UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SOILS FORMED ON T2 TERRACE IN PENINSULAR

MALAYSIA

SHAMSHUDDIN JUSOP

FP 1982 2

RIJKSUNIVERSITEIT GENT

FACULTEIT VAN DE WETENSCHAPPEN

EEN VERGELIJKENDE STUDIE VAN BODEMS

GEVORMD OP HET T2 TERRAS IN HET SCH IEREILAND MALEISIE

A COM PARATIVE STUDY OF SOILS FOR MED·

ON T2 TERRACE IN P ENINSULAR

MALAYSIA

door

SHAMSHUDDIN JUSOP

Pr. oefschrih voorgelegd ter verkrijging van het Doctor •• t in de Wetenschappen

(Groep 81rdkunde en delfstofkunde)

GENT

1982

Promotor: Prof Dr Ir C SYS

iii

Shamshuddin, J(I982). Een vergel ij kende studie van bodems

gevormd op het T2 terras in het schiereiland Maleis ie.

Rij ksunivers iteit Gent , Be lgie .

SAMENVATT ING

Er werden eenentwintig profielen gekozen van vij f

gebieden in het schiereiland Maleisie . De eenentwintig profielen

behoren tot veertien bodemseries , gevormd op het T2 terras

dat zijn oorsprong vindt in het Holoceen . De vij f gebieden

vertonen een lichte variatie in het kl imaat : het noorden

is wat droger dan het zuiden van het schiere i land .

Het effect van het moedermateriaa l , het klimaat en

de topografie komt tot uiting in de natuur van de bodems .

De zandige bodems z i j n in de uiterst sterk gedraineerde

gebieden , gedomineerd door gibbs iet . In de onvoldoende of

zwak ge draineerde gebieden bevatten de bodems kaol iniet en

gibbs iet , met enige primaire mineralen en/of "mixed l ayers"

mineral en . Anataas accumuleert in de s i lt fractie van de

goed gedraineerde bodems .

De bodems z i j n voorname l i j k Inceptisol s , ze bevatten

enke le kle ihuidj e s maar het gehalte bedraagt minder dan I% .

Het stij gen van het kleigeha lte met de diepte in sommige

bodems lijkt daarom meer geassocieerd te z i j n met de sedimentati e

voorwaarden dan met klei i l lviatie . De verandering

van de zeer fijne zandfractie/zandfractie % met de diepte

duidt op de aanwezigheid van lithol ogische di scontinuiteit

binnen de profielen .

waterdispergeerbare klei (WDK) i s in de meeste bodems

eerder l aag, aangez ien deze bodems enige "oxic" eigenschappen

hebben . WDK/klei % l i j kt te verminderen wanneer Al en/of

organisch materiaal vermeerdert . De hoogste waarde (WDK/kle i%)

wordt gewoonlijk gevonden in de horiz ont onmidde l l i j k

onder Ap/AI .

iv

Al is de be langrij kste component van ac iditeit onder

pH 5 . 5 . Boven dez e pH Iijken de kIe ien een sterke buffer te

vormen in de bodems . He be langrij kste kIeimineraaI dat deel

neemt bij de buffering is kaol iniet, dat een pHo van 7 . 3

hee ft aan de gebroken vIakken . Deze bodems moeten bekalkt

worden om de Al toxiciteit te e l imineren . De kaIkvereisten

van deze bodems kunnen gesehat worden door de base nodig om

de pH tot 5 . 5 te brengen , te vermenigvuldigen met 1 . 3 . Het

base gehalte kan afge leid worden van de bufferkrommen .

De negatieve Iadingen op de klei oppervl aklen overtre ffen

de pos itieve ladingen binnen de pH band van 3 tot 6 , wanneer de

nettolading (PZNC ) buiten deze pH waarden valt . De pHo van dez e

bodems fluctueert rond 4. D e verweringsindex varieert van

6 0% tot 80% . De silt/kle i verhouding op 5 0 em diepte is nogal

hoog . Dit a l les wij st erop dat de bestudeerde bodems eerder

in het reeente of het intermediaire stadium van verwering

z ij n .

De textuur van de bodems varieert van zandig tot kleiig,

maar is voorname l i j k zandig met be langrijke gehalten aan grof

z and . In de meeste bodems domineren toermalijn en z irkoon

in de zeer fijne zandfraetie . Dit duidt erop dat het

moedermateriaal van dez e bodems hoofdzake l i j k graniti seh i s

van oorsprong . D e baseverzadiging is laag evenal s de sorptie

eapaeiteit en het stikstofgehalte , maar de Al verzadiging

is hoog . Samen vormen deze kenmerken be langrij ke beperkende

faetoren voor de planttegroe i .

v

ACKNOWLEOOEMENT

This study has been carried out in Universiti Perta­

nian Malaysia and in the state University of Ghent, Belgium .

It is made possible by the help and cooperation of various

people in these institutions . To them I am deeply indebted .

First and foremost, I would like to express my

gratitute to Prof C Sys , my promotor, for his encouragement,

valuable criticisms and suggestions for the completion of

this thes is . I am very grateful to Prof R Tavernier for accepting me to work in the ITC, for his kind coopera-

tion and for reading as well as giving valuable comments on

the draft of the thesis . I would like to thank Prof G stoops

for helping in the micromorphological analysis, Dr E Tessens

for the field work and reading the draft, Prof A Van Wambeke

for reading and correcting the draft, and Dr F Deconinck

for the help in the laboratory work .

I wish to thank the fol lowing :

Dr Wan Sulaiman, head, Department of Soil Science,

UPM, for his encouragement and support .

Dr S paramananthan, Ir J Vercrusse and Ir I Biot for

their help in the field work .

Dr M De Dapper for his comments and suggestions on

terrace formation .

Ir L Maene for physical ana lysis .

Universiti Pertanian Malaysia for approval of study leave and for financial support .

ABOS for scholarship and financial assistance whi le

staying in Belgium .

Ma laysian Agricultural Research and Development

Institute and Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia for allowing

the use of their X-ray diffraction facilities .

The help of the following are greatly appreciated :

1 . Laboratory staff of the Soil Science Department,

Universiti Pertanian Malaysia .

vi

2 . Laboratory staff of the Geological Institute,

State University of Ghent.

3 . Laboratory staff of the Electron Microscopy,

State University of Ghent .

Thanks are also due to my colleagues and friends

for their kind cooperation throughout the course of the

study . Last but not least I �'ould like to express my

gratitude to my dear wife Puan Fadzilah Md Sal leh and our two sons , Tajul and Azraai , whose presence become a constant

source of inspiration .

LIST OF T ABIJES

LIST OF F IGURES

LIST OF PLATES

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I INTRODUcrION

1 . 1 General Background

1 . 2 Selection .Of Soi l s And Areas

1 . 3 Objectives Of The Study

CHAPTER 2 GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND SOILS IN GENERAL

2 . 1

2 . 2

2 . 3

2 . 4

Introduction

C l imate

Vegetation

Ge ology

2 . 4 . 1 Genera l Geology

Geomorphology 2 . 4 . 2

2 . 4 . 3 Quaternary Changes In Sea Leve l

And Terrace Formation

2 . 5 General Information On Soils

2 . 6 Conc lus ions

CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3 . 1 Introduction

3 . 2 Age And Topography Of T2 Terrace

3 . 3 Field Sampl ing

3 . 4 Methods Of Ana lyses

3 .4.I Routine Analyses 3 . 4 •. 1 . 1 Granulometry

3 . 4 . 1 . 2 Water Di spers ible

3 . 4 . 1 . 3 pH

3 . 4 . 1 . 4 CEC

3 . 4 . 1 . 5 Exchangeable Ba ses

3 . 4 . 1 . 6 Base Saturation

3 . 4 . 1 . 7 KCl Acidity And Al

3 . 4 . 1 . 8 PC 3 . 4 . 1 . 9 Al Saturati on

3 . 4 . 1 . 10 OC

3 . 4 . I . I I N

3 . 4 . 1 . 12 Free Iron Oxide

Clay

Page

xii

xv

xvi i i

1

1

2

2

3

3

4

8

9

9

1 3

1 7

2 3

2 8

2 9

2 9

2 9

3 1

31

34

3 4

3 4

3 4

3 4

3 4

3 5

3 5

3 5

35 � 35

35 35

3 . 4 . 2

3 . 4 . 3

3 . 4 . 4

viii

3 .4 . I . I3 Extractabl e Acidity

Physical Analyses

Micromorphological Ana lyses

Minera l ogical Analyse s

3 . 4 . 4 . 1 XRD

3 . 4 . 4 . 2 Thermal Ana lys e s

3 . 4 . 4 . 3 TEM

3 . 4 . 4 . 4 Heavy Minera l

35 36 3 6

3 6

3 6

3 7

3 7

3 7

3 . 4 . 5 Characterization Of Surface Charge s 3 7

3 . 4 . 5 . 1 Potenti ometri c Titration 3 7

3 . 4 . 5 . 2 Determination Of pHo 3 8

3 . 4 . 5 . 3 Determinati on Of Charges 3 9

CHAPI'ER 4 T2 TERRACE SOILS OF KELANTAN 4 0

4 . 1 Introduction 4 0

4 . 2 Characterizati on Of The Soi ls 4 0

4 . 3

CHAPI'ER 5

5.I

5 . 2

5 . 3

CHAPI'ER 6

6 . I

6 . 2

6 . 3

4 . 2 . I Nangka Serie s ( I ) 4 0

4 . 2 . 2 Kg Pusu Serie s ( 2 ) 4 6

4�2 . 3

4 . 2 . 4

4 . 2 . 5

4 . 2 . 6

Bt Tuku Series ( 3 )

Kerayong Serie s (4 )

Chg Hangus Series ( 5 )

Nangka Series ( 6 )

Conc lus ions On Gene s i s And Clas s i f ication

T2 TERRACE SOILS OF TRENGGANU

Introduction

Characterization Of The Soi l s

5 . 2 . I

5 . 2 . 2

5 . 2 . 3

Kerayong Serie s ( 7 )

Sg Bul oh Serie s ( S )

Lintang Series ( 9 )

Conc lus i ons On Gene s i s And C l a s s ification

T2 TERRACE SOILS OF SELANGOR-JOHOR

Introduction

Characterization Of The Soi ls

6 . 2 . I Sg Buloh Serie s ( IO)

6 . 2 . 2 Sg Bul oh Series ( I I )

6 . 2 . 3 Nangka Series ( I2 )

Conclus ions On Gene s i s And Clas s i fi cation

5 0

5 3

58

61

63

6 6

6 6

66 66 71

74

77

8 0

8 0

8 0

8 0

8 2

8 3

8 9

ix

CHAPTER 7 T 2 TERRACE SOILS OF PERAK

7 . I Introduction

7 . 2 Characterization Of The Soi l s

7 . 2 . I Subang Serie s ( I 3 )

7 . 2 . 2 Sogomana Series ( I4 )

7 . 2 . 3 Kerayong Series ( I 5 )

7 . 2 . 4 8g Buloh Series ( I6 )

7 . 2 . 5 Ra sau Serie s ( I 7 )

7 . 3

CHAPTER 8

8 . I

8 . 2

Conc lus ions On Genes i s And C l a s s i f ication

T2 TERRACE SOILS OF KEDAH-PERLIS

Introduction

Characteri zat i on Of The Soi l s

8 . 2 . I Napai Serie s ( I8 )

8 . 2 . 2 Chuping Series ( I9 )

8 . 2 . 3 Awang Serie s ( 2 0)

8 . 2 . 4 Holyrood Series ( 2 I )

8 . 3 Conc lus ions On Gene s i s And Cla s s i fication

CHAPTER 9 CHARACTERIZAT ION OF SURFACE CHARGES

9 . I Introduct i on

9 . I . I

9 . I . 2

9 . I . 3

Types Of C o l l oids

Origin Of Charge In Soi l s

Types Of Adsorbing Ions

91

91

91

91

98

1 01

1 04

1 06

1 07

1 1 0

1 1 0

1 10

1 10

1 13

1 16

1 2 0

1 2 1

124

124

1 24

1 24

1 2 6

9 . I . 4 I ons Distribution 1 2 6

9 . I . 5 Quanti f ication O f Charge And Potential 1 2 7

9 . 2

9 . 3

9 . 4

Potenti ometric Titration Of The Soi l s

9 . 2 . I

9 . 2 . 2

9 . 2 . 3

Genera l Consideration

Potenti ometric Titration

E stimation Of Lime Requirement

Determination Of pHo

9 . 3 . I General Considerati on

9 . 3 . 2 Charging Reaction

9 . 3 . 3 E ffect Of Al On pHo

9 . 3 . 4 E ffect Of Weathering On pHo

Measurement Of Charge s In Soi l s

9 .4.I General Consideration

9 . 4 . 2

9 . 4 . 3

9 . 4 . 4

Permanent Charge

Change Of Charge With pH

PZNC

1 2 8

1 28 1 3 0

1 3 9

1 4 0 1 4 0

140

1 4 1

142

144

144

1 4 5

145 146

9 . 4 . 5

9 . 4 . 6

x

Estimation Of Mineralogical

Composition

Weathering Index

CHAPTER IO GENERAL DISCUSSION

IO . I Geographica l Distribution

IO.2 Fie ld Characteristic s

IO . 3 Physico-Chemica l Characteristics

IO . 3 . I Partic le Size Analysis

IO . 3 . I . 1 Texture

IO . 3 . 2

IO . � . 3

IO . 3 . 4

IO . 3 . 5

IO . 3 . 6

IO . 3 . 7

IO . 3 . 8

IO . 3 . I . 2 Silt/Clay Ratio

IO . 3 . I . 3 VFS/Sand % IO . 3 . I . 4 Cumulative Curves

Bulk Density

Moisture Characteristic s

water Dispersible Clay

CEC

Base And Base Saturation

OM, N, C/N Ratio

Soil Acidity

I O . 3 . 9 Lime Requirement

IO.4 Minera logy Of T 2 Terrace Soil s

IO . 4 . 1 Kaolinite And Ha ll oysite

IO . 4 . 2 Gibbsite

IO . 4 . 3 Goethite And Hematite

IO . 4 . 4 Lepidocrocite

IO . 4 . 5

IO . 4 . 6

IO . 4 . 7

IO . 4 . 8

Anatase

Mica And Mica Mixed Layers

Chl orite And Ch lorite Mixed Layers

Vermiculite And Smectite

IO . 4 . 9 Silica

IO . 4 . IO Heavy Minera l s

IO . 5 Micromorphology Of T 2 Terrace Soil s

IO . 5 . r Microstructure

rO . 5 . 2 Coarse Materia l s

IO . 5 . 3

IO . 5 . 4

IO . 5 . 5

IO . 5 . 6

Fine Material s

C/F Re lated Distribution

C lay Cutans

Phytolith s

148

1 5 2

1 5 5

1 5 5

1 5 6

1 59

1 59

1 59

1 6 0

1 64

1 6 4

171

173

175

182

184

186

189

190

192

1 92

193

195

195

1 96

198

2 00

2 01

2 02

2 03

2 04

2 04

2 05

2 05

2 06

2 07

2 07

xi

1 0 . 6 Classification Of T2 Terrace Soils 208 IO . 7 Genesis Of T2 Terrace Soils 211

10 . 7 . 1 Influence Of Soil Forming Factors 2 1 1

10 .7 . 2 Ferral litization 2 1 2

IO.7 . 3 Clay Trans location 2 1 3

1 0 . 7.4 Weathering Stage 2 1 3

CHAPTER I I SUHMARY AND CONCLUS IONS 2 18

REFERENCES 2 2 1

1\ fte'� 1>1 )C "1 t 0

Number

Table 2.1

Table 2 . 2

Table 2. 3

Table 2 . 4

Table 2 . 5

Table 3 . 1

Table 3 . 2

Table 4 . 1

Table 4.2

Table 4. 3

Table 5.1

Table 5 . 2

Table 5.3

Table 6 . 1

Table 6 . 2

Table 6 . 3

xii

LIST OF TABLES

Present landuse in Peninsular Malaysia

according to survey made in 1 974 .

precipitation, temperature and evapotrans­

piration data of five selected areas in

Peninsular Malaysia .

Soil temperature regime (at 5 0 cm depth ) of

selected weather stations in Peninsular

Malaysia .

Classification of Quaternary alluvial

depesits in Peninsular Malaysia .

Fertility rating of Peninsular Malaysian

soils (Kanapathy, 1 976b) .

The age of river terrace in Peninsular

Malaysia .

Key for identification of soils on T 2

terrace (after paramananthan, 1 98 I ) .

Kaolinite, gibbsite and goethite in the

clay fraction .

Heavy minerals in selected horizon of

T2 terrace soils of Kelantan .

Classification of T2 terrace soils of

Kelantan .

Kaolinite, gibbSite and goethite in the c lay fraction .

Heavy minerals in selected horizon of

T2 terrace soi ls of Trengganu .

Classification of T2 terrace soils of

Trengganu .

Kaolinite and gibbsite in the clay

fraction.

Heavy minerals in selected horizon of

T2 terrace soils of Selangor-Johor

Classification of T2 terrace soils of

Selangor-Johor .

4

7

8

18

2 5

3 0

3 2

47

47

62

77

77

78

87

87

89

Number

Table 7 . 1

Table 7 . 2

Table 7 . 3

Table B . 1

Table B . 2

Table B . 3

Table 9 .1

Table 9 . 2

Table 9 . 3

Table 9 . 4

Table 9.5

Table 9 . 6

xiii

Kaolinite, gibbsite and goethite in the

clay fraction .

Heavy minerals in selected horizon of

T2 terrace s oils of Perak .

Classification of T2 terrace soi l s of

Perak .

Kaol inite, gibbsite and goethite in the

clay fraction .

Heavy minerals in selected horizon of

T2 terrace soils of Kedah-Per1is .

Classification of T2 terrace soils of

Kedah-Perlis .

The amount of OH- needed to raise the

pH of the s oils to 5 . 5 , 9 . 0 and between

pH 5 . 5 and 9 . 0 for samples equilibrated

in 1 N KCl .

Comparison between titration curves of

soils equilibrated in 1 N KCl and those

equilibrated in 0 . 1 N KCl solution .

The pHo of Ap and B22 horizons of Bt

Tuku Series ( 3 ) •

The effect of chemical and mineralogical

composition on the point zero charge (pH o )

of the variable charge colloids .

Comparison between PC obtained by the net

charge at pHo and by sum of bases and AI .

The permanent charge and the amount of

kaolinite and mica and/or chlorite per 100 g soil.

Page ----

97

97

lOB

l IB

l IB

1 2 2

1 3 2

l3B

142

143

146

1 4 9

Table 9 . 7 Absolute mineral ogical composition of 1 5 1

the studied soils .

Table 9 . 8 The charges of the studied soils at pH 1 53

0 . 01 N KCl .

Table 1 0 . 1 Field characteristics of T2 terrace soils 1 57

of Peninsular Malaysia (+ colour and

texture at 5 0 cm depth ) .

Number

Table 10 . 2

Tabl e 10 . 3

Table 10 . 4

Table 10 . 5

Tqble 10 . 6

Tabl e 10 . 7

Table 10 . 8

Table 10 . 9

xiv

Silt/c lay rati o and apparent CEC of

T2 terrace soi l s of Peninsular Malays ia

(ratio taken for either AC or B horizons

at approximate ly 50 cm depth) •

The median, sorting coefficient and

skewness of the studied soi l s .

Bulk dens ity and poros ity of T2 terrace

soi l s of Peninsular Malaysia .

Water dispersible clay in the T2 terrace

soi l s of Peninsular Malaysia ( + use for

corre lation between WDC/clay % and Al

meq/IOO g s oi l ) .

Fl occulation and dispers ion phenomena

in relation to pHo .

C/N ratio of some of the studied s oils .

Lime requirement (ton/ha) of the studied

s oi l s by the methods of Sanchez ( 197 6),

Lathwel l ( 19 79) and the buffer curves.

The effect of texture and drainage

conditions on the formation of gibbsite

(% of clay) •

Page -�--

16 2

170

172

181

18 3

188

192

194

Table 10 . 10 The amount of titanium oxide and anatase 197

in rocks and s oi l s ( Mohr et aI , 19 7 2 ) .

Table 10 . 11 Chlorite and chlorite mixed layers in 2 01

the studied soils.

Table 10.12 Taxonomic classification of T2 terrace 2 10

soi l s of Peninsular Malays ia .

Tabl e 10 . 13 stage of weathering of T 2 terrace soi l s 214

according to s i lt/clay ratio .

Table 10 . 14 Weathering stage of T 2 terrace soi l s 2 15

according to the system of Walker and

Coventry ( 1976) •

Table 10 . 15 Stages of ferral litic weathering . 2 16

Number

Figure 2 . 1

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4

Figure 2.5

Figure 2 . 6

Figure 3 . 1

Figure 4 . 1

Figure 4.2

Figure 4.3

Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

Figure 5.3

xv

LIST OF FIGURES

Mean annual rainfal l distribution in

Peninsular Malaysia ( Law, 1970: Oxford

University Press , 1977).

Distribution sequence of forest and soi ls

in Peninsular Ma1aysia (Whitmore and

Burnham, 1 969 ) .

Rock type distribution in Peninsular

Malaysia (Gobbett, 1972 : Yin and Shu,

1973 ) •

Physiographic division of Peninsular

Malaysia (Law, 1970: Stauffer, 1973 ) •

Displacement of river mouth along

peninsular Malaysian coast (Tj ia, 1973 ) .

Diagramatic representation of terraces

and soi l s in different parts of

Peninsular Malaysia (Gopinathan, 1968 :

paramananthan, 1 9B I ) .

Drainage pattern of Peninsular Malaysia :

heavy dash denote the main divide, whi le

the stars denote the areas of sampling

(Tj ia, 1973 ) .

X-ray diffractograms of the clay fraction

of soils of Kelantan.

X-ray diffractograms of the s i lt fraction

of soils from Kelantan. orA thermograms of the c lay fraction of

soils from Kelantan.

X-ray diffractograms of the clay fraction

of soils from Trengganu.

X-ray diffractograms of the silt fraction

of soils from Trengganu .

orA thermograms of the c lay fraction of

soils from Trengganu.

1 0

1 2

1 4

1 6

2 0

3 3

4 3

4 3

44

68

68

69

Number

Figure 6 . 1

Figure 6 . 2

Figure 6 . 3

Figure 7 . 1

Figure 7 . 2

Figure 7 . 3

Figure 8 . 1

Figure 8 . 2

Figure 8 . 3

Figure 9 . 1

Figure 9 . 2

F igure 9 . 3

Figure 9 . 4

Figure 9 . 5

xvi

X-ray diffractograms of the clay fracti on

of soi l s from Selangor-Johor .

X-ray diffractograms of the s i lt fraction

of s oi l s from Selangor-Johor .

orA thermograms of the c lay fracti on of

soi l s from Selangor-Johor .

X-ray diffractograms of the clay fraction

of s oi l s from Perak .

X-ray diffractograms of the silt fraction

of soi l s from Perak .

UTA thermograms of the c lay fraction of

soi l s from Perak .

X-ray diffractograms of the clay fracti on

of soi l s from Kedah-Perl is .

X-ray diffractograms of the silt fracti on

of soi l s from Kedah-Perli s .

orA thermograms of the c lay fraction of

soi l s from Kedah-Perlis .

Schematic representati on of charge proce­

sses in variable charge col l oids (Bowden

et aI, 1 980) .

Bas e titration curve o f acidified

2 . 9xl O-3M Al (N03 )

3 in 10-3M NaN03{after

Cabrera and Ta l ibudeen , 1 9 79 ) .

Potentiometric titration curves of soi l s

of Holyrood Series ( 21) .

The relationship between the bas e needed

to rai se the pH to 5 . 5 and A13 + present

in the s oil s .

The relationship between the base needed

to rai s e the pH from 5 . 5 to 9 . 0 and clay

Ca ) and between the base and kaol inite

present in the soils.

Page -- --

8 5

85

86

94

94

95

112

1 1 2

1 14

1 2 5

1 2 9

1 3 3

13 4

1 3 6

Number

Figure 9 .E

Figure 10 . 1

Figure 1 0 . 2

Figure 1 0 . 3a

Figure 1 0 . 3b

Figure 1 0 . 3c

xvii

The change of negative and positive

charges with pH in soi l from Ap horizon

of Holyrood Series ( 2 1 ) •

Particle-size distribution of T2 terrace

soils of Peninsular Malaysia .

The relationship between apparent CEC

and s i lt/clay ratio for soil at 50

cm depth .

Cumulative curves of soi l s of Kerayong (4 )

and Kg Pusu Series (2 ) .

Cumulative curves of soi l s of Chg Hangus

( 5 ) and Bt Tuku Series (3) .

Cumulative curves of soi l s of Kerayong

Series ( 1 5 ) •

161

1 63

167

168

169

Figure 10.4 The relationship between water I S-bar 1 74

and the clay content in the surface

horizons (a ) and the subhorizons (b) .

Figure 1 0 . 5 The relationship between WDC/clay (%) and 1 78

Al (a ) and between WDC/clay (%) and

organic carbon{b) .

Figure 10 . 6 The relationship between WDC/c lay (%) and 179

drainage conditions { 50 cm) .

Figure 1 0 . 7 The change of water dispersible clay 'tdth 180

depth of soils of Kerayong ( 7 ) , Lintang ( 9 )

and Napai Series ( 18).

Figure 10 . 8 The relationship between the ECEC and the 185 CEC in NH4Cl for the clayey family .

Figure 10 . 9 The relation ship between the ECEC and the 185

CEC in NH4Cl for the loamy family .

Figure 1 0 . 1 0 X-ray diffractograms of Fe free s i lt and 199

c lay before (above ) and after heating

(below) .

Figure 10 . 11 X-ray diffractograms of silt and clay 1 99

(heated) from soils under wel l ( l l , 1 2 )

and poorly drained conditions ( 13, 14 ) .

Number

Plate 4.1

Plate 4.2

plate 4.3

Plate 4.4

Plate 5.1

plate 5.2

Plate 6.1

Plate 7.1

Plate 7.2

plate 7.3

Plate 8.1

xviii

LIST OF PLATES

TEM micrographs of the clay fraction

from B horizons (Nangka, Kg Pusu and

Bt Bt Tuku) •

TEM micrographs of the clay fraction

from B horizons (Kerayong and Chg Hangus).

Photomicrographs of soi1s(Kg Pusu).

Photomicrographs of soi1s(Bt Tuku and

Kerayong) •

TEM micrograph of the clay fraction from

B23 horizon of Kerayong Series.

Photomicrographs of soils{Lintang).

Photomicrographs of soi1s(Sg Buloh and

Nangka).

Photomicrographs of soils(Subang).

TEM micrographs of the clay fraction

from B horizons (Sogomana and Rasau).

Photomicrographs of soils(Sogomana).

TEM micrographs of the clay fraction

from B horizons {Awang and Holyrood).

55

56 57

70

76

88

96

100

102

119

1

CHAPTER I

Introduction

I . I General Background

Attempts have been made to classify taxonomically

mos t of the maj or s oi l types in Peninsular Malays ia . However,

this was not always ful ly successful particularly due to

lack of adequate mineralogical and micromorphological data .

Mineralogical data as such are also us eful in other cases

and may contribute to a better understanding of the ferti l ity

status of the s oils and hence help to promote right

management practices .

In order to support the s oi l class ificati on and to

stimulate soi l pedogenetic research work, the Belgian

Government has provided equipment (X-ray, DTA-TGA and thin­

s ection equipment ) and training faci l ities to the Soi l

Science Department o f the Agricultural Univers ity in

S erdang .

A res earch programme was initiated within the frame­

work of the Ma lays ia-Belgium Technical Cooperation Proj ect .

It was designed to train and help members of the academic

staff of the Department of Soil Science, Universiti Pertanian

Malaysia, to get higher quali fication in the field of s oi l

science. Our duty has been set up i n the frame o f thi s

aid-project and aims to supply the mineral ogical and micro­

morphological data nec essary for a better understanding

and classification of the T2 terrace soi l s repres enting a

widely extended geomorphic unit in Malays ia .

The res earch was partly carri ed out in the Department

of Soi l Science, UPM and partly at RUG, Belgium. At UPM,

it was financed by the Faculty of Agriculture, under

research proj ect code UPM: I802/ I/022: whi le ABOS

supported res earch carried out at RUG .

This thesis contains a review of work done on the T2

terrace soi l s , a di scus s i on of thei r characteri stics and

final ly a morphological and mineralogical study.

2

1 . 2 Se lection of Soi l s and Areas

Soi l s s e lected for the study are situated on the very

extens ive T2 terrac e . Five areas, where T2 terrace s oi l s are

known to be widespread, were s ampled . They inc lude the

Ke lantan plains , the Trengganu plains, the S e langor-Johor

plains , Perak plains and the Kedah-Perli s T2 terrace area .

The selection of the profi les was done on the foll owing

bas i s :

I. Extensivity of T2 terrace s oi ls in Peninsul ar

Ma laysi a.

2. Importance of these s oi ls f or agriculture .

3 . The ferti l ity of these s oi l s differ from area to

area .

4 . The f indings of this s tudy can in s ome way help in

the management practice of the s oi ls.

1 . 3 Objectives of the Study

The s tudy was carried out with the fol l owing

objectives :

I . Characterization of T2 terrace s oi l s in Peninsular

Malays ia with particular reference to fert i l ity.

2 . Characterization of the minera l s in the soi l s.

3 . Investigation to their genes i s and c l a s s i f ication .

4 . Characteriz ation of charges on the c lay s urfaces .

3

CHAPTER 2

Geography, Geology And Soils In General

2 . I Introduction

Geographically, Malaysia occupies two regions ;

Peninsular Malaysia, which extends from the Thailand border

to Singapore, and the states of Sabah and Sarawak in the

northwestern part of the Is land of Borneo .

Peninsular Malaysia, where the soils for this study

were taken, is situated near the Equator between latitudes

IO IStN and 60 4StN, and longitudes 99°E -I04 ° 2 0tE . To the

east of the peninsula l ies the South China Sea, while the

Straits of Melaka constitutes the western border . Peninsular

Malaysia covers an area of approximately 12 . 8 million ha

( 5 0, 096 square mi les ) . Its greatest length is about 736 km, whi le its maximum width i s around 3 2 0 km.

From the latest survey, it is known that about 2 .8

mi llion ha of the 6 to 6 .4 mil lion ha of agricultural ly

suitable land have been cultivated ( Law and Wong, 1975 ) .

By 1 974, about 26% of the total land area was under culti­

vation of some sort . Most of the cultivated land is under

rubber, oi l palm and padi, l isted in order of decreasing

importance (Table 2 .I ) . Recent advance in agricultural

development made possible the introduction of cocoa .

About 40% of the land area is hil ly or mountainous

In the case of the states of Kelantan and Trengganu, steepland (>2 00} accounts for about 76% and 72% of the total

area of the respective states (Gopinathan and Paramananthan,

I979 ) . A large section of the lowland areas is, however,

unsuitable for agriculture, either due to acidity, peat or

too sandy .

About III, 950 ha are covered with mangrove and hence

the soils are either acid or potential acid sulphate soils;

9�1o of which are situated in the west coast ( Srivastava et

aI, I979). On the other hand, on the east coast, especially

along the coastal line, the soils are sandy in nature .

Table 2 .1

TYPE

padi

rubber

oi l palm

coconut

mi sc . crops

urban

mining

forest

swamp

others

4

Pre sent l anduse in Peninsular Ma lays ia

according to the survey made in 1974

S IZE (hectare )

42 3 , 2 00

1, 917 , 6 00

7 9 9 , 6 00

194 , 400

416 , 000

110, 000

8 8 , 000

7 , 6 56 , 4 00

1 , 05 5 , 2 00

7 3 3 , 2 00

Source : Gopinathan and Paramananthan (19 7 9 )

These soils , which are known locally a s 'bris soi ls',

cover an area of approximately 160, 000 ha (Joseph, 1975 ) .

Peat is found throughout the country, but particularly

well represented in the lowland coastal plains . Joseph et al(I974) estimated that peat covers an area of approximately 0.8 3 3 mi l lion ha .

2 . 2 Climate

Peninsular Malaysia l i es clos e to the Equator: the

climate is characterized by high humidity and uni formly

high temperature with high rainfal l ( Dale, 1959: 1960:

196 3 ; 1964 ) . It can be summarized as fol lows . The southwest

monsoon, which blows into the west coast, starts in mid-

April or May and ends in September or mid-October . On the other

hand, the northeast mOnSoon, which brings rainfall to the east coast, begins in October or November and last unti l

5

February or March. Floods normally occur during the height

of the season. Average annual rainfall is approximately

2 , 500 mm . Figure 2 . I summarizes the rainfall distribution

in Peninsular Malaysia .

The plains of the east coast have an annual rainfall

of about 3 , 000 mm. Maxwell hills in Taiping, Perak,

experience the highest rainfall in the peninsula (4, 5 94

mm ), while Kuala Pilah in Negri Sembilan has the lowest

rainfall (about I , 660 mm ) . In Kelantan and Trengganu, the

maximum rainfall occurs in November and December, at the

beginning of the northeast monsoon . At Kota Bharu, for

instance, no less than 42% of the annual rainfall is

received during these two months (Table 2 . 2 ) .

The moisture regime of Peninsular Malaysia i s either

udic or perudic ; perudic is confined to areas more than

300 m above sea-level, while udic charaterizes areas lower

than 300 m (Paramananthan, I977 ) . It is also noted that

rainfall is relatively higher in the south than in the north

of the peninsula, where most of south Johor has a perudic

moisture regime . The towns of Batu Pahat and Johor Bharu

belong to this moisture regime (Table 2.3 ) .

The northern states of Perlis and Kedah sometimes

suffer from a long period of dryness ; some places may

even approach the ustic moisture regime . Table 2 . 2 summarizes

precipitation, temperature and evapo-transpiration data of

Sitiawan, Alor star, Johor Bharu, Kuala Trengganu and Kota

Bharu . Soils for this study were respectively taken from

these areas .

Soil temperature can roughly be estimated by adding

2 . 5 °C to the air temperature . Using thi s assumpti on, it i s

found that the MAST at 5 0 cm depth i n the areas under study varies from 2 8°C to 3 0oC (Table 2 . 3 ) . In the

lowland, the MAST i s above 2 2 °C . The difference

between the MSST and MWST i s less than 5 °C . Therefore the

soils of Peninsular Malaysia are isohyperthermic (Table 2 . 3 ) .

It i s also noted that the average minimum air temperature

in Peninsular Malaysia i s 2 3 . 3°C and the average maximum

air temperature is 3 2 . 8 °C .

6

SCALE

- . '- • ./'I. o 50 100

o

LEGEND

"> 3500 mm

3500-3000 mm

� 3000-2500 nun

§ 2500-2000 nun

Dc:::::::: 2000 nun

Figure 2 . 1 Mean annual rainfall distribution in

Peninsular Malaysia ( Law, 1970: Oxford

University Pres s, I977)

150 kID

Tabl e 2.2 Precipitation , temperature and evapo-transpiration data of five s e l ected area s in Peninsular Ma l aysia

STA JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JtJN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC A!'!N

PREC Sitiawan 186.0 142.2 152.4 177.8 II9.4 7(1.7 83.8 I04 . .1 165. I 205.7 238 . 8 205.7 I86I.7

TEf1P 25.8 26.3 26.7 26.9 27.0 29.(, 26.6 26.5 26.3 26.1 25.8 25.8

PET 125.7 122.0 I40.4 136.4 145. I 136.4 140.4 14 0.4 131. I 131 .2 1 22. I 125.7 : J�6 .9

PflEC Alar Star 53.3 50.8 I39.7 223.5 254 .0 T!l;>. q 200.7 2 4 6 .4 304.8 309.9 2I8.4 109.2 2293.6

TEMP 26.0 26.8 27.2 27.3 27.3 27.0 26.7 26.6 26.3 26.1 25.0 2�.2

PET 126.4 125.5 143.7 142.3 147.9 14 3 .7 143. I 141.8 130.0 129.S II9.2 121.0 1614 . (

PREC Jahar 292.1 200.7 276.9 279.4 218.4 175.3 157.5 200.7 208.3 221.0 274.3 276.9 2 781.5

TEMP Bharu 26.4 26.9 27.4 27.6 27.7 27.4 27.2 27.0 27.2 27.1 26.9 26.4

PET 135.0 126.9 145. I 145.1 149.4 TIIO.9 145. I 145.1 14 O. 9 145. I 136.4 135.0 1689.9 -l

PREe Kuala 218.4 127.0 157.5 134.6 II4.3 III.8 12I .9 152.4 177.8 299.7 640. I 551 . 2 2806 .7 TEMP Trengganu 25.2 25.5 26.3 26.9 27.0 26 . 7 26.4 26.2 26.1 25.8 25.4 25.2

PET II4.2 108.7 134.4 137.7 147.9 139.0 140.2 135. I 128.2 125.2 !I4. I II4.2 1539.2

PREC Kata 228.6 121.9 152.4 106.7 149.9 147.3 142.2 162.6 205.7 299.7 622.3 622.3 2961.6

TEMP Bharu 25.3 25.5 26.4 27.3 27.3 27.0 26.7 26.6 26.4 26.1 25.6 25.2

PET II5.1 108.0 135.8 142.3 147.9 143.7 143.1 141.8 133.1 130.2 !I6.6 II3.5 1571.1

S ource: Tavernier ( unpublished data)