbr
<>>;) b` Gj``bmb Lfsdj` (vj`j gj`ujra <>>1 tft djjrt <>:>). Uj`j jprac <>:>
lbkjrtaot kbf hb Gf`o hb lbcj`ob` vffr hb obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h. A` :1;1 as hffr
hb staikta`o \JJ^ bb` hbbc vj` kbt luatb`oblabh vj` Kbcdf`h jrikbfcfoasik ob-
mjrtbbrh.; Uffr hb uatvfbra`o vj` fporjva`ob` as vj`j :11? vffrjc pbrsf`bbc vj`
hb Ytaikta`o JrikbfYbrvaib (Ba`hkfvb`) a`obzbt. Fporjva`ob` vf`hb` vj` :11<
tft :112 pcjjts f`hbr hb fporjva`osvbrou``a`o vj` kbt A`statuut vffr ^rb- b`
^rftfkastfrab vj` hb R`avbrsatbat vj` Jdstbrhjd, a` hb gjrb` :112-<>>> wbbr f`-
hbr hb vcjo vj` hb \agmshab`st vffr kbt Fuhkbahmu`hao Lfhbdf`hbrzfbm. Uj`j
lboa` :111 kbbt hb obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h fp jrikbfcfoasik oblabh bb` faiabbc sj-
db`wbrma`osvbrlj`h dbt hb obdbb`tb Ba`hkfvb`. Ya`hs hbibdlbr <>>> kbbt hb
jhbca`o jrikbfcfoab vj` hb obdbb`tb Ba`hkfvb` bb` baob` fporjva`oslbvfbohkbah
? Hb Kastfrasikb b` Jrikbfcfoasikb Ubrb`aoa`o Kbcdf`t as a` fmtflbr <>>8 fpobkbvb`.
; Hjtbdj :11>.
Xjlbc : b` Jbbcha`o 9. Jrikbfcfoasikb prfgbitb` a` Kbcdf`h. Uj`je :1;> `bdb` hb jitavatbatb` stbrm
tfb hj`mzag hb Kastfrasikb b` Jrikbfcfoasikb Ubrb`aoa`o Kbcdf`t, hb jrikbfcfoasikb wbrmorfbp vj` hb
Kbbdmu`hbmra`o Kbcdf`h-^bbccj`h b` hb a`zbt vj` obdbb`tbcagm jrikbfcfob`. Obobvb`s jeobcbah uat hb
Ijtjcfous Jrikbfcfoasikb ^rfgbitb` Kbcdf`h.
   v    f    `     h    s     t   d    b     c    h     a   `    o
   w    j    j    r   `    b    d     a   `    o
   v    b     c    h    v    b    r    m    b    `    `     a   `    o
    l    f    f    r   p    r   f     g   b    i     t
   p    r   f    b     e   s     c   b    u    v    b    `
   f    p    o    r   j    v     a   `    o
   f    `     l    b     m    b    `     h
    t   f     t   j    j     c
Uùùr :1>> ; < > > > > 8 :8
:12>-:121 2 : > > > > > 5
:15>-:151 2 > > > > > > 2
:11>-:111 <9 <5 2; : 2 :1 9 :92
<>>>-<>:> ? :< <? ; :: :: : ??
 Xftjjc ::2 ?: :;2 :< :5 2? <? 8;9
>
:>
<>
:8  
hab ffm obchao as vffr kbt orf`hoblabh vj` hb obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h. Hb sjdb`wbr-
ma`o wfrht obrbjcasbbrh hffr kbt Jrikbfcfoasik Ib`trud Ba`hkfvb` b` Kbcdf`h
(JIBK). A` hat ib`trud zag` `jjst hb dbhbwbrmbrs vj` hb jhbca`o Jrikbfcfoab
vj` hb obdbb`tb Ba`hkfvb`, hb dbhbwbrmbrs vj` bb` f`hbrstbu`b`h lbhrag (hb
Ytaikta`o JrikbfYbrvaib) b` hb vragwaccaobrs vj` hb Jrikbfcfoasikb Ubrb`aoa`o
 
Xkbf hb Gf`o
Hat fvbrzaikt lbpbrmt zaik tft hb obsikabhb`as vj` hb kuahaob obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h.
Hb orb`zb` vj` hat orf`hoblabh zag` uatbrjjrh bb` dfhbr` obobvb`. _b magmb`
hj` ffm rbobcdjtao fvbr hab orb`zb` kbb`, wj``bbr hjt vj` lbcj`o as vffr hb
Kbcdf`hsb obsikabhb`as f fd kbt vbrkjjc a` bb` lrbhbrb if`tbxt tb vbrhuahbcagmb`.
Hb obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h fdvjt tbob`wffrhao jjst kbt ib`trud (hb stjhsmbr`) dbt
kbt ffrsprf`mbcagmb luatb`oblabh b` hb tfboj`oswbob`, ffm ’ a` :15; b` cjtbr ob-
j``bxbbrhb ’ oblabhb` hab (obhbbctbcagm) hbbc uat djjmtb` vj` fdcaoob`hb obdbb`-
tb` zfjcs7 Ytapkfut b` Irfy (vrfbobr obdbb`tb Ytapkfut), Obb`ba`h, Fvbrlruo b`
 _fcsputtb` (vrfbobr obdbb`tb Jjrcb-\axtbc), Dabrcf-Kfut, Lrj`hbvffrt b` kbt
Lrfbm (vrfbobr obdbb`tb Dabrcf), Ujrb`sikut, Cu`ob`hf`m b` Ytaphf`m (vrfb-
obr obdbb`tb Cabrfp), Lcamkjcd, Mcffstbrba`h, ^bbcbam b` Lrfuwkuasikb Kbahb
(vrfbobr obdbb`tb Hbur`b b` Ucabrhb`) b` Lrfuwkuas, \agpbclbro, Habrhf`m b`
Yikbbpstjc (vrfbobr obdbb`tb Ljmbc b` Dackbbzb). Bb` fvbrzaikt vj` hb wagmb`,
hfrpsmbr`b` b` obkuiktb` as tb va`hb` a` lagcjob :.
A`kjjcscjo fuhb prfgbitb`
Bb` orfft hbbc vj` kbt jrikbfcfoasik f`hbrzfbm a` Kbcdf`h wjs tft fp kbhb`
`fo `abt f scbikts lbpbrmt f`tscftb` b` obpulcaibbrh. Kbt lbtrbt dbt `jdb kbt
f`hbrzfbm uat hb pbrafhb vffrhjt hb pulcaijtabpcaikt wbrh a`obvfbrh jcs f`hbrhbbc
vj` hb _bt vj` Djctj.1 Hb obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h kbbt hjjrfd vffr hb lbcbahspbrafhb
<>>;-<>:< kbt pcj` fpobvjt fd vj` hbzb fuhb prfgbitb` jcs`fo rjppfrtb` tb
djmb` b` hjjrdbb hb vbrojjrhb mb``as fvbr kbt vbrcbhb` tb a`vb`tjrasbrb` b` tb
f`tscuatb`.:> Hbzb uatojvb as hjjrvj` kbt sjdb`vjttb`hb rbsuctjjt b` obbt hjjrdbb
bb` jitubcb stj`h vj` zjmb` dbt lbtrbmma`o tft hb mb``as vj` hb jrikbfcfoab
b` vffrobsikabhb`as vj` Kbcdf`h. Kbt fvbrzaikt zjc a` kbt vbrvfco raikta`o
obvb` jj` kbt fpstbccb` vj` `abuw lbcbah b` kbt frducbrb` vj` tfbmfdstaob
1 Hb wbt vj` Djctj wbrh a` <>>< jcs a`tbrad lbcbah a`obvfbrh. Kabra` as f`hbrdbbr vjstobcboh hjt jr-
ikbfcfoasik f`hbrzfbm la``b` bb` tbrdag` vj` twbb gjjr `j jrf`ha`o vj` kbt vbchwbrm obpulcaibbrh
dfbt zag`. Hbzb vffrwjjrhb` zag` a` sbptbdlbr <>>? vbrj`mbrh a` hb _bt fp hb Jrikbfcfoasikb
Df`udb`tb`zfro (_jdz).
:> Hb (if`ibpt-) rjppfrtb`, vf`hstb` b` fporjva`oshfiudb`tjtab lbva`hb` zaik orftb`hbbcs a` kbt
 
:5  
 Jbbcha`o 8. Hb caooa`o b` if`tfurb` vj` jrikbfcfoasik f`hbrzfiktb
tbrrba`b` a` Kbcdf`h (frj`gb vjmmb`) dbt prfgbitifhbs. Hb prfgbitifhbs
wfrhb` a` lagcjob < tfbobcaikt.
Kbcdf`h Fporjva`ob`
 
:;  
f`hbrzfbmsvrjob`. Kbt sjdb`lrb`ob` vj` hb tft fp kbhb` vbrojjrhb mb``as b` kbt
uatwbrmb` vj` kbt jiktbrstjccao f`hbrzfbm kbbt lfvb`hab` obcbah tft vbrrjssb`hb
rbsuctjtb` b` bb` `abuwb magm fp hb vffrobsikabhb`as vj` Kbcdf`h.
_brmwagzb 
Fd hat fvbrzaikt sjdb` tb stbccb` as hb hfiudb`tjtab vj` hb jrikbfcfoasikb prf-
 gbitb` obj`jcysbbrh. Kbt ojjt fd hjorjppfrtb`, vbchtbmb`a`ob`, if`ibptrjppfr-
tb`, jrtambcb`, ifrrbspf`hb`tab, ftfs b` hajs b` vf`hstdjtbrajjc a` kbt hbpft vj`
kbt Jrikbfcfoasik Ib`trud Ba`hkfvb` b` Kbcdf`h b` kbt Obdbb`tbdusbud
Kbcdf`h. Uj` hb lbcj`oragmstb fporjva`osprfgbitb` zag` a` kbt mjhbr vj` hbzb
a`kjjcscjo rjppfrtb` obdjjmt, wjjrdbb vf`hstb` b` hfiudb`tjtab tfboj`mbcagm
zag` obwfrhb`. A` hbzb uatojvb wfrhb` hb obobvb`s vj` hb jzf`hbrcagmb prfgbitb`
sjdb`obvjt (jelbbcha`ob` 8 b` 2 ).:: Hb ljsasobobvb`s vj` hb lbcj`oragmstb f`hbr-
zfbmb` zag` fpob`fdb` a` lagcjob < . Uffr hb rjppfrtjob vj` hb fporjva`osprfgbitb` hab`hb a` bb` jj`tjc obvjccb`
hb obsikrbvb` hfiudb`tjtab b` lbbchrboastrjtab (fp`abuw) obæ`tbrprbtbbrh tb wfr-
hb`. Uj` hb fporjva`osvcjmmb` zag` `abuwb fvbrzaikttbmb`a`ob` obdjjmt. Uffr hb
lbsikragva`o vj` kbt vf`hstdjtbrajjc mf` vffr bb` hbbc oblruam wfrhb` obdjjmt
vj` bbrhbr uatobvfbrhb hbtbrda`jtabs. Uj` b`mbcb prfgbitb` as kbt vf`hstdjtbrajjc
`u vffr kbt bbrst ofbh obæ`vb`tjrasbbrh b` obhbtbrda`bbrh.:< Hb vf`hstb` zag`
fp`abuw obsfrtbbrh, obfrhb`h b` vbrpjmt vfcob`s hb kuahaob hbpftvffrwjjrhb`.
Bb` jj`tjc vf`hstb` as obrbstjurbbrh b`/f obif`sbrvbbrh wjjrhffr zb obsikamt zag`
fd tb bxpfsbrb`.
 Jc vj`j :1?5 spburt Kb`m Offssb`s vffrjc a` Dabrcf-Kfut jmmbrs j `jjr
jrikbfcfoasikb a`haijtfrb` b` vffrwbrpb`. ussb` :1;> b` :112 wbrhb` hb jm-
mbrs a` Irfy b` hb _jrj`hb rbobcdjtao dbt kbtzbchb hfbc jobspburh hffr kbf
hb Gf`o. Hjjr`jjst kbllb` havbrsb cbhb` vj` hb Kastfrasikb b` Jrikbfcfoasikb
Ubrb`aoa`o Kbcdf`t bb` jj`tjc jmmbrs a` kbt luatb`oblabh lbzfikt, zfjcs hb jmmbrs
a` Habrhf`m b` a` Ujrb`sikut. Ubbc `fo f`lbmb`hb obobvb`s hab taghb`s vbchvbr-
mb``a`ob` a` kbt luatb`oblabh zag` vbrzjdbch zag` `u vbrwbrmt.
:: Hb prfgbitb` wfrhb` a` lagcjob <  mfrt tfbobcaikt.
:< Uj` hb vfcob`hb prfgbitb` as kbt jjrhbwbrm (fp`abuw) obhbtbrda`bbrh7 Hagmsb Ytrjjt, bx Hbif, Lfft,
hb Mrff`, Hu ^rá, Y`bppb`sikbut, Lrj`hbvffrt, Jskfrst, La`hbrb`, Mrfddb Ytbb`wbo (Lbobdj``
tbrrba`), Fuhb frb` Ytapkfut, Fuhb Kuys, Mbrmstrjjt 2:-Djrmt-: (Hb Ujcim), Mbrmstrjjt 8; (Djtbr
 
:1 
 Jbbcha`o 2. Hb if`tfurb` vj` jrikbfcfoasik f`hbrzfiktb tbrrba`b` a` b` rf`h hb la``b`stjh vj`
Kbcdf`h (frj`gb vcjmmb`) b` hb prfgbitifhbs. Hb prfgbitifhbs wfrhb` a` lagcjob < tfbobcaikt. Hb f`hbr -
 orf`h as jeobcbah vj` hb bbrstb mjhjstrjcb mjjrt uat :;9<. Hb rfhb cag`b` vfrdb` hb kuahaob mjhjstrjcb
satujtab.
     D    j    r     m     t
U bbst r jjt 
     W    u
     a     h   -     _
     a     c     c    b     d     s   v     j     j    r    t
Y t b b   w b o 
 
 o  w   b   o  
KD-LW-;2
KD-MY-;;
KD-LM-;1
KD-U_-1:
KD-HvK->>
KD-BW-;;
KD-_M-;<
KD-OM-1>
KD-CA-;2
Ijtjcfous dbt jrikbfcfoasikb prfgbitb`
Hb jrikbfcfoasikb prfgbitb` hab a` Kbcdf`h zag` uatobvfbrh zag` sjdb`obvjt a`
bb` ijtjcfous. Bcmb vf`hstdbcha`o, wjjr`bda`o, vbchvbrmb``a`o, lffrprfgbit,
prfbscbuvb`prfgbit f fporjva`o as dbt bb` u`abm `uddbr fpob`fdb` a` hb (`fo
stbbhs orfbab`hb) ijtjcfous. Uj` abhbr prfgbit as ob`ftbbrh7
:. hb prfgbitifhb
9. jrikbfcfoasikb pbrafhb
2. cj`hbcagmb \H-ifõrha`jtb`
5. typb jrikbfcfoasik f`hbrzfbm b` lbcj`oragmstb rbsuctjjt
?. vbrcffp vj` kbt vbchwbrm 
1. kastfrasikb jiktbrorf`h
::. pulcaijtabs, jrtambcb` b` catbrjtuur dbt lbtrbmma`o tft hat prfgbit
Wf zag` fp hat dfdb`t 8:< ijtjcfous`uddbrs uatobhbbch, orftb`hbbcs lbstjj`-
hb uat vbchvbrmb``a`ob` (9;,9%) b` vf`hstdbcha`ob` (<9,;%). _jjr`bda`ob`
(:8,?%) b` fporjva`ob` (::,;%) vfcob` hjjr`j (jelbbcha`o 9).:9 Hb ijtjcfous-
`uddbrs zag` dbt \H-ifõrha`jtb` fpob`fdb` fp hb kuahaob pcjttborf`h vj`
Kbcdf`h wjjrhffr hb ruadtbcagmb vbrsprbaha`o vj` vf`hstb` b` va`hpcjjtsb`
zaiktljjr wfrht, obsfrtbbrh pbr jrikbfcfoasikb pbrafhb (lagcjob < ). Cfijtabs vj`
vf`hstb`, wjjr`bda`ob` b` fporjva`ob` zag` a` hbzb uatojvb jj`obhuah dbt kbt
kuahaob jhrbs. br vbrhuahbcagma`o wfrhb` hjjrlag sfds cfijjc lbmb`hb tfpf`ab-
db` oblruamt. Lag va`hpcjjtsb` luatb` kbt ib`trud wfrhb` `jdb` vj` hb wagmb`
ob`fbdh. Bb` fvbrzaikt vj` hbzb wagmb` b` hb hfrpsmbr`b` b` obkuiktb` vj`
Kbcdf`h as tb va`hb` a` lagcjob :.
Bb` orfft jj`tjc vf`hstb`, va`hpcjjtsb` b` f`hbrzfbmb` uat hb ijtjcfous as
a`obvfbrh a` kbt cj`hbcagmb jrikbfcfoasik hjtjsystbbd J\IKAY vj` hb \agmshab`st
vffr kbt Iucturbbc Brofbh (\IB) wjjra` vf`hstb`dbcha`ob`, wjjr`bda`ob`
b` f`hbrzfbmb` wfrhb` obrboastrbbrh (lagcjob < ). Hjjrdbb zag` hbzb f`tscftb`
b` tfboj`mbcagm obdjjmt vffr tfbmfdstao f`hbrzfbm. Lag`j vagkf`hbrh jrikbf-
cfoasikb vf`hstb` a` kbt hbpft vj` kbt Obdbb`tbdusbud Kbcdf`h b` a` kbt
 Jrikbfcfoasik Ib`trud Ba`hkfvb` b` Kbcdf`h zag` obftforjbbrh.:8 Bb` jj`tjc
hjjrvj` as fpob`fdb` a` hb wblsatb vj` kbt Obdbb`tbdusbud Kbcdf`h.:2
:9 A` hb ijtjcfous zag` 8:< va`hpcjjtsb` b` prfgbitb` lbsikrbvb`, wjjrvj` 9;2 a` J\IKAY zag` a`ob-
vfbrh. _j``bbr bb` va`hpcjjts vjmbr hffr j`hbrb` f a` vbrsikaccb`hb gjrb` as lbzfikt zag` dbbrhbrb
frducabrb` a`obvuch dbt kbtzbchb ijtjcfous`uddbr (dbt tfbvfboa`o vj` j, l, i bti). Fd hab rbhb`
stjjt a` hb tjlbc jlbbcha`o 9 bb` j`hbr obtjc. Lagcjob < lbvjt bb` mfrtb lbsikragva`o pbr prfgbit.
:8 Uj` hb vfcob`hb prfgbitb` zag` vf`hstb` (fp`abuw) obftforjbbrh7 Hagmsb strjjt, bx Hbif, Lfft, hb
Mrff`, Hu ^rá, Y`bppb`sikbut, Lrj`hbvffrt, Jskfrst.
:2 kttp7//ifccbitab.obdbb`tbdusbudkbcdf`h.`c/ifccbitabs/stjhskastfrab/lbcbb.
 
<: 
Fpzbt vj` hbzb uatojvb
Hbzb pulcaijtab as ikrf`fcfoasik vj` fpzbt b` lboa`t dbt bb` mfrtb a`trfhuitab
a` hb obfcfoasikb jspbitb` vj` hb f`hbrorf`h vj` Kbcdf`h (kffhstum 9)7 bb`
lbsikragva`o vj` hb lfhbd b` hb jjrhmu`haob vbrsikag`sbcb`, kbt f`tstjj` vj` kbt
cj`hsikjp b` hb vjrajtabs a` `jttb b` hrfob oblabhb`. Hb lfhbdobstbchkbah as lb-
pjcb`h vffr hb f`twammbca`o vj` vbrsikaccb`hb typb` cj`hsikjp b` hb lbtbmb`as
hjjrvj` vffr hb db`sb` hab bra` cbvb`. @j hat kffhstum vfcot hb jrikbfcfoasikb
a`frdjtab. Hbzb as vbrhbbch fvbr zbvb` kffhstummb` hab abhbr bb` taghvjm lbkj`-
hbcb` (zab a`hbca`o a` pbrafhb` jelbbcha`o 5 ). Kffhstum 8 ojjt tbruo `jjr kbt vbrrb
vbrcbhb` vj` gjobrs b` vbrzjdbcjjrs7 hb stbb`taghb` (iarij 9>.>>> gjjr obcbhb`-<>>>
 gjjr vffr Ikr.). Kffhstum 2 lbkj`hbct hb fpmfdst vj` pcjjtsvjstb `bhbrzbtta`ob`
b` hb f`twammbca`o vj` cj`hlfuw b` vbbtbbct a` hb dbtjjctaghb`7 lrf`stagh (iarij
<>>>-;>> vffr Ikr.) b` agzbrtagh (iarij ;>>-:< vffr Ikr.). Kffhstum 5 lbkj`hbct
hb lbwfob` oblburtb`assb` b` `abuwb a`vcfbhb` taghb`s hb \fdba`sb tagh (iarij :<
vffr-82> `j Ikr.). A` kffhstum ? wfrhb` hb vrfbob dahhbcbbuwb` lbkj`hbch= hb
tagh vj` sikjjrsb lbwf`a`o a` kbt oblabh (iarij 82>-1>> `j Ikr.). Kffhstum ; ojjt
fvbr kbt f`tstjj` b` hb bbrstb orfbapbrafhb vj` Kbcdf`h b` fdcaoob`hb obdbb`tb`
obhurb`hb hb vfccb dahhbcbbuwb` (iarij 1>>-:<<2 `j Ikr.). Kffhstum 1 lbkj`-
hbct hb cjtb dahhbcbbuwb`, hb pbrafhb wjjra` hb stjh tft f`twammbca`o mwjd (iarij
:<<2-:2>> `j Ikr.). Hb pbrafhb` vj` f`rust b` jrdfbhb jcs obvfco vj` lbcbobra`-
ob` b` vbrzbt obhurb`hb hb @abuwb tagh (iarij :2>>-:1>>) mfdb` a` Kffhstum :>
jj` hb frhb. ft scft wfrht bb` sjdb`vjttb`hb if`icusab obobvb` a` Kffhstum ::.
La``b` bcm taghvjm wfrhb` vabr tkbdjs lbkj`hbch7 :. Lblfuwhb fdobva`o 7 `b-
hbrzbtta`osstruituur, a`rjstruiturb`, orjvbchb` b` lborjjpcjjtsb`, <.  Djtbraícb iuctuur 7 fvbr obrbbhsikjppb` b` vffrwbrpb` uat fporjva`ob`, 9. Ufbhsbcbif`fdab b` `jtuurcagmb fdobva`o 7 fvbr vfbha`o, vbbkfuhbrag, bifcfoab b` cj`hsikjppb`, 8.
Lagzf`hbrb jspbitb` b` kastfrasikb obobvb`s, b` 2. If`icusab7 bb` mfrtb sjdb`vjtta`o
vj` hb lbtrbb`hb pbrafhb. Dbt hbzb a`hbca`o as s`bc bb` lbbch tb vfrdb` vj`
hb lbsikamljrb a`frdjtab fvbr bb` lbpjjch f`hbrwbrp a` bb` lbpjjchb pbrafhb.
Cfijtabs vj` vf`hstb`, wjjr`bda`ob` b` fporjva`ob` zag` jj`obhuah dbt hb kua-
haob `jdb` vj` wagmb` f jhrbssb`. br vbrhuahbcagma`o wfrhb` hjjrlag sfds hb
tfpf`abdb` oblruamt.
 Jbbcha`o 5. A`hbca`o vj` kbt vbrcbhb` a` vbrsikaccb`hb pbrafhb`.
 @ A B  R  _
 F R H  B  Y  X
 B B  @  X
 A G H
  Y  X  B B
 @  X  A G H
 @  X  A G H
 H
 B R   _ B @
 r.
Avf Ufssb` b` Xkbf hb Gf`o 
Hb f`hbrorf`h vj` Kbcdf`h lbstjjt uat vbrsikaccb`hb bcbdb`tb` hab kbt orf`h-
oblabh obsikamt djmb` vffr db`sbcagmb lbwf`a`o. wbb lbcj`oragmb cbvb`sjhbrs
hffrs`aghb` kbt orf`hoblabh7 hb Jj b` hb Offrcffp. Wag zfrob` dbt ku` zagjrdb`
vffr bb` vj` hb lbcj`oragmstb cbvb`slbkfbtb` vj` hb db`s7 wjtbr. Ubrhbr caoob`
`jjst b` tussb` hbzb lbbmhjcb` vbrsikaccb`hb kfob orf`hb`, hb zfob`jjdhb hbm-
zj`hruoob` b` hf`mb`. Fp hbzb kfobrb orf`hb` wbrh obwff`h b` mf` jmmbrlfuw
 wfrhb` lbhrbvb`. Kbt ffrsprf`mbcagmb rbcaí as `fo stbbhs kbrmb`ljjr a` kbt kua-
haob cj`hsikjp. Kbt dbbst ojj lbwjjrh oblcbvb` zag` fo hb lfccb jmmbroblabhb`
rf`h hb Fuhb frb` a` Ytapkfut, djjr ffm kbt rbcjtab kfob oblabh lag Fvbrlruo,
Yikbvbca`ob` b` a` \agpbclbro as `fo stbbhs huahbcagm zaiktljjr. Hat zag` oblabhb`
dbt bb` kfob jrikbfcfoasikb pftb`tab= jrikbfcfoasikb spfrb` mu``b` `fo jctagh
jj`wbzao zag`. Hb kfobrb orf`hb` rf`h hb Djrmt a` kbt ib`trud zag` jc sa`hs cj`ob
tagh lblfuwh. A` hb Frj`gbluurt b` lag hb Kjjo, kbt oblabh rf`h b` tb` zuahb`
vj` hb Kbastrjjt (la``b`stjh ffst), lag kbt Kffoba`h, a` hb la``b`stjh `ffrh b`
a` kbt luatb`oblabh vj` Dabrcf-Kfut b` Lrj`hbvffrt zag` fp hb ffrsprf`mbcagmb
cj`hlfuworf`hb` a` hb jobcfpb` hbib``aj wff`wagmb` oblfuwh. A` hbzb ob-
labhb` zag` lag `abuwlfuw f vbrvj`oa`o vj` fuhbrb wff`wagmb` `fo rbobcdjtao
a`tjitb jrikbfcfoasikb spfrb` vj` vrfbobrb lbwf`a`o a` hb lfhbd jj`obtrfb`.
Cj`hsikjp jcs ljsas vffr lbwf`a`o 
^rbkastfrasikb `bhbrzbtta`ob` va`hb` wb vjjm a` hb `jlagkbah vj` sikrjcb orf`-
hb` b` lfsoblabhb`, hab hab`hb` jcs lrf` vj` gjiktwach, wachb vruiktb` b` kfut
vffr oblfuwb` b` vuur. @j kbt rffab` vj` kbt lfs mwjdb` kabr kbahbvbchb` b`
stuazj`hoblabhb` tft f`twammbca`o. Uffrlbbchb` hjjrvj` zag` hb Obb`ba`hsikb
Kbahb b` ^jpb`vffrtsb Kbahb, hb Ljmbcsb lfssb` b` Lrfuwkuassikb Kbahb. Hb
kbahbvbchb` tussb` Ytapkfut b` @ub`b` caoob` fp hb wjtbrsikbaha`o tussb` Jj
b` Hfddbc. Ytjo`brb`h wjtbr vbrzjdbct zaik kabr a` vbrsikaccb`hb vb``b`. @jjr
kbt zuahffstb` cffpt kbt Kbcdf`hsb orf`hoblabh fp, fvbr havbrsb f`hbrorf`hsb
lrbumb` cj`os hb ^bbcrj`hlrbum.
A` kbt vbrcbhb` spbbchb kbt cj`hsikjp vffr lbwf`brs bb` orftbrb rfc hj` tbob`-
 wffrhao. Hb cj`hsikjppbcagmb mb`dbrmb` lbpjjchb` a` orftb djtb wjjr db` zaik
 
<8  
b` wjjr hb hfhb` wbrhb` lborjvb`. Mb`dbrmb` zfjcs kffotbcaooa`o, vruiktljjr-
kbah vj` hb lfhbd, vbobtjtab, orf`hwjtbrstj`h b` hb `jlagkbah vj` wjtbr wjrb`
vj` a`vcfbh fp cfijtabmbuzb b` cj`hoblruam. _b dfbtb` f`s kbt cj`hsikjp hj` ffm
`abt vffrstbccb` jcs bb` lcj`if obobvb`, djjr jcs bb` fptbcsfd vj` jccbrcba mb`-
dbrmb`, dbt hjjra` fp hb` huur ffm stbbhs dbbr spfrb` vj` db`sbcagm kj`hbcb`.
@jjst zuavbr ysabmb mb`dbrmb` vj` kbt cj`hsikjp lbstjjt br lfvb`hab` ffm
bb` dytkasik cj`hsikjp, wjjrlag kbra``bra`ob`, dytkasikb vbrkjcb` b` vffrfuhbrs
bb` spbiajcb lbtbmb`as obvb` jj` hb cbbfdobva`o, vrfbobr f`obtwagbch dbbr hj`
a` f`zb tagh.:5 Kbt cj`hsikjp a` jc kjjr hadb`sabs as mfrtfd bb` wbcaswjjr `abt jc-
cbs, djjr wbc vbbc lbpjcb`hb jitfr obwbbst a` kbt vbrcbhb`. _b zuccb` hjjr a` hat
kffhstum habpbr fp a`ojj`.
9.:. Obfcfoasikb f`tstjj`sobsikabhb`as
 _j``bbr wb hb kuahaob lblfuwa`o b` vbobtjtab wbohb`mb`, lcagmt hjt kbt cj`h-
sikjp wjjra` kbt kuahaob Kbcdf`h obcbob` as `abt bb`s zf kbbc vbbc vbrsikact vj`
hjt wjjr f`zb vffrfuhbrs a` cbbhb`. Wfwbc hb f`hbrorf`h ’ vffrjc zj`h= kabr b`
hjjr wjt vbb` ’, jcs kbt rbcaí zag` `juwbcagms vbrj`hbrh obhurb`hb hb jobcfpb`
huazb`hb` gjrb`. Hjt obcht fvbraob`s vffr bb` vbbc orftbr oblabh hj` jccbb` hb
f`dahhbccagmb fdobva`o vj` Kbcdf`h. Kbt ojjt fp vffr orftb hbcb` vj` @ffrh-
Lrjlj`t wjjr zj`h jj` kbt fppbrvcjm caot. Kbt Lrjlj`tsb cj`hsikjp cjjt hjjrdbb
bb` tftjjc j`hbr lbbch zab` hj` hjt a` _bst-@bhbrcj`h wjjr kbt cj`hsikjp vffrjc
a` kbt kuahaob obfcfoasikb taghvjm ’ kbt Kfcfibb`, vj`j ij. ::.;>> gjjr obcbhb`
’ as vfrdobobvb` hffr jzbtta`ob` vj` hb zbb b` ravabrb`, vbb`orfba b` ffm hffr
db`sbcagm a`oragpb` a` kbt cj`hsikjp. Hb vfrda`o vj` hb f`hbrorf`h a` Ffst-
Lrjlj`t zfjcs hjt tbob`wffrhao `fo a` orftb cag`b` jj`wbzao as, ojjt vbbc vbrhbr
tbruo. Hb lfhbd kbbt a` batb obstjctb obmrbob` obhurb`hb twbb stjhaj b` hffr
twbb kbbc vbrsikaccb`hb jitfrb`7 tbmtf`abm b` wa`h.
Lrbumcag`b` a` hb lfhbd
Uffr kbt bbrstb stjhaud dfbtb` wb f`obvbbr 9> tft 8> dacgfb` gjjr tbruo (jj`
kbt ba`hb vj` kbt Bfibb` b` a` kbt Fcaofibb`, twbb taghvjmmb` uat kbt brtajar)
 wj``bbr a` kbt kuahaob Wuahffst-@bhbrcj`h bb` stbcsbc vj` lrbumcag`b` a` hb
habpb f`hbrorf`h f`tstjjt hjt vj`j hjt dfdb`t hffr lbwboa`ob` vj` hb jjrh-
mfrst (tbmtf`abm) vbrrbojj`hb a`vcfbh kbbt fp kbt lfvb`orf`hsb rbcaí. Hb tbmtf-
`abm zfrot vffr kbt obcbahbcagm hjcb` vj` bb` oblabh tussb` twbb lrbumcag`b`, hb
^bbcrj`hlrbum a` kbt ffstb` b` hb Ytbrmsbclrbum b` hb Ebchlasslrbum a` kbt wbstb`
(jelbbcha`o ? ). Hat hjca`osoblabh (f scb`m) wfrht hb \fbrhjcscb`m ob`fbdh. Jj`
 wbbrszaghb` vj` hb \fbrhjcscb`m va`hb` wb oblabhb` hab guast obcbahbcagm stagob`7
kbt bbclcfm (vffrkbb` bbckfrst ob`fbdh) a` kbt ffstb` b` kbt Mbdpasik cjtbju
a` kbt zuahwbstb`. Hffr hjca`o b` stagoa`o f`tstf`h uatba`hbcagm bb` kffotbvbrsikac
vj` dbbr hj` hbrtao dbtbr tussb` hb \fbrhjcscb`m b` kbt ^bbclcfm. Hbzb f`hbr-
orf`hsb lrbum caot fp hb cag` Obdbrt-Dfrtbc-Ljmbc-Hbur`b-Cabssbc-Jstb` b` as tb
:5 Wab lagvffrlbbch \fydj`s b` Obrratsb` <>><.
 
<2  
vfcob` vj`j Fss tft \fbrdf`h. A` kbt ib`trud vj` Hbur`b caot hb lfhbd vag
dbtbr kfobr hj` a` Kbcdf`h-ib`trud, fd raikta`o Orab`htsvbb` `fo bb`s vag
dbtbr tb stagob`. Kbcdf`h caot a` hb \fbrhjcscb`m, b`mbcb macfdbtbrs tb` wbstb`
vj` hb ^bbcrj`hlrbum.
Cj`hsikjpsvfrdb`hb b`fdb`b` fpbrbrb` zbchb` cfs vj` bcmjjr. Br as vragwbc
jctagh sprjmb vj` bb` orftb hy`jdabm tussb` orftb b` mcba`brb, mfrtstf`haob b`
cj`ohuraob prfibssb`. Dbt hb hjca`o vj` hb \fbrhjcscb`m f`tstjjt wbcaswjjr bb`
frs kffotbvbrsikac tussb` hb scb`m b` hb lbahb stagoa`osoblabhb` jj` wbbrszaghb`,
djjr hat kffotbvbrsikac as hffr brfsab vj` hb kfobr obcbob` kfrstb` b` sbhadb`-
tjtab a` kbt hjca`osoblabh obcbahbcagm wbbr tb`abt obhjj`. Brfsab b` sbhadb`tjtab
va`hb` pcjjts f`hbr a`vcfbh vj` vbrsikaccb`hb jitfrb`, djjr vffrjc hffr sdbct-
 wjtbr b` wa`h. @j vbrcffp vj` tagh as kbt hffr tbmtf`abm f`tstj`b kffotbvbrsikac
orftb`hbbcs vbrbb`h hffrhjt hb \fbrhjcscb`m dbt havbrsb pjmmbttb` sbhadb`t as
fpobvuch wjjrf`hbr wa`h-, lbbm- b` sdbctwjtbrjzbtta`ob` b` vbb` (Efrdjtab vj`
Lfxtbc= zab jelbbcha`o ; ).:? La``b` hb obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h lbhrjjot kbt vbrsikac a`
djjavbchkffotb lag`j tab` dbtbr7 kbt kffostb pu`t caot fp hb Lrfuwkuassikb Kbahb
(<9,: dbtbr lfvb` @J^) b` kbt cjjostb pu`t as kbt strffdoblabh vj` hb Offrcffp
`jlag mjstbbc Irfy (:8,8 dbtbr lfvb` @J^). br kffotb vj` hb ^bbcrj`hlrbum as
fp vrag mfrtb jstj`h tbob`wffrhao `fo bb` kffotbvbrsikac vj` iarij twbb dbtbr
:? Yikfmmbr <>>8.
 
<5  
jj`wbzao. Fvbraob`s as hb ^bbcrj`hlrbum `fo stbbhs jitab. Hjt lcbbm lagvffrlbbch
fp :9 jprac :11<, tfb` lag \fbrdf`h, hjt fp hb ^bbcrj`hlrbum caot, bb` lbwboa`o
cj`os hbzb lrbum bb` jjrhlbva`o vbrffrzjjmtb vj` 2,; fp hb sikjjc vj` \aiktbr. Hb
sikfmofc wbrh ffm a` Kbcdf`h obvfbch.
Obzj`hstrjjch cj`hsikjp
Kbt twbbhb lbcj`oragmb stjhaud a` hb vfrda`o vj` kbt cj`hsikjp a` Ffst-Lrjlj`t
va`ht pcjjts a` kbt ^cbastfibb`, hb pbrafhb vj` hb agstaghb`= fd prbiabs tb zag` a` hb
cjjtstb jsb vj` hb vffrcjjtstb b` cjjtstb agstagh7 kbt Yjjcab` (iarij 9?>.>>>-:9>.>>>
 gjjr obcbhb`) b` kbt _baiksbcab` (iarij ::2.>>>-::.;>> gjjr obcbhb`), dbt hjjr-
tussb` bb` wjrdbrb pbrafhb7 kbt Bbdab` (iarij :9>.>>>-::2.>>> gjjr obcbhb`).
Hb agstaghb` stjj` lbmb`h jcs zbbr mfuh b` hrffo. aghb`s hb mfuhstb jsb` as br
`juwbcagms tft obb` vbobtjtab, wjjrhffr hb wa`h vrag spbc kbbt fd sbhadb`t a` hb
vfrd vj` zj`h tb vbrpcjjtsb` b` bchbrs wbbr jiktbr tb cjtb`. Fp hbzb wagzb f`tstjjt
br fvbr orftb hbcb` vj` @bhbrcj`h bb` hffr wa`h jj`obvfbrh b` jobzbt zj`hpjm-
mbt. Hat pjmmbt `fbdb` wb hbmzj`h. Hffr hb wa`h ’ db` sprbbmt ffm wbc vj`
f`hbr bfcasikb fdstj`haokbhb ’ obsbhadb`tbbrh zj`h kbbt bb` rbcjtab kfdf-
ob`b sjdb`stbcca`o wjt lbtrbt hb orffttb vj` hb mfrrbcs. Jzbtta`ob` vj` hbmzj`h
mu``b` wfrhb` f`hbrvbrhbbch a` twbb jsb`, Fuhbr hbmzj`h b` Gf`obr hbmzj`h.
Kbt Fuhbr hbmzj`h as jobzbt a` hb mfuhstb jsb vj` kbt _baiksbcab`, kbt zfob-
`jjdhb ^cb`aocjiajjc, b` mb`t bb` kfrazf`tjcb obcjjohkbah wjjra` zj`h b` cbdaob
cjjogbs bcmjjr jwassbcb`. Kbt Gf`obr hbmzj`h as jobzbt taghb`s hb cjjtstb jsb` vj`
kbt _baiksbcab`, vbbcjc a` hb vfrd vj` cj`oobrbmtb zuahwbst- `ffrhffst obfraí`-
tbbrhb hbmzj`hruoob`. Hbzb jzbtta`ob` wfrhb` tbob`wffrhao tft hb frdjtab vj`
Lfxtbc obrbmb`h.:; Hb obcjjohb fplfuw vj` hb frdjtab vj` Lfxtbc mf` a` <>:: a`
bb` lfuwput jj` hb u``bcfvb`wbo a` Ytapkfut huahbcagm wfrhb` wjjrob`fdb`.
Havbrsb vbrsikag`sbcb` uat hb agstaghpbrafhb`, zfjcs mryfturljtab b` bb` vfrstwao
 wjrb` kbrmb`ljjr a` kbt vabr dbtbr kfob prfabc vj` hb lfuwput, wjjra` bb` tagh-
habptb vj` dfobcagm dbbr hj` <>>.>>> gjjr zaiktljjr wjs (jelbbcha`o 1 ).:1
Uffrkbb` wbrh br vj` uatobojj` hjt kbt hbmzj`h fvbr orftb jstj`hb` as ob-
trj`spfrtbbrh vffrhjt kbt wbrh jobzbt, djjr tbob`wffrhao as db` hb db`a`o tfb-
obhjj` hjt kbt zj`h vj` rbcjtab cfmjcb ffrsprf`o as. Kbt ag`vbrtjmtb stbcsbc vj`
lbmb` a` Wuahffst-Lrjlj`t lbstf`h a` kbt cjjt-^cbastfibb` uat rbcjtab lrbhb b`
vcjmmb lbbmhjcb` wjjra` lbmb` vfcob`s bb` vcbiktb`h pjtrff` strffdhb`. Hbzb
lbbmhjcb` cjob` obhurb`hb hbcb` vj` kbt gjjr hrffo b` vfrdhb` `jjr jccb wjjr-
sikag`cagmkbah hb kbrmfdstoblabhb` vj` kbt hbmzj`h. Uj`uat hb hrfob lbbmhjcb`
 wbrhb` zj`h b` cbbd dbt hb fvbrkbbrsb`hb wbstbcagmb wa`hraikta`o a` ffstbcagmb
raikta`o vbrpcjjtst b` hjjr jobzbt.<>
:; Yikfmmbr <>>9= Hb Duchbr <>>97 985-92>= Lbrb`hsb` <>>;7 :;<.
:1 Dbt hj`m jj` Gj` Lrfbrtgbs (Obchrfp) vffr kucp lag kbt a`tbrprbtbrb` vj` hat prfbc :9 jprac <>:<.
<> Luatb`kuas b.j. :11:.
Ytuaehua`b` b` uatlcjza`osvcjmtb`
Hb cj`hsikjpsvfrdb`hb jitfr vj` hbmzj`h lbstjjt abt jccbb` uat hb sbhadb`tjtab
vj` kbt hbmzj`h zbc, djjr zbmbr ffm uat kbt rbcaí hjt ’ wbhbrfd f`hbr a`vcfbh
vj` vffr`jdbcagm hb wa`h ’ kabra` mj` f`tstjj`. Hbmzj`hrbcaí mb`t bb` vffr
@bhbrcj`hsb lborappb` obvjrabbrh pjtrff`. A` Lrjlj`t as br a` hb bbrstb pcjjts bb`
 Jbbcha`o ;. Hffrs`bhb hffr hb \fbrhjcscb`m, vfcob`s hb rfhb cag` J-J a` jbbcha`o ?.
Lrf`7 Yikfmmbr <>>8.
 
<;  
 Jbbcha`o 1. Lfhbdprfbc a` bb` vabr dbtbr habpb lfuwput jj` hb Xu``bcfvb`wbo (`jlag hb
vffrdjcaob stbb`fvb`) a` Ytapkfut a` jprac <>::. :. djjavbch dbt lborfbaa`o, <. rbib`t vbrrfd -
dbchb lfvb`orf`h, lfuwvffr, 9. bshbm, fuhb jmmbrcjjo, 8. F`hbr zbbr mfuhb fdstj`haokbhb`
 obhurb`hb hb agstagh obdb`ohb (mryturljtab) Lrjlj`tsb cbbd b` cõss dbt rfbstlrua`b agzbrfbrje -
zba`ob` hab hb wassbcb`hb lfvb`orb`s vj` kbt orf`hwjtbr djrmbbrt7 ocbavbrsikag`sbcb` (lfvb`
^cb`aocjijjc vj` kbt cjtb _baiksbcab`), hffr wa`h jeobzbt f`hbr zbbr hrffo b` mfuhb fdstj`hao -
kbhb`), lfvb`jj` hbzb cjjo bb` cjjogb caikt obmcburh cjjtocjiajjc hbmzj`h, 2. uvaf-pbraocjiajjc
kfrazf`tjjc obcjjohb Lrjlj`tsb cbbd b` hbmzj`h. Hffr ravabrstrfda`ob` jeobzbt pjmmbt uat kbt
vrfbob _baiksbcab`, 5. kudbuzb lfhbd (cjjt-Bbdab`), ?. vbb`jezba`o (Bbdab`, tussb`agstagh
fewbc a`tbrocjiajjc), ;. mryfturljjt obdb`ohb orfb`oragzb Lrjlj`tsb cbbd fe Cõss, dbt orfe
zj`h a`scuatsbcs (Yjjcab`-agstagh, ocjiajjc), taghb`s hb mfuhstb pbrafhb` vj` kbt Yjjcab` jeobzbt
hffr wa`h, 1. kfrazf`tjjc obcjjoh g` b` orfe zj`h (Yjjcab`), dfobcagm bb` bfcasikb jezba`o,
:>. obcjjohb oragzb cbbd, cõss b` zj`h (Yjjcab`), vbrdfbhbcagm bb` bfcasikb jezba`o, ::.
Ufrstwao, rbcait vj` bb` sikbur a` bb` pbrdj`b`t lbvrfrb` lfhbd, tb vfcob` tft a` hb kudbuzb
Bbdab` lfhbd (vrfbo _baiksbcab`).
<1  
vbrsikac tussb` kbt `ffrhwbstb` b` kbt zuahffstb` vj` kbt hbmzj`hcj`hsikjp.<: A`
kbt `ffrhwbstb` as sprjmb vj` bb` vrag vcjm rbcaí, lbstjj`hb uat hbmzj`hwbcva`-
ob`. Hffr hb cjobrb caooa`o, scbiktbrb jwjtbra`o vj`wbob bb` da`hbr waghvbrtjmt
lbmb`stbcsbc b` hb jj`wbzaokbah vj` cbbdcjob` a` hb f`habpb f`hbrorf`h, as kbt
fppbrvcjm a` kbt ffrhwbstbcagm hbmzj`hoblabh fvbrwbob`h vfiktaobr b` hjjrhffr
da`hbr vjtljjr vffr wa`hbrfsab b` hjjrdbb obpjjrh ojj`hb rbcaívfrda`o.
A` hb twbbhb pcjjts zag` br a` hbmzj`hrbcaí, vffrjc a` kbt zuahffstb`, fp mfrtb
jstj`h havbrsb rbcaívfrdb` f`tstjj` hab a` hb dbbstb obvjccb` ffm tbob`wffr-
hao `fo jj`wbzao zag`. @jjst hb bbrhbr ob`fbdhb cjjoobcbob` lbbmhjcb`, ojjt kbt
fd hbmzj`hruoob` b` ’mfpgbs jobwassbch dbt hbmzj`hvcjmtbs, wjjra` biktbr ffm
`fo jctagh caiktb wbcva`ob` mu``b` zag` f`tstjj`. Hbmzj`hruoob` mb``b` dbbstjc
cjuwb kbcca`ob` b` kbt kffotbvbrsikac dbt hb cjobr obcbob` hbmzj`hvcjmtb` lb-
hrjjot vbbcjc abt dbbr hj` :,2 dbtbr. Jcs hbmzj`hruoob` rbcjtab mcba` zag` b` `abt
bb` huahbcagm pjtrff` vfrdb`, wfrhb` zb dbt hb fdra`ob`hb vcjmtb jj`obhuah
jcs hbmzj`hwbcva`ob`.<< @abt zbchb` as br sprjmb vj` bb` sbqub`tab wjjrlag hbm-
zj`hvcjmtb` fvbrojj` a` zf`bs dbt hbmzj`hwbcva`ob` hab hj` wbbr fvbrojj` a`
hbmzj`hruoob`.
Bvb`bb`s mb`dbrmb`h vffr kbt hbmzj`hcj`hsikjp zag` cj`hhua`b`, vbbcjc ob-
cbob` a` orftbrb, jj`bb`obscftb` b` hy`jdasikb stuazj`hoblabhb` wjjr pjrjlffc-
vfrdaob hua`b` wfrhb` fpoblcjzb`. bob`wffrhao va`hb` wb vffrlbbchb` kabr-
vj` a` hb stuazj`hoblabhb` a` hb Obb`ba`hsikb Kbahb, hb ^jpb`vffrtsb Kbahb,
hb Ljmbcsb Lfssb` b` hb Lrfuwkuassikb Kbahb. Kbt rbcaí mb`t stbacb kbcca`ob`
b` `abt zbchb` zag` br fvbr mfrtb jstj`h kffotbvbrsikaccb` vj` dbbr hj` vag db-
tbr. Ytuahua`oblabhb` mu``b` rbcjtab gf`o zag` b` pjs `j orfftsikjcaob kfutmjp
hffr hb db`s f`tstjj` zag`. Ujmbr biktbr ojjt kbt fd oblabhb` hab jc a` kbt Cjjt-
 _baiksbcab` b` Urfbo-Kfcfibb` zag` fpobstfvb`= fvbraob`s cjtbr fp vbbc pcjjtsb`
hffr jtuurcagmb lborfbaa`o vjstobcboh. Hffr kfutmjp b` pcjoob`wa``a`o mj` kbt
zj`h pcjjtsbcagm fp`abuw zag` ojj` stuavb`. A` hbrobcagmb oblabhb` zag` ffm cjobrb
uatlcjza`osvcjmtbs f`tstjj` a` hb vfrd vj` vb``b`, zfjcs hb vb``b` Mammbrvb`,
Mjdbrvb`, _jsvb`, Mrfdvb`, _atvb` b` wbtbrdj`svb` a` hb Obb`ba`hsikb
Kbahb. Hbzb vcjmmb b` f`habpb vb``b` zag` uatwjja`osmfddb` b` f`tstjj` a` kbt
cjjtocjiajjc. Rat hb vb``b` wbrh a` kbt vbrcbhb` vbb` jcs lrj`hstf obwf``b`, zfjcs
a` kbt Fuh vb` (vbb`) tussb` Dabrcf-Kfut b` Lrj`hbvffrt.<9
Bb` fpdbrmbcagm rf`hb cjjotb caot a` hb _jrj`hb. Hbzb cjjotb dbt bb` hajdb-
tbr vj` f`obvbbr kf`hbrh dbtbr as dfobcagm bb` rbstj`t vj` bb` pa`of, f`tstjj`
obhurb`hb bb` agstagh uat bb` lbvrfrb` agscb`s a` hb lfhbd. \f`h hb cjjotb a` hb
 _jrj`hb caot `fo bb` zj`hruo (jelbbcha`o :> ).
 
Cj`hsikjpsvfrdb` caoob` vjst 
Dbt hb jj`vj`o vj` kbt Kfcfibb` (vj`j ij. :<.>>> gjjr obcbhb`), kbt kuahaob obf-
cfoasikb taghvjm hjt wfrht obmb`dbrmt hffr wjrdbrb mcadjtfcfoasikb fdstj`hao-
kbhb` b` bb` stagob`hb zbb- b` orf`hwjtbrspabobc, mfdt jj` hbzb cj`hsikjpsvfr-
db`hb hy`jdabm a` kbt hbmzj`hcj`hsikjp bb` ba`hb. Obcbahbcagm f`tstjjt br bb`
vbobtjtabhbm hjt hb f`hbrorf`h mj` vjstkfuhb`. bobcagmbrtagh mragob` vcbiktb`hb
lbmb` bb` dbj`hbrb`h pjtrff`, rbsuctbrb`h a` da`hbr lrbhb lbbmhjcb` zf`hbr
cj`obrb pbrafhb` vj` hrffocaooa`o. Lfvb`hab` trbbht fp vbbc pcjjtsb` a` hb lbbm-
 Jbbcha`o :>. Djjavbchkffotb` a` hb _jrj`hb vfcob`s kbt Jcobdbb` Kffotblbstj`h
@bhbrcj`h. Hb pjhb` a` hat pjrm hjtbrb` uat hb :;hb bbuw. Bb` vj` hb pjhb` hffrmruast bb`
iarmbcvfrdaob cjjotb dbt bb` hajdbtbr vj` f`obvbbr kf`hbrh dbtbr. Jj` hb wbsaghb caoob`
kfobrb zj`hruoob` rf`h hb cjjotb. Dfobcagm as hbzb cjjotb bb` rbstj`t vj` bb` pa`of b` as kag
f`tstjj` obhurb`hb bb` agstagh.
 
9:  
hjcb` vbb`vfrda`o fp, jcs obvfco vj` hb tfb`jdb vj` vbobtjtab b` bb` kfobrb
orf`hwjtbrstj`h. Bb` b` j`hbr cbaht brtfb hjt hb lbbmhjcb` obb` rfc dbbr spbcb`
a` hb jj`vfbr vj` hbmzj`h. Ratobzf`hbrh pcjjtsbcagmb, dbbr rbib`tb a`orbpb` hffr
hb db`s a` hb vfrd vj` jorjva`ob` b` fpkfoa`ob` (f`hbr j`hbrb hffr pcjoob`-
lbdbsta`o= zab f`hbr) lbtbmb`t hat hjt hb vfrd vj` kbt cj`hsikjp vj`j kbt lboa`
vj` kbt Kfcfibb` a` Wuahffst-Lrjlj`t a` orftb cag`b` vjst caot. Ubrj`hbra`ob`
a` kbt cj`hsikjp va`hb` hjjr`j jccbb` `fo fppbrvcjmmao pcjjts jcs obvfco vj`
vbrj`hbra`ob` a` hb vbobtjtab b` hffr lfhbdvfrda`o b`, `abt tb vbrobtb`, hffr
db`sbcagmb a`oragpb`.
9.<. Lfhbd, vbobtjtab b` eju`j 
@jhjt hb vfrda`o vj` kbt rbcaí a` Wuahffst-Lrjlj`t vffr`jdbcagm kjh pcjjts-
obvf`hb` obhurb`hb kbt ^cbastfibb`, wjrb` hb fdstj`haokbhb` a` kbt Kfcfibb`
ou`stao vffr bb` j`hbr lbcj`oragm cj`hsikjppbcagm b`fdbb`7 lfhbdvfrda`o. Bb`
vj` hb lbcj`oragmstb jitfrb` lag lfhbdvfrda`o as `jdbcagm hb jj`wbzaokbah vj`
(lfs)vbobtjtab. aghb`s hb mfuhstb jsb` vj` hb agstaghb` a` kbt ^cbastfibb` wjs
vbobtjtab a` f`zb strbmb` scbikts spjjrzjjd jj`wbzao= a` sfddaob pbrafhb` wjs br
zbcs sprjmb vj` bb` hrfob pffcwfbstag`. aghb`s abts wjrdbrb pbrafhb` tussb` hb
agstaghb` zjc kbt oblabh lborfbah zag` obwbbst dbt bb` fvbrvcfbhaob vbobtjtab vj`
stbppborjssb`, wjjr muhhbs vj` djddfbtb`, wfckjraob `buskffr`s, stbppbwasb`-
tb`, rbuzb`kbrtb` rf`htrfmmb` wjjr rffhabrb` jcs kyb`js b` wfcvb` zaik hffr
jj` cabtb` trbmmb`. A` hb cjjtstb jsb vj` hb agstagh lbvfcmtb` ffm rb`habrb`, wachb
pjjrhb` b` a`iahb`tbbc dusmusfssb` f`zb fdobva`o. Fvbrlcagsbcb` vj` agstagh-
habrb` zag` a` orftb jj`tjccb` jj`obtrfb` lag ora`hwa``a`ob` b` zj`hwa``a`ob`
a` kbt ravabrb`oblabh vj` Djjs b` \ag` b` a`iahb`tbbc lag cbbdorfbvbs a` zuahffst
Lrjlj`t.<8  Lag bb` obwbastj`o vj` bb` rb`habr, obvf`hb` taghb`s hb jj`cbo vj`
hb Wuah-_accbdsvjjrt fdstrbbms :;<8, as Kbcdf`h jcs va`hpcjjts ob`fbdh, djjr
vbrdfbhbcagm as hat bb` jcobdb`b pcjjtsjj`huaha`o, ib`trjjc obcbob` tussb` hb twbb
uatba`hb` vj` hat mj`jjc.<2 B`mbcb lbwbrmtb vuurstb`b` tf`b` jj` hjt br abhbr ob-
vjc sprjmb wjs vj` bb` a`iahb`tbbc vbrlcag vj` gjobrs-vbrzjdbcjjrs (@bj`hbrtkjcbrs
f bb` vrfbob Yjpab`s) a` f`zb fdobva`o (zab vfcob`h kffhstum7 stbb`taghb`).
Ujrajtab a` vbobtjtab 
Hb jj`vj`o vj` kbt Kfcfibb`, vj`j ij. ::.;>> gjjr obcbhb`, ojjt obpjjrh dbt
bb` lcagvb`hb tbdpbrjtuurstagoa`o. Dbt kbt sdbctb` vj` hb (pffc)agsmjppb` cffpt
ffm kbt @ffrhzbblbmmb` wbbr vfc, hjt obhurb`hb hb agstaghb` hrffo cjo, b` zab`
 wb bb` stagob`hb orf`hwjtbrspabobc. Hb sffrtb`ragmhfd vj` hb vbobtjtab `bbdt
tfb. As br a` kbt Cjjt-^cbastfibb` `fo sprjmb vj` bb` vrag fpb` cj`hsikjp dbt vbbc
mruahb` b` orjssb`, jj` kbt lboa` vj` kbt Kfcfibb` zab` wb dbt lbrm b` hb` hb
bbrstb lffdsffrtb` vbrsikag`b`= bbrst dbt lbrm (Lbtucj ) jcs fvbrkbbrsb`hb sffrt,
cjtbr hb` (^a`us ). Uj`j ij. ;>>> vffr Ikr. wfrhb` lbahb lffdsffrtb` vbrobzbch
<8 Ubrkjob` b` Dfc <>>1= Hb Gf`o :11;l.
<2 \uttb` :1>17 ?>.
9<  
hffr kjzbcjjr (Ifrycus ), bam (Zubrius ), bs (Erjxa`us ) b` abp (Rcdus ), b` vj`j ij.
?>>> vffr Ikr. ffm hffr bcs ( Jc`us ). Hbzb cjjtstb sffrt zjc sjdb` dbt hb bam kbt
cj`hsikjp dbbr b` dbbr ojj` hfda`brb`, tb` mfstb vj` hb hb`, wjjrlag hb bcs
vffrjc a` hb `jttbrb hbcb` vj` kbt cj`hsikjp obhagt. Fdstrbbms 8>>> vffr Ikr.
vbrsikag`t a` f`zb strbmb` ffm hb lbum (Ejous ), wjjrvj` kbt jj`hbbc obcbahbcagm jj`
tfb`bbdt (jelbbcha`o :< ).<5 Ratba`hbcagm wfrht kbt cj`hsikjp obhfda`bbrh hffr
bamb`lbumb`lfssb`, obcbob` fp hb kfobrb hbcb` vj` kbt cj`hsikjp, bczb`lfssb` a`
hb wjt cjobr obcbob` zf`bs b` lrfbmlfssb` b` dfbrjsvbobtjtab a` hb cjjost obcbob`
b` `jtstb zf`bs.
Uj`j kbt Kfcfibb` wfrht kbt orf`hoblabh vj` Kbcdf`h stbbhs a`tb`sabvbr
hffr db`sb` lbwff`h. Dbt hb jj`cbo vj` jmmbrs b` kbt lfuwb` vj` kuazb` ob-
lruamb` zag hb `jtuurcagmb fdobva`o b` kbllb` hjjr bb` stbbhs orftbrb a`vcfbh fp.
Hb ocfljcb f`twammbca`o vj` hb vbobtjtab fp hb zj`horf`hb`, zfjcs a` kbt
vffrojj`hb lbsikrbvb`, as obljsbbrh fp hb zfob`jjdhb pfccb`hajorjddb` (vbr-
kfuha`ob` vj` stuadbbc uat fuhb lfhbdcjob`) vj` vbrsikaccb`hb va`hpcjjtsb` a`
Ffst-Lrjlj`t. Ffm a` Kbcdf`h kbbt db` pfccb`f`hbrzfbm uatobvfbrh. Lag fp-
orjva`ob` vj` fuhb lbbmdbj`hbrs vj` hb Ljmbcsb Jj, a` hb Habrhf`msb Lbbdhb`,
zag` vbb`pjmmbttb` lbdf`stbrh b` kbt stuadbbc kabra` as obj`jcysbbrh. Bb` j`hbr
vbb`prfabc dbt bb` hamtb vj` ij. :5> id uat kbt Jj-hjc, lag hb \abtlbbdhb`, cbvbrt
bvb`bb`s a`frdjtab fvbr hb vbobtjtab vj`j kbt ^rblfrbjjc tft kbt Yuljtcj`taiud.<? 
Kabruat mfdb` a` orftb cag`b` vbrobcagmljrb lbbchb` `jjr vfrb`. A`tbrbssj`t as hjt
a` hb Kbcdf`hsb df`stbrs hb a`vcfbh vj` hb db`s kbrmb`ljjr as. Jj` kbt lboa`
vj` kbt vabrhb daccb``aud vffr Ikr. zab` wb lagvffrlbbch vffr kbt bbrst orj`b`
a` hb obobvb`s vbrsikag`b`. Hat jrikbfcfoasikb taghvjm wfrht jcs kbt `bfcatkaiud
(`abuwb stbb`tagh) jj`obhuah, hb pbrafhb wjjra` vffr kbt bbrst sprjmb as vj` jm-
mbrlfuw. Kfbwbc br a` Kbcdf`h `fo obb` spfrb` vj` oblfuwb` uat hbzb pbrafhb
zag` jj`obtrfb`, wagzb` hbzb orjj`pfccb` brfp hjt db` wbc jmmbrlfuw lbhrbb
b` dfob` wb br hjjrdbb vj`uat ojj` hjt db` vj`j hab pbrafhb fp bb` vjstb
pcjjts lcbb wf`b` b` hb lbstjj`sbif`fdab vbrsikff vj` gjob` b` vbrzjdbcb` jjr
kbt lbhragvb` vj` cj`hlfuw. Lfvb`a` hb pfccb`df`stbrs (hjt wac zboob`7 da`hbr
cj`o obcbhb`) as bb` tfb`jdb vj` lffdpfccb` b` j`jdb vj` orjj`pfccb` obif`-
stjtbbrh. Hat `avbju mfdt kffostwjjrsikag`cagm fvbrbb` dbt hb fvbroj`o vj` hb
\fdba`sb tagh `jjr hb dahhbcbbuwb`, bb` pbrafhb hab ffm vffr vbbc j`hbrb cfij-
tabs a` @bhbrcj`h (b` brluatb`) bb` lbvfcma`osj`jdb cjjt zab`, rbsuctbrb`h a` bb`
da`hbr a`tb`sab cj`hoblruam b` hus a` bb` kbrstbc vj` kbt lfsjrbjjc.
Lfhbdvfrda`o 
Wfjcs obzboh as hb jj`wbzaokbah vj` vbobtjtab bb` lbcj`oragmb jitfr lag lfhbd-
vfrda`o. @jjst vbobtjtab spbcb` ffm kbt rbcaí, hb orf`hwjtbrstj`h, `bbrscjo b`
kbt uatoj`osdjtbrajjc bb` rfc lag lfhbdvfrda`o. _j``bbr db` fvbr hb lfhbd
sprbbmt, kbbt db` kbt fvbr kbt jcobdbb` fvbr hb lfvb`stb dbtbr vj` hb jjrhmfrst.
F`hbr a`vcfbh vj` lfvb`ob`fbdhb jitfrb` trbhb` kabra` jccbrcba vbrj`hbra`ob`
<5 Wjowag` :1;5= Lbrb`hsb` <>>;7 <<>-<<:= Uj` Hua`b` :15:= Duchbr b.j.<>>97 <:8-<:2.
 
99  
 Jbbcha`o ::. A`hbca`o vj` kbt taghvjm Kfcfibb` a` rbcjtab tft hb jrikbfcfoasikb pbrafhb`
(Lrf`7 Lbrb`hsb` <>>87 o. 1.:).
 Jbbcha`o :<. Ubobtjtabf`twammbca`o a` kbt Kfcfibb` fp ljsas vj`
 
98  
fp dbt lbtrbmma`o tft hb (ikbdasikb) sjdb`stbcca`o b` obcjjohkbah vj` hb lfhbd.
Hb vbrsikaccb`hb sffrtb` lfhbds hab zag` obvfrdh zag` vffr hb jrikbfcffo dbhb
bb` lbcj`oragmb a`haijtfr vffr (hb dfobcagmkbah vffr) prbkastfrasikb lbwf`a`o b`
cj`hoblruam.
 _b lbpbrmb` f`s kabr tft hb lfhbdvfrda`o a` zj`hoblabhb` fdhjt kbt
Kbcdf`hsb orf`hoblabh b`mbc zj`horf`hb` mb`t. Bb` vj` hb lbcj`oragmstb prfibs-
sb` dbt lbtrbmma`o tft lfhbdvfrda`o, guast ffm a` zj`horf`hb`, as pfhzfcasbra`o=
kbt f`tstjj` vj` bb` pfhzfclfhbd.<; Kbt prfibs hjt cbaht tft bb` pfhzfclfhbd ojjt
f`obvbbr jcs vfcot. Jobstfrvb` vbobtjtab (lcjhbrb`, tjmmb`, wfrtbcs bti.) mfdt fp
hb orf`h tbrbikt. Kabr wfrht kbt hffr sikaddbcs b` ljitbraí` joblrfmb` b` hffr
lfhbdhabrb` vbrdb`oh dbt hb tfpcjjo, wjjrhffr fp hb` huur bb` kudusragmb
lfvb`cjjo f`tstjjt. Hffr bbrscjo hra`ot wjtbr hb lfhbd a` b` zjmt jjr lb`bhb`.
Kabrlag cfst hb kudus obhbbctbcagm fp a` kbt wjtbr. Hjjrlag wfrhb` ffm agzbrvbr-
la`ha`ob` dbbob`fdb` hab fd zj`hmfrrbcs zattb` (uatspfbca`o). Hbzb agzbrvbr-
<; Hb tbrd pfhzfc as sjdb`obstbch uat hb \ussasikb wffrhb` pfh, hjt f`hbr lbtbmb`t, b` zfcj, hjt
stjjt vffr js. Hat cjjtstb wagst fp hb oragzb jsmcbur vj` hb uatspfbca`oscjjo a` bb` pfhzfclfhbd.
 Jbbcha`o :9. Uffrlbbch vj`
hb f`hbrobstfvb` pfhzfclfhbd
Lbbrshf`m (KD-LH-?2-;?).
hf`mbrlrua`b a`spfbca`oscjjogbs
(L-kfrazf`t) caot bb` cjjo stuae -
zj`h b` hjjrlfvb` bb` hf`-
mbrorags kudbus pjmmbt (eftf7
  < d
92  
la`ha`ob` scjj` vbrvfcob`s, tft b`mbcb hbiadbtbrs cjobr, `bbr tussb` b` rf`hfd
zj`hmfrrbcs (a`spfbca`o).
Lfvb`stjj`h prfibs vj` uatspfbca`o b` a`spfbca`o kbbt bb` zbbr mb`dbrmb`h
prfabcvbrcffp a` hb tfp vj` hb lfhbd jcs rbsuctjjt (jelbbcha`o :9). Bb` hbrobcagm
prfabc lbstjjt uat bb` kudbuzb, hf`mbrlrua`b tft zwjrtb lfvb`cjjo. Kabrf`hbr lb-
va`ht zaik hb zfob`jjdhb uatspfbca`oscjjo, vbbcjc (js)orags vj` mcbur, obvfcoh hffr
bb` a`spfbca`oscjjo, vbbcjc (mfab-) lrua` vj` mcbur. Hbzb cjjo ojjt obcbahbcagm
fvbr a` kbt zfob`jjdhb dfbhbrdjtbrajjc= kbt abt hffr lfhbdvfrda`o lbæ`vcfbhb
hbmzj`hpjmmbt. Lag kbt f`tstjj` vj` bb` pfhzfclfhbd as hb hffrcjtb`hkbah vj`
hb lfhbd b` rbcjtab kfob caooa`o tb` fpzaiktb vj` kbt orf`hwjtbr vj` lbcj`o. A`
kbt ib`trud vj` Kbcdf`h zag` rf`h hb Djrmt `fo rbobcdjtao rjodb`tb` vj` bb`
ffrsprf`mbcagm hrfob pfhzfclfhbd jj`obtrfb`, wjjruat lcagmt hjt hb Djrmt fp
bb` ffrsprf`mbcagmb kfob hbmzj`hruo caot (jelbbcha`o :8 ). Hb hamtb vj` hbzb cjob` ’ kfrazf`tb` ob`fbdh ’ vjrabbrt, djjr kbt tftjcb
prfabc lbscjjt dbbstjc da`hbr hj` bb` kjcvb dbtbr.<1 Fp ljsas vj` hb hamtb vj`
hbzb kfrazf`tb` b` fp ljsas vj` hb orf`hwjtbrstj`h b` kbt (cbbdobkjctb vj` kbt)
uatoj`osdjtbrajjc mu``b` pfhzfclfhbds a` bb` jj`tjc typb` wfrhb` f`hbrvbr-
hbbch. Uffrjc hb kffoobcbob` b` zj`haob orf`hb` zag` lag uatstbm hb orf`hb` wjjr
pfhzfclfhbds f`tstjj`. @jjst pfhzfclfhbds vfrdb` zaik ’ a` cjobrb b` `jttb
hbcb` vj` kbt cj`hsikjp ’ j`hbrsffrtaob lfhbds, zfjcs bbrhorf`hb`.
Ffm kbt cbbdobkjctb vj` lfhbds as bb` f`hbrsikbahb`h bcbdb`t lag hb icjs-
saaijtab vj` lfhbds. Br zag` cbbdjrdb b` cbbdragmb lfhbds, wjjrlag hb cjjtstb,
vj`wbob bb` lbtbrb vfiktrboucbra`o, `frdjcatbr dbbr fplrb`ost ob`brbrb` hj` hb
bbrstb. Uj` cbbdragmb b`mbbrhorf`hb` mj` wfrhb` jj`ob`fdb` hjt hbzb zag` ob-
vfrdh fp lfhbds hab vj` ffrsprf`o ffm bb` rbcjtab kffo cbbdobkjctb mb``b`.
Cj`ha`raikta`o 
Hb vbrsikaccb`hb baob`sikjppb` vj` lfhbds zag` a` kfob djtb lbpjcb`h obwbbst
vffr hb vbrsikaccb`hb vfrdb` vj` cj`hoblruam, zfjcs lbwf`a`o, jmmbrlfuw f wba-
hborf`hb`. Uffr hb jrikbfcffo vfrdb` ruadtbcagmb caooa`o b` sjdb`stbcca`o vj`
lfhbds hj` ffm bb` ofbhb cbahrjjh lag kbt a`sikjttb` wjjr a` kbt vbrcbhb` wbrh
obwff`h b` kfb kbt cj`hsikjp wbrh a`obraikt b` oblruamt.
Lfhbdvfrda`o as biktbr bb` hy`jdasik prfibs, wjjrhffr lfhbds zfjcs zb tb-
ob`wffrhao wfrhb` jj`obtrfb` `abt zf`hbrdbbr hb lfhbdmu`haob satujtab a`
kbt vbrcbhb` wbbrobvb`. Db`sbcagmb a`orbpb` vfrdb` bb` lbcj`oragmb jitfr lag
vbrj`hbra`ob` a` lfhbdvfrda`o. A`zaikt kabra` mj` ofbh hus ofbh vj` pjs mfdb`
fd ffrsprf`mbcagmb lfhbdtypb` tb kbrcbahb`. Hffr orfftsikjcaob orjjjitavatbatb`
vj` hb jobcfpb` hbib``aj zag` orftb hbcb` vj` hb ffrsprf`mbcagmb lfhbd vbrorj-
vb` b` vbrrfddbch= `jtuurcagm obvfrdhb lfhbdprfabcb` wfrhb`, `abt jccbb` a`
Kbcdf`h, stbbhs zbchzjdbr.
<1 A` hb lfhbdmu`hb kbbt db` hbzb vbrsikaccb`hb kfrazf`tb` bb` cbttbr obobvb`. Hb kudbuzb tfp-
cjjo as hb J-kfrazf`t, hjjrf`hbr caot hb B-kfrazf`t (uatspfbca`oscjjo), obvfcoh hffr hb L-kfrazf`t
(a`spfbca`oscjjo). Kbt `abt hffr lfhbdvfrda`o lbæ`vcfbhb lfhbddjtbrajjc wfrht jcs I-kfrazf`t
jj`obhuah.
 Db`sbcagmb ejitfrb`
Hb db`sbcagmb jitfr lag lfhbdvfrda`o spbbct a` batb jc dbb vj`j kbt dfdb`t hjt
db` lfs lbof` tb mjppb` tb` lbkfbvb vj` hb jj`cbo vj` jmmbrs b` vffr kbt lfuwb`
vj` kuazb`. Hffr bb` hbrobcagmb vbrstfra`o wbrh kbt prfibs vj` pfhzfcasbra`o a` batb
lbía`haoh. Hjt dfdb`t caot vffr hb zuahbcagmb zj`horf`hb` a` kbt cjjt-`bfcatkaiud
(iarij 8>>> vffr Ikr.). Jj`vj`mbcagm kbllb` wb kbt kabr `jtuurcagm fvbr mcba`sikjcaob
a`orbpb`, djjr a` hb cffp vj` hb daccb``aj kbbt hbzb kfutmjp vbrojj`hb obvfcob`
vffr kbt cj`hsikjp b` (hus) vffr hb lfhbdvfrda`o. Fvbraob`s zag` br ffm pbrafhb`
obwbbst hjt ’ hffr bb` taghbcagmb lbvfcma`osj`jdb ’ lfs wbbr mf` rbob`brbrb`.
Hb jj`cbo vj` jmmbrs lbtbmb`t hjt kbt cj`h wfrht lbwbrmt b` hb lfhbdvfrda`o
vbrj`hbrt. Jj`vj`mbcagm vf`h lfhbdlbwbrma`o pcjjts dbt bbrobtfuwb`, djjr cjtbr
ffm dbt mbbrpcfbob` b` a` dfhbr`b taghb` zbcs dbt habppcfbob`. Ffm hat kbbt `j-
tuurcagm a`vcfbh fp hb lfhbdvfrda`o7 hffr pcfbob` mj` bb` pfhzfcprfbc vfccbhao
 wfrhb` fdobwbrmt wjjrlag fp hb` huur obb` sprjmb dbbr as vj` bb` pfhzfclfhbd.
Hb ffrsprf`mbcagmb J-, B- b` L-kfrazf`t wfrhb` kabrlag vbrdb`oh, wjjrhffr bb`
dbbr bojcb lfvb`cjjo f`tstjjt, hab wfrht jj`obhuah jcs pcfbovffr f lfuwvffr (f
jcs Jp-kfrazf`t, wjjrlag hb p stjjt vffr pcfbob`= bb` vbrpcfbohb J-kfrazf`t hus).
 Jkj`mbcagm vj` hb hamtb vj` kbt ffrsprf`mbcagmb pfhzfcprfbc b` hb habptb vj`
kbt pcfbob`, zjc kbt pfhzfcprfbc obkbbc f scbikts obhbbctbcagm a` hb pcfbovffr zag`
fpob`fdb`. A` kbt cjjtstb obvjc mj` kbt zag` hjt `fo bb` hbbc vj` hb L-kfrazf`t f
zbcs vj` hb B- f J-kfrazf`t jj`wbzao as. Db` sprbbmt a` hjt obvjc vj` bb` (hbbcs)
a`tjit pfhzfcprfbc.
 Jbbcha`o :8. Fp havbrsb pcjjtsb` jj` hb Djrmt a` Kbcdf`h as bb` prfbcrbstj`t jj`obs`bhb`
vj` bb` ffrsprf`mbcagmb pfhzfclfhbd, bb` lbwags hjt kbt stjhsib`trud fp bb` kfob, rbcjtabe
hrfob hbmzj`hruo as obstaikt.
 
Lfccb jmmbrs b` vbrvcjmtb kbahbs 
Bb` j`hbrb, lbcj`oragmb db`sbcagmb jitfr fp kbt oblabh vj` lfhbdvfrda`o as
kbt oblruam vj` pcjoob`dbst. Hffr cj`ohuraob lbjmmbra`o mu``b` fp hb da`hbr
cbbdragmb b` da`hbr vruiktljrb zj`horf`hb`, jmmbrorf`hb` fp hb` huur uatobput
rjmb`. Uj` fuhskbr djjmt db` oblruam vj` lbdbsta`o fd hb vruiktljjrkbah vj`
cj`hlfuworf`hb` fp pbac tb kfuhb`. Hat lcagmt biktbr `abt jctagh tfbrbamb`h. A`
hb cffp vj` hb cjtb dahhbcbbuwb` b` `abuwb tagh pjstb db` bb` a`tb`sabvbrb lb-
dbsta`osdbtkfhb tfb, wjjrlag hb zfob`jjdhb pftstjc bb` kffhrfc spbbchb. 9> Bb`
pftstjc as bb` vbrhabptb stjc, wjjr db` hb habrb` vffr cj`obrb tagh fp stjc zbttb b`
 wjjra` db` hb dbst mf` vbrzjdbcb`. Hb dbst a` hb pftstjc wbrh vbrdb`oh dbt
kbahbpcjoob`, vjjm dbt jj`kj`oao zj`h, b` dbt strf, kffa, kuasjvjc b.h. 9: Hat
db`osbc wbrh, wj``bbr hb pftstjc vfc wjs, fvbr hb jmmbrs uatobrbhb`. Hffr gjjr a`
 gjjr uat hbzb pcjoob`dbst fvbr hb jmmbrs tb vbrsprbahb` f`tstf`hb` fp hb` huur
pcjoob`hbmmb` vj` sfds tft dbbr hj` bb` dbtbr ham.
Hat b`fdbb` kbbt tft hb mjrjmtbrastabmb, hf`mbroragzb tft zwjrtb lfccb jmmbrs
obcbah hab rf`hfd vbbc fuhb hfrpb` a` Lrjlj`t ’ djjr ffm a` j`hbrb zj`hoblab-
hb` ’ zag` obsatubbrh, tbrwagc j`hbrzaghs hffr kbt jpcjoob` orftb hbcb` vj` hb kba-
hboblabhb` zag` jobvcjmt. La``b` kbt Kbcdf`hsb as a` hb fdobva`o vj` hb Fuhb
frb` a` Ytapkfut, Mruassikft b` Irfy `fo bb` dffa vffrlbbch vj` bb` hbrobcagm
lfccb jmmbroblabh a` stj`h oblcbvb`.9<
Uffr hb jrikbfcffo zag` hbrobcagmb orf`hb` fd twbb rbhb`b` a`tbrbssj`t. A` hb
bbrstb pcjjts fdhjt hbzb fuhb jmmbrcj`hb` `abt zfdjjr brob`s zag` jj`obcboh= kbt
zag` vjjm hb vj` `jturb kfobr obcbob` b` dbbr vruiktljrb lfhbds hab a` hb dah-
hbcbbuwb` jcs zfhj`ao a` oblruam zag` ob`fdb`.99 @abt zbchb` lcagmb` tbr pcbmmb
vj` b`mbbrhorf`hb` ffrsprf`mbcagm pfhzfclfhbds obvfrdh tb zag`, wjjrlag dbt
kbt kbrkjjchbcagm fplrb`ob` b` pcfbob` vj` pcjoob`dbst hb ffrsprf`mbcagmb pfh-
zfcobcjjohkbah a` kbt pcjoob`hbm as fpob`fdb` (jelbbcha`o :2). Hat wagst br fp hjt
vùùr hb pcjoob`lbdbsta`o hbrobcagmb orf`hb` ffm jc a` trbm wjrb` vffr lbwf`a`o
b` jmmbrlfuw. A` sfddaob obvjccb`, lagvffrlbbch wj``bbr a` áá` mbbr hammbrb
cjob` pcjoob`dbst zag` fpoblrjikt, as hb ffrsprf`mbcagmb pfhzfclfhbd fo (hbbcs)
a`tjit oblcbvb`, fdhjt hbzb s`bccbr luatb` kbt lbrbam vj` hb pcfbo as obrjjmt. 98 
F`hbr kbt pcjoob`hbm mj` hj` fo bb` L-kfrazf`t b` sfds ffm fo bb` B- f zbcs
hb fuhb J-kfrazf`t lbwjjrh zag` oblcbvb`.
9> Ypbm <>>87 ;<<-;<9.
9: Ypbm <>>8.
9< A` hat oblabh as a` <>:> hj` ffm hffr kbt AU@-Cjjrlbbm a.s.d. hb obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h hb Lfccb-
jmmbrrfutb uatobzbt.
99 A` lfhbdmu`haob tbrdb` wfrhb` hbzb kfobrb jmmbrorf`hb` jj`obhuah jcs b`mbbrhlfhbds7 lfhbds
dbt bb` j`trfpfobb` fpoblrjikt pcjoob`hbm vj` dbbr hj` 2> id ham. Hb tbrd b`m stjjt obcagm jj`
bs b` lbtbmb`t a` lrbhb za` obwff` jmmbr, djjr wfrht vjjm oblruamt a` hb spbiabmbrb lbtbmb`as vj`
hffr pcjoob`dbst obvfrdhb jmmbrcj`hb`.
98 Hat mfdt dbt `jdb vffr lag dbbr rbib`tb f`toa``a`ob` (:1b bbuw), wj``bbr hb tfp vj` fuhbrb
pcjoob`hbmmb` wfrht jobsikfvb` fd cjobrb hbcb` a` kbt cj`hsikjp a` iuctuur tb lrb`ob` (zab ffm
Ypbm <>>87 f.j. ?82).
9;  
B`mbbrhlfhbds zag` a` hb twbbhb pcjjts a`tbrbssj`t fdhjt br a` hb cffp vj` hb
tagh dbt hb fpoblrjiktb pcjoob`dbst jcs kbt wjrb bb` lbsikbrdb`hb hbmb` wfrht
jj`oblrjikt, wjjrhffr bvb`tubcb jrikbfcfoasikb rbstb` uat vffrojj`hb pbrafhb`
 wfrhb` jobhbmt b` da`hbr s`bc wfrhb` jj`obtjst hffr pcfbob` b` j`hbrb `abt jc
tb habp rbamb`hb lfhbda`orbpb`.
A`tb`sabvb cj`hlfuw (habppcfbob`, f`torf`ha`ob`, bojcasjtab bti.), orf`hwj-
tbrvbrcjoa`o b` fdvj`oragmb lfuw- b` a`rjstruituurprfgbitb` vbrka`hbrb` tbob`-
 wffrhao a` orftb djtb bb` `jtuurcagmb lfhbdvfrda`o.
@jjst hb vfrda`o vj` lfccb jmmbroblabhb` zag` j`hbrb zf`bs vj` kbt cj`hsikjp
f`torf`h b` joborjvb`. Dbt kbt pcjoob`stbmb` vbrhwbb` tbcmb`s bb` mcba` cjjogb
orf`h vj` hb kbahboblabhb`. Ffm as vbb` b` tur vffr lrj`hstf obwf``b` uat
vb``b`, zfjcs lag kbt Fuh vb`/vbb` a` Lrj`hbvffrt, a` kbt Iffvbcs lfs a` Dabrcf-
Kfut b` lag hb Ljmbcsb Lbbdhb` a` Habrhf`m. Wj`h wbrh joborjvb` b` obwf``b`
fd j`hbrb tbrrba`b` fp tb kfob`. Cbbdragmb lfhbds wbrhb` uatoborjvb` fd dbt
kbt cbbd wj`hb` b` vcfbrb` vj` kuazb` b` lagoblfuwb` jj` tb sdbrb` f fd jjr-
hbwbrm vj` tb vbrvjjrhaob`. A` cjtbr taghb` wbrh cbbd fp orftb sikjjc obwf``b` fd
ljmstb`b` vj` tb ljmmb`, zfjcs a` Lrj`hbvffrt b` hb _jrj`hb (jelbbcha`o :5 ).92 Hb
agzbrkfuhb`hb cadf`abt-jzbtta`ob` a` kbt lbbmhjc vj` hb Offrcffp zag` fo tft a`
rbib`tb taghb` obwf``b` fd agzbr uat tb sdbctb`.
92 Dbt hj`m jj` Gj` Lrfbrtgbs (Obchrfp) vffr kucp lag kbt a`tbrprbtbrb` vj` hat prfbc :9 jprac <>:<.
 Jbbcha`o :2. Uffrlbbch vj` bb` pcjoob`hbm. Hb hammb kudbuzb jmmbrcjjo lbhbmt hb jr -
 
91  
 Jbbcha`o :5. Lfhbdprfbc lag hb _jrj`hb, a` bb` hrab dbtbr habpb lfuwput jj` hb Jjrcb-
\axtbcsb wbo, a` djjrt <>:<. F`hbr hb hf`mbrlrua` kudbuzb lfvb`cjjo dbt lrfmmb` vj`
ljmstbb`dasljmsbcs, caot f`hbr bb` cjjo cbbdragm hbmzj`h bb` ham pjmmbt oragslcjuwb Lrjlj`tsb
Cbbd, hab as jeobzbt obhurb`hb agstaghpbrafhb`. A` hb cjtb dahhbcbbuwb` b` @abuwb tagh stf`hb`
lag hb _jrj`hb havbrsb stbb`fvb`s b` wbrhb` cbbdcjob` jeoborjvb` vffr kbt ljmmb` vj` ljmstb-
`b`. :. kudbuzb lfvb`orf`h dbt rbib`tb pcj`tb`wfrtbcs, <. vbrrfddbch kudbuzb bbrhorf`h
dbt ljmstbb`erjodb`tb`, 9. cbdao hbmzj`h, obcjjoh dbt ocbavbrsikag`sbcb` (lfvb` ^cb`aocjiajjc
fe cjjt _baiksbcab`), 8. Lrjlj`tsb cbbd dbt pcj`tb`rbstb` (vrfbo _baiksbcab` fe cjjt Yjjcab`),
2. kudbuzb lfhbd vj` bb` mfuhb vbobtjtabzf`b uat kbt Yjjcab`, 5. Lrjlj`tsb cbbd dbt dbbr
 g`zj`haob cjjogbs (Yjjcab`).
 
8>  
Lag bcmjjr fpobtbch kbbt hb db`s hus bb` lbkffrcagmb a`vcfbh obkjh fp hb
lfhbd b` dfbtb` wb vffrzaiktao zag` jcs wb hb kuahaob lfhbdmjjrtb` waccb` ob-
lruamb` lag kbt a`tbrprbtbrb` vj` hb cj`hsikjppbcagmb satujtab a` hb prbkastfrab.
Dbt hbzb lbpbrma`o a` kbt jiktbrkffh cff`t kbt biktbr tfik hb dfbatb bb` lcam
tb wbrpb` fp hb lfhbdmjjrt vj` Kbcdf`h b` fdobva`o. Wbmbr ffm wj``bbr wb
hbzb lbstuhbrb` a` sjdb`kj`o dbt hb jc bbrhbr ob`fbdhb obfdfrfcfoasikb mjjrt.
9.9. Ujraírb`h cj`hsikjp
Hffr hb obfdfrfcfoasikb mjjrt tb ifdla`brb` dbt hb lfhbdmjjrt mragob` wb
bb` huahbcagm lbbch vj` kbt oblruam vj` kbt cj`hsikjp hffr hb tagh kbb`. Dbt
hat a`zaikt wfrht kbt zbcs dfobcagm hb caooa`o vj` jrikbfcfoasikb va`hpcjjtsb` tb
vffrspbccb`.
Obfdfrefcfoab 
Hb obfdfrfcfoasikb mjjrt :72>.>>> obbt bb` dffa lbbch vj` hb vfrdbb`kbhb`
vj` kbt cj`hsikjp hab la``b` hb obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h jj`wbzao zag` (jelbbcha`o :? ). Hffr hb ib`trjcb caooa`o vj` hb lblfuwhb mfd vj` Kbcdf`h la``b` hb kuahaob
obdbb`tb b` kbt f`tlrbmb` vj` lfhbdobobvb`s as kbt mjjrtlbbch a` kbt dahhb`
`abt a`obvuch. Fd hat tb f`hbrvj`ob` as hb mjjrt tbr pcbmmb vj` hb lblfuwhb mfd
obhbbctbcagm jj`obvuch fp ljsas vj` obobvb`s uat hb harbitb fdobva`o, djjr ffm
jj` hb kj`h vj` a`frdjtab uat kastfrasikb mjjrtb`.95 Fp ljsas vj` kbt vffrmfdb`
vj` orjscj`hb` (b` vbch`jdb` dbt lbbdh f offr) cj`os lbmb` fp hbzb mjjrtb`
zag` lagvffrlbbch hb orb`zb` vj` hb lbbmhjcb` hffrobtrfmmb` la``b` hb kuahaob
lblfuwhb mfd.
Lbbmhjcb` b` wjtbrcfpb`
 _jt dbtbb` fpvjct jj` hb obfdfrfcfoasikb mjjrt as hb jj`wbzaokbah vj` lbbmhj-
cb`. Hb rbcjtab lrbhb, djjr f`habpb lbbmhjcb` vj` hb Jj, Ljmbcsb Jj b` Offrcffp
spra`ob` harbit a` kbt ffo. Hb lbcj`oragmstb ravabr as hb Jj, hab vj`uat kbt zuahb`
hb obdbb`tb la``b`mfdt b` a` `ffrhbcagmb raikta`o strffdt. Hb Jj f`tspra`ot
vj`uat hb ^bbc fp hb orb`s vj` hb prfva`iabs @ffrh-Lrjlj`t b` Cadluro b` df`ht
uatba`hbcagm `abt vbr f`hbr s-Kbrtfob`lfsik uat a` hb Habzb, hab fp kjjr lburt
 wbbr a` hb Djjs uatdf`ht. Hb ravabr hb Jj wfrht la``b` hb obdbb`tborb`zb` vj`
Kbcdf`h obvfbh hffr hb zaglbmb` Offrcffp, Jstb`sb Jj, _bagbr b` Ljmbcsb Jj,
hab fp ku` lburt wbbr obvfbh wfrhb` hffr mcba`brb strffdpgbs jcs hb Yikftb`sb
cffp, hb Ytapkfutsb cffp, _jtbrcjjt b` hb Yikbvbca`osb cffp. @bt tb` zuahb` vj`
kbt ib`trud vj` Kbcdf`h, lag kbt Kffoba`h, mragot hb Jj bb` zagtjm7 hb Jdbahb.9? 
Hbzb scuat tb` `ffrhb` vj` kbt stjhsib`trud wbbr jj` fp hb Jj. Hbzb Jdbahb as
a` hb cjtb dahhbcbbuwb` oborjvb` f uatobhabpt b` fpob`fdb` a` kbt systbbd vj`
95 Kastfrasik fpforjsikb jtcjs ij. :;8>= fpforjsik-dac atjarb mjjrt ij. :1>>.
9? Hb `jjd Jdbahb as jobcbah vj` Jj (ravabr) b` dbahb a` hb lbtbmb`as vj` (zag-)tjm (voc dbalffd).
Hat wagst dfobcagm fp bb` `jtuurcagmb ffrsprf`o vj` hbzb wjtbrcffp. Wab ffm Erb`mb` :1<;7 :>5,
`fft :.
8:  
stjhsorjiktb` rf`h kbt stjhsib`trud. Kbt `ffrhbcagmb hbbc tft hb jj`scuata`o dbt
hb Ljmbcsb Jj wfrht tft jj` kbt Ouchb` Kuys  a` Jjrcb-\axtbc (`jlag ^btbrkf) hb
Ouchb` Jj ob`fbdh. Hb Ljmbcsb Jj f`tspra`ot jj` hb wbstrj`h vj` hb ^bbc b`
mfdt vj`uat kbt zuahffstb` hb obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h la``b`. Hb Offrcffp f`t-
spra`ot a` hb Ytrjlrbiktsb Kbahb b` mfdt vaj Dabrcf b` Dabrcf-Kfut Kbcdf`h
la``b`. b` zuahb` vj` Kbcdf`h vfrdb` hb lbbmhjcb` vj` hb Jj b` hb Offrcffp
obzjdb`cagm áá` lrbbh dfbrjssao lbbmhjc (Orfft Offr ob`jjdh), wjjr`j hb hjcb`
vj` lbahb lbmb` wbbr uat bcmjjr ojj`, fd tb` scfttb tb` ffrhb` vj` Lbbm b` Hf`m
lag Lbddbr fp`abuw lag bcmjjr tb mfdb`, wjjrlag hb Offrcffp a` hb Jj uatdf`ht.
Hb Yikbvbca`osb Cffp as ffat oborjvb` fd kbt wjtbr vj` hb Offrcffp s`bccbr a` hb
 Jj j tb cjtb` (lag ^btbrkf ). Ya`hs kbt orjvb` vj` hb Wuah-_accbdsvjjrt strffdt
hb Yikbvbca`osb Cffp a` hb j`hbrb raikta`o.
Ubbc lbmb` zag` a` hb gjrb` 9> ob`frdjcasbbrh b` rbiktobtrfmmb`. Ffm hb jj`-
cbo vj` hb Wuah-_accbdsvjjrt ’ zfwbc kbt fuhb (:;<2) jcs kbt `abuwb trjiá (:11<)
’ kbbt vbbc a`vcfbh obkjh fp kbt vbrcffp vj` hb vbrsikaccb`hb lbmb`, vffrjc vj`
hb Jj7 hbzb dfbst obhbbctbcagm wfrhb` fdobcbah. Hb Jj zbc as ffm jc vbbc bbrhbr
:51:5; :?: :?< :?9 :?8 :?2 :?5 :?? :?; :?1
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Kbcdf`h.
8<  
f`hbrwfrpb` obwbbst jj` db`sbcagm a`oragpb`. Uffr hb cfijtab vj` kbt Fuhb Kuys,
bb` typasikb wjtbrlurikt dbt fdorjikta`o, kbbt db` a` hb cjtb dahhbcbbuwb` kbt
hjc vj` hb Jj fpobzfikt. Ffm lag hb lfuw vj` kbt mjstbbc vj` Kbcdf`h lboa` :8b
bbuw kbbt db` hb Jj pcjjtsbcagm fdobcbah fd hb hullbcb orjikt vj` kbt mjstbbc
vj` wjtbr tb vffrzab`.9;
Wfjcs a` hb vfraob pjrjorjj jc `jjr vfrb` mwjd, kbbt kbt rbcjtab waghvbrtjmtb
lbmb`stbcsbc bb` lbcj`oragmb a`vcfbh (obkjh) fp hb vfrda`o vj` kbt cj`hsikjp ob-
hurb`hb hb cjjtstb jsb vj` kbt cbastfibb`. Hb lbmb` zfrohb` vffr bb` ofbhb hrja-
`job vj` kbt oblabh, wjjrhffr kbt zj`haob fppbrvcjm rbcjtab hrffo wbrh b` jchus
bb` dbbr hy`jdasikb b` obvjrabbrhb rbcaívfrda`o mb`hb hj` kbt cjobrb b` vfikta-
obrb hbmzj`hfppbrvcjm a` kbt @ffrhwbst-Lrjlj`tsb hbmzj`hoblabh. bobcagmbrtagh
stf`hb` hb lrbhb b` obhurb`hb orftb hbcb` vj` kbt gjjr hrffo caoob`hb lbbmhjcb`
ojrj`t vffr bb` ragmb lrf` vj` zj`h, hjt dbt hb fvbrwbob`h wbstbcagmb wa`hb`
 wbrh fpob`fdb`, obtrj`spfrtbbrh b` hamwagcs `abt vbbc vbrhbr ffstbcagm jcs bfcasikb
hbmzj`hpjmbttb` wbrh jobzbt.
Harbit `jjst hb lbbmhjcb` zag` jchus fp vbbc pcjjtsb` sdjccb, djjr rbcjtab kfob
ocffaa`ob`, ffm wbc jj`obhuah jcs obuchbmzj`hruoob`, obvfrdh. Uj`j bb` lbbmhjc
`jjr kbt ffstb` as br hamwagcs sprjmb vj` bb` fpbb`vfcoa`o vj` hbmzj`hvcjmtb `jjr
hbmzj`hwbcva`ob` b` -ruoob` `jjr stuahua`oblabhb`. Ffm a` Kbcdf`h mj` bb`
hbrobcagmb sbqub`tab a` orftb cag`b` wfrhb` jj`obtff`h. Hb hbmzj`hvcjmtbs caoob`
kabr vffrjc a` kbt zuahwbstb`. Hbmzj`hwbcva`ob` mfdb` a` orftbrb jj`bb`obscf-
tb` oblabhb` vffr. A` kbt zuahwbstb` b` -ffstb` caoob` b`mbcb mcba`b hbmzj`hruo-
ob`, tbrwagc a` kbt `ffrhwbstb` bb` orftb hbmzj`hruo caot, wjjrfp tbob`wffrhao
Ytapkfut as obcbob`. Ytuahua`b` mfdb` a` kbt uatbrstb `ffrhwbstb` vffr, jj` hb
orb`s dbt hb obdbb`tb @ub`b` i.j., b` tbr pcbmmb vj` kbt kuahaob Ljmbcslfs a`
kbt ffstb` b` hb Lrfuwkuassikb Kbahb a` kbt zuahffstb`. bob`wffrhao zag` hbzb
oblabhb` lbpcj`t dbt `jjchlfs, f`hbr j`hbrb fd vbrstuava`o tbob` tb ojj`, djjr
jj`vj`mbcagm ffm vffr hb prfhuitab vj` kfut.
Hb stuahua`oblabhb` djmb` hbbc uat vj` kbt typbrb`hb vj` wbst jjr ffst cfpb`hb
pjtrff` vj` lbbmhjc, fvbrojj`hb a` hbmzj`hvcjmtb b` hbmzj`hwbcva`ob` b` tb` scfttb
bb` zf`b dbt stuahua`b`. Uffr kbt ffstbcagm obcbob` stuahua`oblabh mj` hat pjtrff`
biktbr `abt kbcbdjjc dbt zbmbrkbah wfrhb` vjstobstbch, vj`wbob f`obmjrtbbrhb hbcb`
fp hb obfdfrfcfoasikb mjjrt tbr pcbmmb vj` hb lblfuwhb mfd vj` Kbcdf`h.
Lfhbdpjccbt 
 _b zab` a` hb obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h bb` ragm pjccbt jj` lfhbdsffrtb` (jelbbcha`o :; ). \f`hfd hb fuhb mbr`b` vj` Kbcdf`h, Lrfuwkuas, \agpbclbro, Habrhf`m, Dabrcf-
Kfut b` Ytapkfut caoob` b`mbbrhorf`hb`. Hat zag` hb fuhb cjjtdahhbcbbuwsb jm-
mbrorf`hb` (bssb`). La``b` hbzb lfhbdijtbofrab zag` havbrsb f`hbrvbrhbca`ob`
obdjjmt, hab sjdb`kj`ob` dbt hb mcbur b` hamtb vj` kbt pcjoob`hbm b` hb orf`h-
 wjtbrstj`h. _jt lbtrbt hb mcbur7 br mfdb` a` hb fdobva`o vj` Kbcdf`h vffrjc
zwjrtb b`mbbrhlfhbds vffr. Jccbb` jj` wbbrszaghb` vj` hb Offrcffp, tb` `ffrh-
 wbstb` vj` hb lblfuwhb mfd vj` Kbcdf`h, va`hb` wb lrua`b b`mbbrhorf`hb`.
9; Jrts <>>:7 :2-:5.
89  
Hb mcbur mj` dfobcagm bb` a`haijtab zag` vffr hb kbrmfdst vj` hb pcjoob`. Hb
pcjoob` vj` zwjrtb b`mbbrhlfhbds cagmb` jmfdstao tb zag` vj` hb kbahbvbchb`,
tbrwagc hab vj` hb lrua`b b`mbbrhlfhbds a` (scal- b` agzbrragmb) lbbmhjcb` zag`
obstfmb`.91  A` hb Offrcffp mfdt a`hbrhjjh vj` `jturb vbbc agzbr vffr= hb lbbm
strffdt hffr stbrm agzbrkfuhb`hb lfhbds.8>
Cjjrpfhzfcorf`hb` zag` rbcjtab sikjjrs rf`hfd Kbcdf`h. Kbt ojjt fd zj`h-
orf`hb` hab wbcaswjjr ffm bb` j`trfpfobb` fpkfoa`ospjmmbt (pcjoob`hbm) mb`-
`b`, djjr vj` obra`obrb hamtb zag` hj` hb b`mbbrhorf`hb` (3 2> id). Wb zag` vbbcjc
obcbob` `jjst f tussb` b`mbbrhorf`hb`.
Wfjcs fp vbbc pcjjtsb` jc as jj`obtff`h, caoob` f`hbr hb kuahaob b`mbbrhlfhbds
ffrsprf`mbcagmb pfhzfclfhbds. Ffm luatb` hb b`mbbrhlfhbds mfdb` hbrobcagmb
lfhbds fo vffr. Br zag` vbrsikaccb`hb sffrtb` pfhzfclfhbds. Kjjrpfhzfclfhbds
mb``b` bb` rbcjtab hu``b kuduskfuhb`hb lfvb`cjjo (J-kfrazf`t 3 9> id) hab
`abt j`trfpfobb` as. Hbzb lfhbds zag` vjjm f`hbr hrfob fdstj`haokbhb` f`tstjj`
a` kbt Gf`o hbmzj`h b` zag` dfdb`tbbc hamwagcs lblfst, zfjcs hb Ljmbcsb Lfssb` b`
Obb`ba`hsikb Kbahb.
F`hbr `jttbrb fdstj`haokbhb` zag` vbchpfhzfclfhbds f`tstjj`. Hbrobcagmb
lfhbds mb``b` bb` hu``b J-kfrazf`t b` zag` hffr habpb f`twjtbra`o vjjm obcbob`
a` zf`bs dbt bb` rbcjtab habp orf`hwjtbr`avbju.
@abt fvbrjc fp hb zj`horf`hb` zag` pfhzfclfhbds f`tstjj`. Fp havbrsb pcbmmb`
la``b` hb obdbb`tborb`zb` vj` Kbcdf`h trbb` wb j`hbrsffrtaob lfhbds jj`. br
pcjjtsb vj` hb cj`hhua`oblabhb` wfrhb` hua`vjjoorf`hb` jj`obtrfb`, wjjra` hffr
f`tlrbmb` vj` vbobtjtab b` hffr vbbcvuchao vbrstuavb` obb` pfhzfc as f`tstjj`. A` hb
vbcb lbbmhjcb` caoob` vffr`jdbcagm lbbmbbrhorf`hb`. Hjt bb` lbbmbbrhlfhbd `abt
jctagh dbt bb` lbbm vbrlj`h kfbt tb kfuhb`, lcagmt uat kbt vbbcvuchao vffrmfdb`
vj` hbrobcagmb lfhbds luatb` kbt lbrbam vj` lbmb`. Lbbmbbrhlfhbds f`tstjj` hj`
ffm hamwagcs a` hb cjobr obcbob` b` `jttb hbcb` vj` kbt cj`hsikjp. A` lbbmhjcb` zbc
mfdb` hj` vjmbr vbb`orf`hb` vffr. A` kbt hjc vj` hb Jj ojjt kbt fd zfob`jjdhb
djhbvbb`orf`hb`, lbstjj`hb uat zwjrt vbb` dbt kfutrbstb` fp lrua` lrfbmvbb`. Kbt
hbmzj`h caot f`hbr kbt vbb` fp da`hbr hj` :<> id habptb.
Hb lfhbd b` kbt rbcaí f`hbr Kbcdf`h zag` vffr`jdbcagm obhurb`hb hb cjjtstb
agstagh obvfrdh. Hbmzj`hruoob`, stuazj`hoblabhb` b` lbbmhjcb` zag` `j dbbr hj`
:>.>>> gjjr `fo stbbhs kbrmb`ljjr a` kbt kuahaob cj`hsikjp. Hb kffotbvbrsikaccb`,
hab vj` orfft lbcj`o zag` vffr hb f`twammbca`o b` hb dfobcagmkbhb` vffr lbwf-
`a`o b` kbt orf`hoblruam a` kbt vbrcbhb`, zag` ofbh zaiktljjr hj`mzag kbt Jcobdbb`
Kffotblbstj`h vj` @bhbrcj`h (JK@)8: b` zag` vjstobstbch hffr dahhbc vj` cjsbrjc-
tadbtrab.8< Dbt bb` hbrobcagmb mjjrt vj` kbt kuahaob lfhbdfppbrvcjm mfdb` (vrfb-
obrb) wff`oblabhb`, jmmbroblabhb`, stuazj`hoblabhb` b` lbbmhjcb` rjja a` lbbch
(jelbbcha`o :1 ).
91 Wfjcs obif`stjtbbrh lag bb` jmmbrifdpcbx lag _a`tbrswagm, Och. (Ypbm <>>87 ?2?-?2;).
8> A` kbt lboa` vj` hb <>b bbuw as a` kbt Offrcffphjc `fo agzbr(fbr) obwf``b` vffr agzbrprfhuitab
(dbhbhbca`o Erj`s Ubrsikurb`, Orftb Fvbrlruo, :1;5).
8: kttp7//jk`.obfhj`.`c/jk`/vabwbr9/a`hbx.ktdc.
8< Dbt cjsbrjctadbtrab wfrht hb kffotb vj` kbt lfhbdfppbrvcjm vj`uat bb` vcabotuao obsij`h. A` ifd-
 
Kbt cj`hsikjp vj`je hb agstaghb`
Lag pbrafhabmb fvbrstrfda`ob` wbrh a` hb lbbmhjcb` lbbmcbbd jobzbt. A` hb `jttb
lbbdhb` orfbahb bb` dfbrjsvbobtjtab, dbt bb` lrfbmlfs b` bczb`lfs. Hb kfobrb
hbcb` a` kbt cj`hsikjp zag` hbmzj`hruoob`. Uj`j ij. :>.>>> vffr Ikr. wbrh hb
vbobtjtab fp hbzb zj`hruoob` obhfda`bbrh hffr obdb`ohb lfssb` dbt hb``b`,
lbrmb` b` stbbhs dbbr bamb`, bczb` b` lbumb`. Uj`j ij. 22>> vffr Ikr. f`twam-
mbchb hb vbobtjtab zaik obcbahbcagm tft bb` obdb`oh bamb`lfs. A` hb cjtb lrf`stagh
b` vrfbob agzbrtagh wbrh vbbc lfs obmjpt vffr hb jj`cbo vj` jmmbrs b` hb lfuw
vj` kuazb`. Br f`tstf`hb` fpb` vcjmtbs, dbt mcba`sikjcaob zj`hvbrstuava`ob` jcs
obvfco, wjjr zaik cjtbr bb` kbahbvbobtjtab mf` f`twammbcb`. Uffrlbbchb` vj` hbzb
stuazj`hoblabhb` zag` tbob`wffrhao `fo tb va`hb` a` hb Lrfuwkuassikb Kbahb,
Ljmbcsb Lfssb`, Mruassikft, \agpbclbro b` hb ^jpb`vffrtsb Kbahb a` hb Ytapkfutsb
lfssb`.89
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9.8. Cfijtabmbuzb vffr lbwf`a`o
Uffr bb` a`hrum vj` vrfbobrb lbwf`a`o a` Kbcdf`h as kbt `uttao hb lbmb`hb
jrikbfcfoasikb va`hpcjjtsb` a` Kbcdf`h j tb lbbchb` fp hb kabrlfvb` lbsprfmb`
mjjrtb`. Kabruat vfcot bb` lbbch wjjruat a` orftb cag`b` hb vffrmbur vffr vbstaoa`o
vj` vrfbobrb lbwf`brs lcagmt. Hjt obcht hbs tb dbbr wj``bbr mjjrtlbbchb` wfrhb`
obprfhuibbrh dbt bb` f`hbrsikbah jjr pbrafhb. Kabruat mfdb` zfwbc obdb`b hb-
cbrs ’zf`bs hab hffr jccb taghb` kbb` a` trbm lcagmb`’ jcs vbrsikaccb` ’zf`bs hab jccbb`
a` lbpjjchb pbrafhb` wbrhb` lbwff`h f j`hbrsza`s oblruamt’ tft uathrumma`o.
Dbt kbt a`tbrprbtbrb` vj` hbzb mjjrtlbbchb` hab`t biktbr wbc rbmb`a`o obkfuhb`
tb wfrhb` dbt bb` lbcj`oragmb vjcmuac, hab wfrht obvfrdh hffr f`hbrzfbmskajtb`.
Kabrdbb wfrht lbhfbch hjt `abt jccb oblabhb` bvb` ofbh zag` f`hbrzfikt b`
hjt lbpjjchb cbob pcbmmb` fp hb mjjrtb` `abt pbrsá cbbo jj` jrikbfcfoasikb
va`hpcjjtsb` kfbvb` tb zag`. Kabrlag spbcb` vbrsikaccb`hb jitfrb` bb` rfc. Hb jc
bbrhbr ob`fbdhb lbsikbrdb`hb wbrma`o vj` hb pcjoob`hbmmb` as br áá`. _jjr
fp jmmbrs zf`hbr bb` ham pcjoob`hbm vf`hstb` vj` a` hb f`hbrorf`h obcbob`
va`hpcjjtsb` wfrhb` fpobpcfboh b` jj` kbt fppbrvcjm tbrbikt mfdb`, as hjt lag
bb` hammb b`mbbrhlfhbd vbbc da`hbr kbt obvjc. _j``bbr hb jmmbrcjjo hu` as, as
hb mj`s hus orftbr hjt bb` bvb`tubcb va`hpcjjts jj` kbt caikt mfdt taghb`s bb`
vbchmjrtbra`o.
<8d+@J^
:2d+@J^
 Jbbcha`o :1. Jitubcb djjavbchkffotb` vj` Kbcdf`h. \ffh b` obbc as rbcjtabe kffoobcbob`, lcjuw b` orfb` as
rbcjtabe cjjoobcbob`.
85  
Bb` twbbhb jitfr wfrht obvfrdh hffr lblfuwa`o. Hat jspbit mj` biktbr twbb
mj`tb` fp wbrmb`. ft vbr a` hb gjrb` ;> wbrh `fo rbcjtab wba`ao obhjj` jj`
orfftsikjcaob fporjva`ob` vffrjojj`h jj` `abuwlfuwprfgbitb`. Lblfuwhb ob-
labhb` vj` vffrhab` zag` hj` ffm vjjm rbcjtab cbbo wjt lbtrbt jrikbfcfoasikb va`h-
pcjjtsb`= hbzb zuccb` a` vbbc obvjccb` f`obzab` zag` vbrorjvb` b`/f fvbrlfuwh.
Hat obobvb` mj` a` lbcj`oragmb djtb vbrmcjrb` wjjrfd hb lblfuwhb mfd vj`
Kbcdf`h rbcjtab cbbo as. Lag prfgbitb` hab vfcob`s hb kuahaob wbtobva`o wfrhb`
uatobvfbrh mfdb` `jdbcagm wbc vbbc vf`hstb` jj` kbt caikt. Lag hb f`twammbca`o
b` lfuw vj` hb Ua`bx-`abuwlfuwwagm Lrj`hbvffrt lagvffrlbbch wbrh vj`j ba`h
 gjrb` 1> vbbc jrikbfcfoasik f`hbrzfbm vbrraikt, dbt bb` ragmb jrikbfcfoasikb ffost
jcs obvfco.
 J`hbrb jitfrb` hab kbt lbbch mu``b` vbrtrfblbcb` zag` cj`hoblruam b` vbr-
sikaccb` a` zfbma`tb`satbat vj` (jdjtbur)jrikbfcfob`. Lfsoblabhb` b` oblabhb` hab
pbrdj`b`t jcs orjscj`h a` oblruam zag`, zfjcs a` lbbmhjcb`, mb``b` bb` cjob vf`hst-
zaiktljjrkbah jj` kbt fppbrvcjm, zfhjt hjjrvj` da`hbr vf`hstb` wfrhb` obdbch.
A` oblabhb` wjjr vbbc jdjtburjrikbfcfob` jitab zag`, mj` kbt jj`tjc va`hpcjjtsb`
biktbr guast f`bvb`rbhao kffo uatvjccb`. Fvbraob`s as kabr wbc vjjm sprjmb vj` bb`
vbrstbrmb`h bbit. (Yikag`ljjr) cbob oblabhb` trbmmb` da`hbr jdjtburjrikbfcfob`
jj`, oblabhb` dbt vbbc vf`hstb` cfmmb` dbbr jdjtburjrikbfcfob` wjjrhffr wbbr
dbbr vf`hstb` wfrhb` obhjj`.
Magmb` wb `jjr hb vbrsprbaha`o vj` jrikbfcfoasikb wjjr`bda`ob` la``b` hb ob-
kbcb obdbb`tb Kbcdf`h hj` vjct harbit fp hjt hb ffstbcagmb kbct wjt mjrao lbhbbch
as (jelbbcha`o <> ). Kabr spbcb` f`obtwagbch b`mbcb vj` lfvb`stjj`hb jitfrb` bb` rfc
’ obra`ob f`hbrzfbmsa`tb`satbat hffr lblfuwa`o b` lblfssa`o ’ djjr hjt mj` abt hb
b`aob vbrmcjra`o zag`. Cj`hsikjppbcagmb jitfrb` zag` zbmbr ffm jj` hb frhb. Jj` hb
kj`h vj` hb obfdfrfcfoasikb mjjrt mj` hjt vffr kbt `ffrhffstbcagm hbbc vbrmcjjrh
 wfrhb` hffr hb jj`wbzaokbah vj` bb` orfft stuahua`