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COMPOSING THE REFLECTED BEST-SELFPORTRAIT: BUILDING PATHWAYS FOR

BECOMING EXTRAORDINARY IN WORK

ORGANIZATIONSLAURA MORGAN ROBERTS

Harvard Business School

JANE E. DUTTON

GRETCHEN M. SPREITZEREMILY D. HEAPHYROBERT E. QUINN

The University of Michigan Business School

We present a theory of how individuals compose their reflected best-self portrait,

which we define as a changing self-knowledge structure about who one is at ones

best. We posit that people compose their reflected best-self portrait through socialexperiences that draw on intrapsychic and interpersonal resources. By weaving to-

gether microlevel theories of personal change and macrolevel theories of human

resource development, our theory reveals an important means by which work orga-

nizations affect peoples capacity to realize their potential.

Being extraordinary does not necessarily meanobtaining a position of honor or glory or even ofbecoming successful in other peoples eyes. Itmeans being true to self. It means pursuing ourfull potential (Quinn & Quinn, 2002: 35).

Being extraordinary. All of us can recall ourown extraordinary momentsthose moments

when we felt that our best-self was brought tolight, affirmed by others, and put into practice inthe world. These memories are seared into ourminds as moments or situations in which we feltalive, true to our deepest selves, and pursuingour full potential as human beings. Over time,we collect these experiences into a portrait ofwho we are when we are at our personal best.Sometimes this portrait is composed graduallyand without much conscious attention or self-awareness. Other times, work organizationsplay an active role in providing us feedback,

furnishing goals, and enabling relationshipswith others in ways that make this portrait ex-

plicit and consciously changing over time.Whether implicit or explicit, stable or changing,this portrait serves as both an anchor and abeacon, a personal touchstone of who we areand a guide for who we can become. We call thisportrait the reflected best-self (hereafter re-

ferred to as the RBS).We choose the word reflected to emphasizethat this self-portrait is based on our percep-tions of how others view us. Family members,friends and acquaintances, and organizationsprovide us with feedback about who we are, andthis information is integrated into our self-concept (Cooley, 1902; Tice & Wallace, 2003). Wechoose the word best to refer to the strengths,contributions, and enduring talents that eachperson brings to a situation. Taken together, thismeans that through interpretations of experi-ences and interactions in the social world, each

person composes a self-portrait of his or her ownstrengths and contributions. We posit that theprocess of composing the RBS portrait creates apathway to becoming extraordinary, in that itinvolves envisioning the self at ones best, andthen acting on this vision to translate possibili-ties for the extraordinary into reality.

Our purpose here is to define the RBS, de-scribe how and when it changes, and articulatethe ways in which it influences individual func-

We thank Art Brief, two anonymous reviewers, the faculty

and staff at the University of Michigan Business School,

Brianna Barker, Robin Ely, Monica Higgins, Joshua Margolis,

Leslie Perlow, Jeffrey Polzer, Ryan Quinn, Lloyd Sandelands,

Neil Sendlebach, Kathleen Sutcliffe, David Thomas, Klaus

Weber, and Michele Williams for helpful comments on ear-

lier drafts. We also thank Chad Brown for allowing us to

share his reflected best portrait.

Academy of Management Review

2005, Vol. 30, No. 4, 712736.

712


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tioning in organizations. By providing a theoret-ical account of the situational and social mech-anisms through which people compose theirRBS portraits, we shed new light on how orga-nizations can enable people to develop to theirfull potential. In so doing, we build on the prin-

ciples of positive psychology (Seligman & Csik-szentmihalyi, 2000) and positive organizationalscholarship (Cameron & Caza, 2004; Cameron,Dutton, & Quinn, 2003; Luthans, 2002), which aimto develop theoretical understandings of humanstrengths, virtues, and health, as opposed to thepredominant focus on weakness and pathologyin work organizations.

Our theory of how people compose the RBSportrait builds on current research regardinghow individuals change their conception of selfthrough socially embedded experiences and re-

sources (Higgins & Kram, 2001; Tice & Wallace,2003). More specifically, our theory of composingthe RBS portrait sits at the crossroads of severalimportant research streams in organizationalbehavior. First, we build from theories of careerand personal change that purport that changesin self-knowledge structures are critical ele-ments in explaining how and why individualschange what they do and how they feel (Ibarra,1999; Markus & Nurius, 1986). Second, we buildon research that portrays individuals as activeparticipants in constructing their organizational

experience through how they take initiative(Frese & Fay, 2001; Morrison & Phelps, 1999), seekinformation about themselves (Ashford, 1986),and create and draw from relationships withothers (Wrzesniewski, Dutton, & Debebe, 2003).Third, we draw on research showing that therelational context in which individuals are em-bedded has a major effect on how people defineand feel about themselves (Bradbury & Lichten-stein, 2000; Ely, 1994; Gabarro, 1987; Gersick, Bar-tunek, & Dutton, 2000; Granovetter, 1985; Kahn,1998) which, in the case of our theory, is capturedin the power of mirrored reflections.

THE REFLECTED BEST-SELF

We define the RBS as an individuals cogni-tive representation of the qualities and charac-teristics the individual displays when at his orher best. Our definition of the RBS shares somefeatures of self-schemas. Markus defines self-schemas as cognitive generalizations aboutthe self in particular domains, derived from past

experience, that guide the processing of self-related information contained in the individu-als social experiences (1977: 64). Like self-schemas, the RBS is based on past experiencesand guides the processing of personally rele-vant information generated in the social world.

For example, someone who exhibits resilienceand determination in response to being denieda job promotion, to receiving chemotherapy, andto experiencing a setback on a church buildingcampaign may include her capacity to persistin the face of adversity as a core component ofher RBS. However, as the previous example in-dicates, the RBS is not based on a single domainbut is a more general and encompassing con-ception of the self that cuts across multiple do-mains. Thus, we use the term RBS portrait in-stead of schema to describe this broader

cognitive representation of the self.As a positive portrayal of desirable, self-

relevant characteristics, the RBS portrait alsoshares some features of the ideal self (the cog-nitive representation of ones hopes, wishes, oraspirations; Higgins, 1987) and the hoped-forpossible self (the manifestation of enduringpersonal goals, aspirations, and motivation;Markus & Nurius, 1986). However, the RBS por-trait is distinct from the ideal self and thehoped-for possible self in that it is based onqualities and characteristics that the person

currently has, as opposed to those the individualwishes or hopes to possess. As an example, takethis excerpt of a persons description of his RBS,which he wrote as part of an MBA course exer-cise to integrate feedback he had received fromothers about who he is at his best:

At my best-self: I share, I strip away all that life isnot. I live large. I breathe deeply and inhale everywhisper of life. At my best-self, I challenge myselfmentally, physically, emotionally. At my best-self, I am neither at work [n]or at play, I am livingin the moment. I am a lover of life. I am a seekerof truth and beauty. I am responsible for my ownactions, my own beliefs, and my own connections

with other people and all living creatures. At mybest-self, I am small, invisible and insignificant.People dont see me, they dont feel me, however,they see truth and beauty in themselves and inthe world around them that they would not havenoticed had I not been there, and they feel phys-ically, emotionally and mentally better becauseof me (Chad Brown, 2001, personal correspon-dence).

As we can see in the above statement, the RBSis a strength-based conception of the qualities

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and characteristics that this person believes heexudes when he is at his best. This descriptionalso illustrates that the RBS is more than a cat-alog of competencies. While ones strengths (i.e.,competencies, talents, values, personality at-tributes) lie at the core of ones RBS, the RBS

portrait also incorporates a characterization ofthe state of being at ones best. In this state ofbeing, an individual actively employs strengthsto create value, actualize ones potential, andfulfill ones sense of purpose, which generates aconstructive experience (emotional, cognitive, orbehavioral) for oneself and for others. Often-times, the state of being at ones best is charac-terized by being true to oneself (Palmer, 2000;Quinn & Quinn, 2002) or authentic (Harter, 2002)and high performing (Spreitzer, Quinn, &Fletcher, 1995).

In addition, in our theory, we look within oneindividual to learn how that person can enterhis or her best state, rather than following themore traditional, normative approach of lookingacross people to see who is the best among agroup or class. Thus, this conception of thebest stands in contrast to evaluative measuresacross people, such as performance evaluationsthat rank order or group people within a givendistribution.

To better understand the power of the RBS inshaping human development and functioning,

we focus in the next section on illustrating theprocess by which individuals compose their RBSportraits. Following this discussion of compos-ing the RBS portrait, we describe how the resultsof this process directly impact identity, well-being, and behavior in work organizations.

COMPOSING THE RBS PORTRAIT

How do people identify the personal qualitiesand characteristics that constitute their RBS por-trait? Through experiences with others, peoplegather information that enables them to build a

composite portrait of who they are at their best.This portrait is shaped by the individuals per-ceptions, rather than an absolute truth of whatthe RBS is. Research supports that peoples per-ceptions of how they are viewednot how theyare actually viewed by othershave the stron-gest impact on peoples self-concepts (Tice &Wallace, 2003). The self-concept is based on ourobservations of ourselves, our inferences aboutwho we are (gleaned from others behavior to-

ward us), our wishes and desires, and our eval-uations of ourselves (Stets & Burke, 2003). Thus,the RBS portrait is composed through previousexperiences in the social world, where peoplelearn how they create value.

While the RBS portrait, like self-schemas

(Swann, 1985), begins to form in childhood, theprocess of composing the RBS portrait can con-tinue throughout life, as social experiences en-able people to see more clearly who they are attheir best. However, composing this portrait ofthe RBS can be challenging, especially in cur-rent work organizations. All too often, the infor-mation people get about themselves is reflectedthrough rare and imperfect mirrors.

Formal performance evaluations are the mostcommon way individuals get external feedbackabout their competencies in organizations. Per-

formance evaluations are institutionalized prac-tices in which people, typically superiors butincreasingly subordinates and peers as well,grade how employees have performed along anumber of prespecified dimensions. Perfor-mance evaluations are used to justify rewardsand to define developmental opportunities forenhancing current performance and preparingfor future career possibilities. While experts rec-ommend sandwiching negative feedback withinpositive feedback (Beer, 1997), invariably, the fo-cus of a performance evaluation is on identify-

ing weaknesses and combating performancedeficits (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001). Becauseperformance evaluations tend to narrow atten-tion toward the negative aspects of human per-formance, they tend to provide people with mereglimpses of their RBS.

Individuals might proactively seek additionalfeedback about their sources of competencefrom significant others (Ashford, 1986). Signifi-cant others are those people whose views andopinions matter to an individual because ofpower asymmetries, resource dependence, oremotional attachment. Research suggests that

more powerful individuals opinions carryweight simply because they command more at-tention (Fiske & Depret, 1996). Levinson (1985)suggests that the actions and opinions of guid-ing figurespeople who embody what an indi-vidual is trying to move toward in lifeare par-ticularly significant when people are undergoingtransitions. For example, Ibarra (2003) describeshow Ben Forresters boss (a guiding figure) pro-vided reassurance and feedback as Ben was

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REVISING THE RBS PORTRAIT

On a daily basis, people are exposed to manyexperiences that could potentially lead tochanges in their RBS portrait. Most of the time,no change in the RBS occurs, because many

experiences in life are routine and fit within thecurrent image of the RBS. Only occasionally dolife events intrude on or interrupt daily routines,prompting individuals to pause and make sense

of life events in a way that triggers a revision totheir RBS portrait. Sensemaking involves plac-ing life experiences into a framework in order tohelp people comprehend, understand, and ex-plain experiences in a way that gives meaning,purpose, and direction to action (Weick, 1995).Revising the RBS portrait is a sensemaking pro-cess, in that it involves deriving new self-

relevant information from social experiences,imposing meaning on the information, and us-ing the information to inform ones understand-ing of the RBS.

Surprisingly, there is a dearth of research onwhat triggers changes in self-knowledge struc-tures like the RBS, but the dominant intuition isthat schemas change as a function of some dis-continuity in the environment (Swann, 1985;Walsh, 1995). We suggest that revisions to theRBS occur when individuals undergo an ahaexperience or jolta discrepant or surprisingevent that causes people to pause and reflect ontheir experience (Louis, 1980). Losing a job is aclassic example of a jolt (cf. Lee & Mitchell, 2001),but jolts can also include joyful events like abirth of child or a promotion.

A jolt doesnt have to come in the form of amajor event. Rather, jolts can vary in magnitude.A person can be jolted by a new piece of infor-mation that serves as a tipping point (Ibarra,2003) for revising his or her RBS portrait. Forexample, when a law clerk gets yet anotherpiece of positive feedback on his writing talent,this time from a federal judge, he can no longer

ignore his passion and skill for writing legalbriefs. Similarly, after the senior managementteam accepts her fourth marketing campaign,an associate begins to discover a pattern of suc-cess, which reveals her unique talent for cre-ative design.

Jolts trigger changes in self-knowledge struc-tures because they disrupt routines in ways thatrelease emotion (Mandler, 1984) and help peoplechange cognitive gears (Louis & Sutton, 1991).

Jolts disrupt automatic modes of informationprocessing and reliance on well-grooved waysof thinking about the self that accompany anautomatic processing mode (Bargh, 1982). AsPoole, Gioia, and Gray suggest, experiencesthat generate strong emotional responses are

more likely to induce schematic change (1989:288).

Jolts punctuate experience by unfreezing peo-ple so they can begin to move away from the oldand focus energy toward the future (Ibarra, 2003;Weick, 1995). Because they intrude or interrupt,jolts provide what Ibarra calls an alert admis-sion (2003: 138)a moment when pivotal eventscatalyze change. These alert admissions or de-fining moments (Badaracco, 1997) trigger aneed for explanation (Louis, 1980), and they test,shape, and reveal something about how people

think about themselves and their capabilities.Jolts can test whether the new information re-vealed from the jolts fits with the current RBSportrait. They can also shape revision of the RBSas the individual integrates new pieces of infor-mation into the RBS portrait. Jolts can revealaspects of the RBS that have been hidden andcan provide a sharp, clear view of aspects of theRBS that were previously obscure. In short, joltsget peoples attention and jar people toward de-liberate judgments about their RBS becausethey are an occasion for sensemaking.

We propose that in work organizations joltsthat provide occasions for revising RBS portraitscome in at least four forms. While the word joltmay connote an experience that is negative intone, we use the term more broadly. As our pre-vious examples indicated, positive experiencescan also jog people out of routines and promptthem to think about themselves in new ways. Assuch, we talk about jolts along two key dimen-sions: (1) jolts based on challenge or based onaffirmation and (2) jolts generated by formal orinformal mechanisms (see Figure 1). By juxta-posing these two dimensions, we create a typol-

ogy of jolts, which we describe in more detail inthe subsequent sections.

Challenging Jolts

Challenges require special effort and dedica-tion to overcome because they take individualsout of their routines and provide an opportunityfor action (Csikszentmihalyi, 1993). Challengesstretch individuals in new directions. To re-



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spond to a challenge, one has to let go of thetried and true, be open to possibilities, seekout novelty, be curious, and be willing to take

risks. Challengeswhat Bennis and Thomas(2002) call cruciblesmove individuals totranscend the usual ways of doing things byputting them in difficult but not impossiblesituations (Tomaka, Blascovich, Kibler, &Ernst, 1997). Unlike threatening jolts that implythe real potential for failure or harm, challeng-ing jolts imply the possibility of gains and,thus, energize individuals (Tomaka, Blascov-ich, Kelsey, & Leitten, 1993).

Formal challenges. Often, in work organiza-tions, formal, organizationally sanctioned occa-sions provide employees with challenges that

could prompt them to change how they seethemselves at their best. For example, when or-ganizations elevate performance targets, planjob rotations and stretch assignments, insti-tute managerial training or executive develop-ment programs, or provide difficult new goalsbased on individual performance evaluations,they create settings that are designed to chal-lenge employees in significant ways. Individu-als may be prompted by these situations to per-

form novel tasks, which may extend theircurrent knowledge base of their strengths andabilities to include additional self-knowledge

regarding how they perform in these new do-mains. Simultaneously, they may receive feed-back from others in their environment regardingtheir competence in this new domain. This ex-panded knowledge base of strengths and capac-ities can serve as input for revising the contentof the RBS portrait. In addition, engaging in anexperience that draws on ones strengths andcompetencies may make the RBS portrait morevivid.

For example, Kyle Vest, a successful familypractitioner, was part of a novel medical prac-tice that encouraged physician sabbaticals (at

half pay) to explore old talents and to developnew ones. For Kyle, the sabbatical provided achance to try out his teaching talents in a novelcourse for medical students on the power of nar-ratives of healing. Kyle was astounded by thefeedback that he received from his students andother physicians regarding his effective meansof challenging students, his thoughtful portray-als of patients pain, and his capacity to inspireexcellence from the students. These meaningful

FIGURE 1

Typology and Examples of Jolts That Spark Revisions to the Reflected Best-Self Portrait



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assets were much more visible in the teaching

context but had been hidden in his more private

medical practice role. The teaching experience

changed how Kyle envisioned his future possi-

bilities. As a result, he negotiated a change in

his employment contract so that half of his time

could be devoted to teaching.

Thus, organizations that provide formal op-

portunities for accomplishing challenging goals

and assignments may also facilitate the process

of composing the RBS portrait by enabling em-

ployees to revise the content or increase the

clarity of their image of who they are at their

best. In fact, if work organizations were effective

growers of employees potential, employees

work lives would be sprinkled with appropriate

and well-orchestrated formal challenges (Mc-

Cauley, Ruderman, Ohlott, & Morrow, 1994). Buttoo often organizations fail to design develop-

mental opportunities so that a revision of the

RBS can occur, or they offer generic opportuni-

ties that fall short of meeting the needs of spe-

cific individuals (McCall, Lombardo, & Morrison,

1988).

Informal challenges. Jolts also occur in the

form of informal challenges that arise at work,

often appearing when employees least expect

them. Such occasions afford developmental op-

portunities that could give rise to an altered

view of ones RBS. For example, when a col-league is a no show for some important event,

another employee is called on to take the col-

leagues place and perform a new task (e.g.,

presenting task force recommendations to the

board of directors). In a more extreme example,

Ferit Sahenk, CEO of Turkish conglomerate

Dogus Holdings, was thrust into the senior lead-

ership position of the organization when his fa-

ther was diagnosed with cancer (Khurana, Car-

rioga, & Johnson, 2001). In both examples, an

employee had to accept a difficult challenge

and learned that he or she has what it takes toperform in a new task domain. Such impromptu

challenges confront individuals with occasions

in which their current capacities are stretched.

These spontaneous occasions usually call for

new behavioral patterns; consequently, individ-

uals may learn about limitations as well as new

possibilities for themselves that prompt a revi-

sion of the content and/or clarity of their RBS

portrait.

Appreciation Jolts

Appreciation jolts are a different type of promptto self-revision. Cooperrider and Srivastva (1999),citing Kolb (1984), describe appreciation as a formof knowing that stands in sharp contrast to critical

comprehension:

Appreciation of immediate experience is an act ofattention, valuing and affirmation, whereas crit-ical comprehension of symbols is based on objec-tivity (which involves a priori controls of atten-tion, as in double-blind controlled experiments),dispassionate analysis, and skepticism (Kolb,1984: 104105, in Cooperrider & Srivastva, 1999:90).

Research shows that when people are fullyaware of how others view them, their reflectedappraisals shape their self-concept (Jussim, Sof-

fin, Brown, Ley, & Kohlhepp, 1992; Tice & Wal-lace, 2003). Appreciation stimulates reflectionand action because it disrupts expectations forthe future, induces positive emotion, and alsomay engage physiological changes that aregenerative and constructive, helping one movetoward a more positive image of oneself andresulting in positive action (Cooperrider & Sri-vastva, 1999).

Formal appreciation. Formal appreciationjolts are occasions in which organizations haveplanned and institutionalized opportunities to

endow individuals with expressions of positiveaffirmation. Award ceremonies are the mostcommon manifestation of formal appreciationjolts. For example, when people are endowedwith an award for early career contributions,they gain information about the value they addto their field, which encourages them, in turn, toexpand their vision of the RBS. The reward in-duces positive emotion, which facilitates a per-sons ability to see the self differently (Fredrick-son, 1998). In addition, these occasions provideindividuals with access to previously hard-to-find social resources. For example, the early ca-

reer contributions award recipient may feel af-firmed in her choice of career path, energized topursue her goals with confidence, and betterable to pursue those goals because of the newpositive visibility the award has given her. As aresult, the RBS can be affirmed and clarifiedthrough formal appreciation jolts.

Formal appreciation jolts are rare in practiceand often occur as organizational members areleaving situations, eliminating the opportunity



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for the individuals and their organization tobenefit from enduring changes brought about bythe formal appreciative acts. For example, re-tirement ceremonies (or festschrifts for academ-ics) provide venues for people to tell more seniorcolleagues what impact their work and actions

have had on others lives. Often, retirees reac-tions to such events are, I had no idea peoplefelt this way about me. Letters of recommenda-tion also describe ones strengths, but in order tomaintain objectivity, such feedback often is notshared with the recipient of the recommenda-tion.

These formal appreciation jolts could prompta revision of how people see themselves at theirbest by providing specific information abouthow they contribute to the social system. Takethe example of Inari Kaju,2 who started a soft-

ware development firm five years ago. Everyquarter he has each member of his eight-persontop management team e-mail descriptions of thethree strengths each person has exhibited dur-ing the quarterly period. The e-mails are sharedwith the whole team. Kaju has found that thispractice has kept people focused and excitedabout what the firm is accomplishing, while atthe same time helping people to become famil-iar with their own unique strengths (as seen andaffirmed by others). This practice also helps peo-ple know how strengths are distributed among

the top management group. Kaju suggests thatthis knowledge has helped the firm adapt com-petitively, because the team knows who is thego to person for different challenges (becauseof demonstrated success in the past), facilitatingspeed in decision making in the present andbuilding confidence about decision making inthe future.

Informal appreciation. Organizational set-tings also afford opportunities for more im-promptu, unplanned, and spontaneous jolts thatare appreciative and informal. While rare, theseoccasions can jar and disrupt how employees

see themselves. For example, an African Amer-ican medical student described the spontaneousencouragement that he received from hospitalstaff, patients, and other members of his com-munity (Black, 2003). When African Americanhospital staff and other community members no-ticed his stethoscope or lab coat in the hospital

elevator, they expressed the pride they derivedfrom his presence. Further, when he treated anAfrican American patient, the patient expressedsincere gratitude for his respectful and consci-entious care, remarking that it felt good to knowthat the medical student was looking out for his

best interests. These conversations surprisedthe medical student, who previously saw him-self only as an intelligent but inexperienced stu-dent. This feedback prompted him to revise hisRBS portrait; he broadened his best-self imageto include being a healer, whose successful ed-ucational pursuits and considerate patient carepositively impact the lives of many people, par-ticularly other African Americans who value in-teractions with African American physicians.

In another example, one of the authors wastreated to one such act of informal appreciation.

As she described it:

Marty Johns, the head of Change ManagementTeaching Team, assembled his team designed tocreate the next generation of classes for Execu-tive Education. The team had never been face toface in a room, although the reputations of thepeople assembled preceded them. There was ex-citement in the air, with everyone anticipatingthe stretch and high standards involved in thisnew assignment. Marty began the meeting in ahighly unusual way. Rather than having every-one introduce him or herself, he began with anappreciative introduction of each person, offeringhis take on the unique talents, perspectives, and

qualities of each chosen team member as a hu-man being. The introductions werent long, buteach adjective and example Marty offeredseemed compelling and heart felt. The descrip-tions named what Marty loved and appreciatedin each person. Each person being introducedwas visibly embarrassed when they were de-scribed, but inspired and thankful to be on theteam as they learned of the positive qualities oftheir team members. The soil for growth of theteam had been tilled with respect and positiveregard. In this simple act Marty had taken anordinary routine used when first meeting strang-ers and turned it into an extraordinary opportu-nity for informal appreciation (Dutton, 2003b).

In this case, members of the team had to re-vise their sense of self, drawing more fully onthe publicly acknowledged strengths Martynoted he saw in them. For Meg, one of the teammembers, this meant realizing that her enthusi-asm actually motivated others to get work done.For Rob, the introduction meant he needed to actin accord with Martys portrayal of him as acreative writer and courageous thinker. For both2 This example is disguised, although the facts are real.



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Meg and Rob, the introductions deepened their

confidence that they did have these qualities

and committed them more fully to bring these

qualities to the team.

Research supports the relationship between

informal appreciation and self-perceptions de-

scribed in the previous two examples. When

significant others perceive an individual as pos-

sessing the characteristics of his or her ideal

self, the individual then changes his or her self-

views to be more consistent with the others ap-

praisals (Drigotas, Rusbult, Wieselquist, & Whit-

ton, 1999; Malloy, Albright, Kenny, Agatstein, &Winquist, 1997; Tice & Wallace, 2003). In addi-

tion, after people receive explicit positive feed-

back, their self-appraisals become more favor-

able (Kernis & Johnson, 1990).

Thus, appreciative and challenging jolts can

be important triggers in revising the RBS por-trait. We have provided several examples of

how appreciative and challenging jolts can en-

hance ones positive self-construal by increas-

ing the clarity and/or enriching the content of

ones RBS portrait. It is important to acknowl-

edge that not every jolt results in a revision to

the RBS, owing to the nature of the jolt, thetiming of the jolt, and, most important, how one

makes sense of the jolt.

Like self-schemas, our RBS portrait is quite

stable over time. Since self-schemas are resis-

tant to change, some jolts may not be strongenough to radically change ones image of the

RBS. Completing a novel yet relatively simple

task may not require a radical shift in behavior

that could lead to self-discovery. Likewise, a

single compliment regarding a minor accom-

plishment at work might not have a lasting im-

pact on ones sense of self. External factors, es-pecially the timing of the jolt, might also

interfere with RBS revision. For example, a per-

son who is not psychologically ready for a

change can ignore the jolt, dismiss it as irrele-

vant, or deny its validity (Ibarra, 2003).Also, a person may not have the space or a

window of opportunity for a revision to the

RBS. As Ibarra suggests:

Reinvention . . . requires a stepping back to ob-tain a new way of seeing what is. The full emo-tional and cognitive complexity of the changeprocess can only be digested with moments ofdetachment and time for reflective observation.In the same way, time away from the everyday

grind creates the break frame that allows peo-ple to transition (2003: 148).

If a person is overloaded (cognitively, emotion-ally, or physically), it will be difficult for him orher to transcend the current situation to create

the space for a RBS revision.Furthermore, a persons life stage may also

influence the extent to which he or she respondsto a jolt. Research on adult development sug-gests that at certain points in life, like midlife(Levinson, 1985), individuals are highly recep-tive to major changes, whereas at other periodsof life, individuals meet even small changeswith resistance. For these reasons, many exter-nal triggers fail to propel a person to changeself-knowledge structures, including the RBS.

Finally, individuals must make sense of jolts

in a constructive manner in order to trigger RBSrevision. Often, challenging and appreciativejolts are met with a sense of fear, threat, andcynicism, rather than with a sense of possibilityfor envisioning oneself in a more positive man-ner. Individuals who focus on the negative, po-tentially punishing effects of jolts are less likelyto revise their RBS portraits than individualswho focus on the positive, potentially rewardingeffects of such experiences. For example, indi-viduals might interpret challenging jolts as sig-nificant threats to their organizational statusand focus on potential failure in new job assign-ments, rather than the possibility of success.Individuals might also question the accuracy ofaffirmative feedback they receive from others,as well as their ability to live up to others pos-itive expectations. In both scenarios individualswill likely resist revising their RBS portrait, evenafter experiencing challenging or appreciativejolts, because their sensemaking leads them tofocus on personal limitations rather than per-sonal strengths and contributions.

Our goal in this paper is to present a theoret-ical framework that captures how work experi-

ences enhance ones sense of self and result inrevisions to the clarity and content of the RBSportrait. Thus, we focus our theoretical attentionaway from the inhibitors and toward the keyresources that can positively shape the way in-dividuals appraise or make sense of a jolt. Weposit that certain socially embedded resourcesenable individuals to counteract the effects ofinhibitory factors (such as threat, fear, or cyni-cism) so that they can respond positively to jolts.



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Socially embedded resources equip people torespond to jolts with a capacity and willingnessto see themselves differently, because theydraw or attract people to change. In the nextsection we describe how three specific re-sources play an important role in the process of

revising RBS portrait by favorably influencingresponses to challenging and appreciative jolts.

Resources That Enable Revisions of the RBSPortrait

A central premise of our article is that sociallyembedded resources enable revisions of the RBSportrait, particularly during times surrounding ajolt. Revisions of the RBS portrait do not occureasily or often, because they involve changes inhow we think about ourselves. Before such revi-

sions occur, individuals need a sense that re-sources are available to counteract the negativeresponses that may result from jolts. Psycholog-ical and physiological3 resources help individ-uals to withstand the uncertainty and fear offailure that arise from challenging jolts. Theyalso spark individuals desire to live up to thesocial expectations that are raised through ap-preciative jolts.

We suggest that a trio of psychological andphysiological resources(1) positive affect, (2) asense of relational connection, and (3) personal

agency enable revision of the RBS portrait.Positive affect enhances openness and personalcapability, relational resources provide socialsupport and inspiration, and agentic resourcesprovide a sense of efficacy and guidance to fa-cilitate changes in the RBS.

To better understand why these three re-sources matter, we discuss their causal logicnext. For explanatory purposes, we artificiallytreat each resource as if it were a separatecausal force. In reality, many developmentalwork experiences tap into all three resources,activating them to work in concert to focus on

and revise our sense of ourselves at our best.Positive affective resources. The first durable

resource that can enable revision of the RBS is

positive affect. By affect, we mean the emotionaland subjective feelings of individuals. Positiveaffect is composed of positive emotions, such asjoy, peace, hope, or gratitude, which are durableresources that individuals can draw on duringtimes of change, owing to their effect on individ-

uals thought-action repertoires (Fredrickson,1998). Unlike negative emotions, which promotequick, decisive action by narrowing the array ofthoughts and actions that come to mind, thebroaden-and-build theory states that positiveemotions broaden the thought-action repertoire,creating openness to new ideas and newcourses of action (Fredrickson, 2000), such asrevising the RBS. Joy, for instance, sparks theurge to play. Interest creates the urge to explore.Contentment evokes the urge to savor and inte-grate. Thus, positive affect enables the revision

of the RBS by creating more openness to the ideaof personal change.

In addition, Fredrickson (2000) proposes that acritical outcome of the broadened thought-action repertoire is increased personal capabil-ity and knowledge. The playfulness that comesfrom joy, for instance, builds personal skills andcapability. The exploration that comes from in-terest creates knowledge and intellectual com-plexity. And the savoring that comes from con-tentment produces self-insight and alters worldviews (Fredrickson, 2000). As such, the broaden-

and-build theory suggests that positive emo-tions are resources that build enduring capabil-ity and knowledge, which also enable revisionsof the RBS. We suggest that experiences at workthat engage positive emotions are more likely tocontribute to the revision of the RBS in terms ofreflecting domains of additional competenceand talent, along with broadening the self-conception of strengths and positive contribu-tions.

The resources brought to bear by positiveemotions are particularly important during joltexperiences, because they work to undo the de-

structive effects of negative emotions, such asenabling the body to return to baseline levels ofphysiological activation after experiencing achallenge (Fredrickson, 2000). Laboratory exper-iments have demonstrated that evoking positiveemotions during times of distress is the mostefficient way to quell or undo the lingeringaftereffects of negative emotions (Fredrickson &Levenson, 1998; Fredrickson, Mancuso, Brani-gan, & Tugade, 2000). Following experiences of

3 While physiological research is new to organizational

behavior, researchers working at the interface of the social

and medical sciences use physiological measures to under-

stand the mechanisms explaining the powerful effects of

positive affect and interpersonal relationships (see Heaphy

& Dutton, 2004).



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negative emotions, one can cultivate positiveemotions to speed the return to cardiovascularnormalcy and to fuel resilient coping. In themidst of a jolt, positive emotions aid resilientresponses so that people bounce back to precri-sis levels of functioning more quickly. In fact,

prior research suggests that when jolt experi-ences are combined with a strong base of posi-tive affect, we may see the most potential forrevisions of the RBS, because the positive emo-tions increase individual receptivity to and mo-tivation for personal growth (McCauley et al.,1994). In contrast, without the positive affect, anydistress accompanying a jolt is likely to inter-fere with a willingness to open oneself up tonew skills and capabilities. The discomfort of ajolt may mask the potential for revising the RBS,since the individual can become defensive and

seek a fast solution to overcome the discomfort(McCauley et al., 1994).

In summary, positive affect provides an im-portant resource for enabling individuals to re-vise their RBS portrait because it opens them tothe possibility of revising the RBS and buildspersonal capability and knowledge.

Relational resources. The second durable re-source that can enable a revision of the RBSportrait is positive interpersonal relationships.We assume that all human beings have a needto develop and maintain enduring personal con-

nections with others, and these connections ofaffirmative belonging are sources of support(Baumeister & Leary, 1995).

The positive impact of supportive relation-ships is well documented in the literature onsocial support (e.g., Uchino, Cacioppo, & Keicolt-Glacer, 1996) and high-quality connections (e.g.,Dutton, 2003b; Dutton & Heaphy, 2003). Support-ive relationships provide security and safety forindividuals to process and affirm a clearersense of their own possibility. They may do thisin part by inducing physiological changes thatenable individuals to bounce back from past

negative experiences, such as releases of oxy-tocin and endogenous opiad peptides, loweredblood pressure and allostatic load (Adler, 2002;Seeman, Singer, Rowe, Horwitz, & McEwan,1997), and a strengthened immune system (Co-hen, 2001; Ornish, 1998). Being in relationshipswith others can also buffer people from futuresetbacks and stressors in their lives (Cohen &Wills, 1985), allowing them to devote more men-tal energy to their own sense of possibility

rather than potential failure, thus enabling re-

vision of the RBS.

Research on holding environments at work

(Kahn, 2001) and on healing connections more

generally (Miller & Stiver, 1997) affirms the role

that positive connections play in supporting a

persons revision of the RBS. Drawing on studies

of infants and the importance of secure attach-

ments (Bowlby, 1988), as well as the power of

effective caregiving relationships (Winnicott,

1965), Kahn (2001) argues that holding environ-

ments are critical interpersonal resources that

individuals draw on in anxiety-provoking worksituations. Safe relationships hold people

while they recover from stressors and, thus, en-

able them to move forward to a clearer sense of

possibility (Kahn, 2001). Friends, mentors, and

other close connections act as significant others

who help to reduce the emotional angst of beingconfronted with an alternative view of oneself.

When these connections with significant others

are secure attachments, individuals feel com-

fortable in branching out in new directions and

embracing new identities. These significant oth-

ers can offer inclusion and provide a secure

base (Ibarra, 2003), helping people evolve to-ward their best-self. Without them, individuals

may be more reticent to change. These sorts of

relational resources are particularly relevant

during jolt experiences (McCauley et al., 1994)

and during transition points or life stages whenan individual may be more open to others feed-

back and help (Levinson, 1985).

In organizations, developmental relationships

constitute a specific type of relationship that

provides important resources for making sense

of and responding to jolts. A person may have

one such relationship or a constellation of de-velopmental relationships (Higgins & Kram,

2001). When a protege experiences a jolt, a de-

velopmental relationship can provide the con-

text to make sense of what the jolt means from

someone with a different, often more senior po-sition in the organization, and it can provideideas as well as support for how to revise the

RBS. In addition, a mentor can provide social

and emotional support to help the protege inte-

grate his or her identities through counseling,

acceptance, confirmation, and friendship (Kram,

1985). In essence, developmental relationshipscan assist the protege in interpreting a jolt, mak-

ing it intelligible and actionable.



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In summary, relational resources are impor-

tant enablers, because they provide support for

individuals to feel comfortable embracing the

personal change that underlies revisions of the

RBS portrait.

Agentic resources. Personal agency is the

third psychological resource that enables the

revision of the RBS portrait. Agency refers to

peoples capacity to exercise control over their

own thought processes, motivation, and actions

(Bandura, 1989). Agentic resources are those be-

liefs, guides, and external motivators that facil-

itate personal action and fuel ones intention torevise the RBS. They include a sense of self-

efficacy in revising the RBS portrait, as well as

constructive guidance about how to revise it.

Examples of these enabling forces are dis-

cussed below.

Agentic resources encompass the sense ofself-efficacythe belief that one can success-

fully execute the behavior required for produc-

ing desired outcomes (Bandura, 1989). When in-

dividuals feel self-efficacious, they see their

behavior and identity as not completely shaped

by external forces; instead, they see themselves

as being able to make things happen by theirown action. With self-efficacy, individuals feel

potent and capable of revising the RBS portrait

in several ways. First, the fundamental belief

that a person can make things happen in signif-

icant ways alleviates the tendency to avoidrisks or to avoid trying new things. Second, self-

efficacy determines how much effort people will

exert and how long they will persevere in the

face of obstacles such as jolts. Self-efficacy

helps people recover quickly from failures and

setbacks before losing faith in their capabilities.

Thus, when employees are confronted by jolts atwork, but agentic resources are present, their

sense of heightened capacity to respond encour-

ages revision of the RBS portrait.

Agentic resources also influence how people

envision themselves and their future and, thus,guide changes to the RBS through the notion ofhope. Hopeful people have an understanding of

the willthat is, efficacy beliefs that a hoped-

for goal can be achievedand the waythat is,

a plan to achieve the hoped-for goal (Snyder et

al., 1991). Research shows that without hope hu-

mans are paralyzed and unable to change inany meaningful way. But with hope people act,

change, and achieve (Stotland, 1969). Thus, a

sense of hope also enables a sense of the way,

thereby providing constructive guidance about

changing the content or clarity of ones RBS por-

trait. When individuals possess a large degree

of agency, they set higher personal goals, pro-

viding a positive guide for revising the RBS por-

trait. On the contrary, low levels of agency may

induce the visualization of failure scenarios,

where individuals dwell on what can go wrong

(Bandura, 1989), which leads them to focus on

their deficits rather than their strengths.

In summary, agentic resources enable revi-

sions of the RBS portrait because they create

feelings of personal efficacy, as well as provide

constructive guidance about how to change the

RBS portrait.

The multiplicative effects of jolts and re-

sources.This trio of resources works in concertto enable the revision of the RBS by reducing the

destructive elements and increasing the con-

structive elements of jolts. For example, an ap-

preciative jolt is usually associated with posi-

tive emotions and a sense of belongingness

(e.g., one feels valued by others, and this engen-

ders positive emotions). Similarly, a challenging

jolt is usually associated with an increased

sense of personal agency (e.g., one learns that

one is able to effect change in the social system).

In work organizations, it is rare, but not im-

possible, to experience such a combination ofjolts and to have sufficient amounts of the trio of

resources that are powerful enough to yield sig-

nificant revisions of the RBS portrait. A prime

example of this combination is an intervention

that was developed several years ago with the

explicit aim of helping executives to compose

their RBS portrait (Quinn, Dutton, & Spreitzer,

2003; Quinn & Quinn, 2002). In the intervention a

person requests written feedback from signifi-

cant others describing the person at his or her

very best. The person asks between ten and

thirty friends, family members, and coworkers,who the person feels know him or her well and

will provide honest opinions, to provide best-

self feedback. The descriptions usually include

detailed stories and examples of the person

when he or she is making a distinct and extraor-

dinary contributionof when and how he or she

creates the most value for the system. No nega-

tive feedback is solicited. Once the person has

received the individual responses, he or she



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compiles them and searches for themes that de-

scribe the individual at his or her very best. The

pattern that emerges across the feedback from

the individuals is a sketch of the individuals

RBS portrait. Often there are surprises; some-

times the tasks or domains that the person be-

lieves are areas of competence dont emerge as

a primary theme of contribution. At other times a

storyteller may relate an experience that made

a difference to him or her, about which the feed-

back recipient was completely unaware.

Our research suggests that collecting this

composite of RBS sketches from a variety of peo-

ple from different realms of ones life is a pow-

erful, integrative, and creative act. It is also a

generative act, in the sense of creating a social

product that constructs oneself in the world in a

particular way, and this construction, in turn,creates a trajectory for future action that propels

one in a direction that affirms rather than denies

ones sense of unique possibility in the world. In

sum, this formal appreciative jolt is imbued with

positive affect, relational connectedness, and

personal agency so that the recipient of the

feedback is able to revise his or her RBS portrait

and advance along a trajectory toward becom-

ing extraordinary.

One who is extraordinary can be considered a

positive deviant, because he or she exemplifies

qualities and behavior that exceed standard ornormal expectations. Extraordinary people, like

extraordinary events, are remarkable; their ac-

tions are difficult to ignore because they have a

major, positive impact on individuals, systems,

organizations, and the environment. Social

change agents, like Martin Luther King, Jr.,

Jesus, and Gandhi, were extraordinary leaders

(Quinn, 2000).

Although they often lack notoriety and orga-

nizational rewards, many current organizational

members are extraordinary; they, too, approach

their role with the intention of improving effi-ciency and quality of work life for those they

support by leveraging their strengths. This tra-

jectory toward becoming extraordinary is

charted by expanding knowledge about ones

RBS and putting this knowledge into practice

with increasing regularity. In the final section of

this article, we make an explicit link between

composing the RBS portrait and becoming ex-

traordinary.

THE RBS AND BECOMING EXTRAORDINARY

Our theory of the RBS proposes that there arethree pathways by which the RBS portrait helpsemployees to become extraordinary: (1) expand-ing the constellation of possible selves, (2) facil-

itating social architecting, and (3) enhancingpersonal expressiveness. The core premise ofeach pathway is that individuals self-construc-tions guide their future actions through intra-psychic and social processes (Fiske & Taylor,

1984; Gioia & Poole, 1984). Taken together, thesethree pathways encompass an increased preva-lence of extraordinary thoughts about onesidentity, extraordinary actions that shape thesocial system, and extraordinary feelings ofwell-being. In turn, these thoughts, actions, andfeelings (re)generate resources that enable

these individuals (and many other organization-al members) to advance along the trajectory ofbecoming extraordinary (see Figure 2).

RBS and Possible Selves

When employees revise their portrait of whothey are at their best, they necessarily paint newpossibilities for their future. These possibilitiesare captured in their constellation of possibleselves. As defined by Markus and Nurius (1986),possible selves refer to the selves that a personcould become, would like to become, or is afraidof becoming. For example, consider the case of aprofessor who revised her RBS portrait to in-clude her newfound capability as an executiveeducation teacher. Previously, she had only con-sidered herself as one who was effective atteaching masters and undergraduate students.This change in her RBS fundamentally trans-formed her sense of what she could become. Herconstellation of possible selves expanded to ac-commodate new future work domains, and she

started to see new possibilities for incorporating

these talents in her vision of herself. She tooknew risks and tackled new tasks. She sought outnew opportunities for executive teaching, evenflying to another university to do so. She alsowrote a book that drew on her research but thatcould be used exclusively with executives. Atthe same time, she noticed that revising her RBSportrait also affected her vision of what she wasunlikely to become: a teacher whom executivesexperienced as stifling and disengaging.



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Research on possible selves suggests thatthese shifts in how one sees future possibilitiesare consequential. They shape how people ap-

proach future tasks by sparking anticipationand simulations of task performance (Cross &Markus, 1994). Possible selves help people focuson specific thoughts and feelings that affecttheir ability to accomplish relevant tasks (Ingle-hart, Markus, & Brown, 1988). The more vivid andelaborated the possible self is in a particulardomain, the more powerful its link to a personsperformance will be in that domain (Cross &Markus, 1994).

In the context of work organizations, Ibarra(1999) illustrates the power of possible selves inshaping peoples career trajectories. She argues

and demonstrates empirically that possibleselves serve as filters for identity change: theymotivate people to make changes so that thepossible self can become a reality. Her work isparticularly relevant, since it suggests that asindividuals embark on career transitions, theirpossible selves capture images of the type ofprofessional they aspire to become. These im-ages of hoped-for possible selves shape profes-sionals capacity to successfully construct and

project images of competence and credibility tokey constituents (i.e., colleagues and clients). Inthe professions Ibarra studiedinvestment

bankers and management consultantscraft-ing a viable professional image was critical foreventual career success.

Because the RBS portrait (who one is at onesbest) and possible selves (who one can become)are both elements of the self-concept, they areexperientially and cognitively intertwined.However, we think it is important to distinguishthe two schemata types in order to test how,separately and in unison, they help individualsmake behavioral adjustments that propel themalong the pathway of becoming extraordinary.

RBS and Social Architecting

As people acquire a clearer sense of theircompetencies, this self-knowledge endows themwith sensibilities about the types of contextsthat best facilitate the expression of and appre-ciation for these strengths. In addition, as peo-ple revise their RBS portrait, they are better ableto detect and design situations that help themstrengthen their RBS. These sensibilities allow

FIGURE 2

Composing the Reflected Best-Self Portrait



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people to be better architects of the connections,the places, and the tasks that enable their ex-traordinariness. Thus, we call individuals pro-active selection of settings, people, and tasksthat draw on their strengths social architect-ing.

The idea that individuals engage in socialarchitecting is well established in psychologyand sociology (e.g., McCall & Simmons, 1978;Schlenker, 1985) and is implied by some modelsthat portray individuals as proactive agents intheir own self-development (Ashford & Tsui,1991) and in the design of their jobs (Wrzes-niewski & Dutton, 2001). These views portrayindividuals as active crafters of their social en-vironments in ways that support and sustaindesired views of themselves. For example,Dweck, Higgins, and Grant-Pillow (2003) found

that visions of the ideal self result in an overallpromotion focus whereby people create goalsthat relate to their aspirations, advancement,and accomplishments. Schlenker, in his modelof identity formation, argues that people striveto create environments in both their own mindsand the real world that support, validate, andselect desirable identity images (1985: 89). TheRBS portrait is clearly a desirable identity im-age that is grounded in feedback and reflectionsfrom others. Composing a clearer and more sub-stantive RBS portrait allows people to be better

social architects, in that they control their owndestinies and constructively shape their futuresby shaping the contexts of which they are a part.

A critical part of social architecting involvesforming connections with individuals who en-able the RBS to thrive. Research on how individ-uals craft jobs that enhance self-meaning illus-trates this point. For example, in a study of howhospital cleaners enact their job differently,Wrzesniewski and Dutton (2001) found thatcleaners who enjoyed the work and saw it as atype of calling (Wrzesniewski, McCauley, Ro-zin, & Schwartz, 1997) perceived themselves at

their best as healers and hope providers, play-ing a critical role in patients recovery and care.Cleaners in this group actively architected thecontext by building relationships not only withpatients but also with patients families andfriendsrelationships that served to affirm andenact their RBS as healer. In this case, the clean-ers were architecting the relationships in con-text to derive affirmative meaning and to createjobs that were more satisfying and fulfilling.

This example illustrates Wrzesniewski and Dut-tons claim that people are often agentic archi-tects of their own jobs (2001: 194). We add totheir formulation the idea that if individuals ar-chitect the context in ways that play to their RBSportrait, they create a pathway toward becom-

ing extraordinary.Similarly, social architecting may involve re-

arranging ones time and tasks so that one isinvolved in tasks that draw on ones strengths.For example, in the story of the professor whocame to see that she could enact her RBS moreoften as an engaging teacher of executives, thisRBS revision fueled her choices to spend moretime teaching executives and less time teachingmasters and undergraduate students. Thistransformation was clearcut and visible to herand to others. More subtle were the gradual

investments that she made in conversations andconnections with other executives that helpedher to communicate more effectively with exec-utives in her classes and in her writing. Shegradually created a different landscape oflearning that deepened her knowledge and ex-perience base. In turn, she strengthened hercompetence in teaching to an executive educa-tion audience. Thus, she traveled in big andlittle steps toward being extraordinary by archi-tecting the context that simultaneously lever-aged and strengthened her RBS.

RBS and Personal Expressiveness

When people revise the RBS portrait, they domore than cognitively change what they see aspossible. Our theory suggests that changes inthe RBS portrait also alter how people feel aboutwho they are becoming, which creates a senseof vibrancy and energy that fuels travel towardbeing extraordinary.

To capture the feelings that accompany theprocess of composing the RBS portrait, we draw

from psychological work on optimal functioning,in particular the idea of personal expressive-ness (Waterman, 1993). Personal expressivenessrefers to a state of well-being in which peopleare living in accord with the daimon or trueself (Ryan & Deci, 2001). This state of well-being,known as personal expressiveness, is associ-ated with a set of feelings that indicate someoneis intensely alive and authentic (Ryan & Deci,2001: 146).



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Waterman argues that this state is capturedby six indicators: (1) an unusually intense in-volvement in an undertaking, (2) a feeling of aspecial fit or meshing with an activity that is notcharacteristic of most daily tasks, (3) a feeling ofbeing alive, (4) a feeling of being complete or

fulfilled while engaged in activity, (5) an impres-sion that this is what the person is meant to do,and (6) a feeling that this is who one really is(Waterman, 1993: 679). A focus on the importanceof this form of eudaimonic well-being has alsobeen emphasized by psychologists studyingpsychological well-being and health across thelife span (Ryff & Singer, 1998, 2000). Their theoryof human flourishing also emphasizes the im-portance of peoples psychological sense thatthey are realizing their potential, and they linkthis state to healthy functioning of physiological

systems.As people receive more reflections of who they

are at their best, their RBS portrait becomesmore substantive and more vivid. We proposethat this revision of the RBS portrait is associ-ated with a heightened sense of personal ex-pressiveness. As individuals compose a moreelaborated and vivid RBS portrait, they are bet-ter able to identify goals that are aligned withtheir true self (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999). Whenthese self-concordant goals are acted on, theycontribute to a heightened sense of personal

expressiveness.Further, as the RBS portrait becomes more fo-cused and elaborated, individuals acquire agreater sense of relatedness to others, whichfuels great personal expressiveness. In compos-ing the RBS portrait, individuals develop in-creased clarity regarding how they add value totheir social context, which also strengthens theirsense of purpose and identification (Stets &Burke, 2003; Stryker, 1980) with other people whoshare that social context. A variety of studiesdocument the association of greater relatednessand attachment to a heightened sense of well-

being (see Dutton & Heaphy, 2003, for a sum-mary; see also Higgins & Thomas, 2001).

Finally, as individuals compose their RBS por-trait, they are likely to become better able tocope with stress. Revising the RBS portrait en-hances ones sense of self, and self-enhance-ment has been linked empirically to healthierphysiological and neuroendocrine functioning(Taylor, Kemeny, Reed, Bower, & Gruenewald,2000). Self-enhancement is correlated with lower

cardiovascular responses to stress, more rapidcardiovascular recovery, and lower baselinecortisol levels, which help individuals amelio-rate damaging biological responses to thestressful conditions they may face (Taylor, Ler-ner, Sherman, Sage, & McDowell, 2003).

In sum, the RBS portrait is associated with arange of outcomes that individually and collec-tively equip individuals to move down the pathtoward becoming extraordinary. The link be-tween the RBS and possible selves creates acognitive image of a desired future state thathelps guide an individuals path. The RBS alsofurnishes individuals with a portrait of what ispossible that helps them architect situationsthat bring the portrait to life. Finally, the RBSportrait leads to personal expressiveness, whichgives individuals affective resources that can

nourish them as they move down that path to-ward becoming extraordinary.

COMPLICATING THE THEORETICALFRAMEWORK IN FUTURE RESEARCH

We have sketched a basic model of how socialcontext and individual behavior may work to-gether to propel an individuals growth and de-velopment through the composition and revisionof the RBS portrait. Our theoretical story hasnecessarily simplified a complex developmen-

tal and situated process. However, we see theo-retical complications of the story as invitationsto conduct important theoretical and empiricalextensions in the future. Four complicationsserve as invitations to future research: (1) thetiming of jolts, (2) the quality of ones relation-ship with feedback givers, (3) the degree of dis-crepancy between others reflections and onesown image of the RBS, and (4) the influence ofthe macro social context on RBS composition.

In this paper we have described the mecha-nisms that enable the revision of the RBS por-trait. We invite further research that considers

mechanisms that limit or expand the likelihoodthat a jolt will trigger a positive change in theRBS portrait. Barriers to RBS revision may arisefrom the individual, the organization, or theirinteraction, complicating the growth trajectoryof individuals through the RBS revision process.

For example, as we noted earlier, ones stagein life or career may affect the revision process.When people are aware that they are at a tran-sitional period (Levinson, 1985), such as a



17/26

midlife transition or adaptation to a new role(Ibarra, 1999), they may be particularly open tothe information and potential a jolt provides.However, when the transition occurs in a poten-tially threatening organizational context, peoplemay see a jolt experience as jeopardizing a ten-

uous position within the organization. For exam-ple, an associate who is being considered forpartner at her firm may be quite overwhelmedwith feelings of uncertainty and doubt. Insteadof viewing a challenging assignment as a de-velopmental opportunity, she may consider itthe final test of her competence, making hermore vulnerable to choking under pressure(Baumeister & Showers, 1986), rather than seeinga new opportunity to exercise and develop herstrengths. Thus, one such potential barrier torevision may be the timing of the jolt in relation

to ones location in a developmental trajectory.Another possibility is that people may not

have the individual capacity or social resourcesto integrate the jolt experience if they have justrevised their RBS. For example, after the associ-ate described above is promoted, she may turnher attention away from her work life as a re-spite from an intense period of work, missing orbypassing jolt experiences that might alter herRBS, simply because her attention is divertedelsewhere and her individual and social re-sources may be low. In future research scholars

need to consider how this process unfolds dif-ferently for people at different developmentalstages.

A second complication involves considerationof how reflections from different people havemore or less impact on the revision of the RBS.Our analysis suggests that variance in otherpeoples structural and emotional significanceaffects the degree to which their reflections areincorporated into the self-revision process. Fu-ture research might test how the connectionquality between people affects the level of im-pact of reflected appraisals on the RBS revision

process.For example, if the relationship between two

people is marked by authenticity and mutuality,then one persons reflected appraisal mightstrongly impact the others RBS portrait, becauseboth people experience the connection as one inwhich they are fully known and understood bythe other and in which they can engage in fullerself-disclosure (Dutton & Heaphy, 2003; Miller &Stiver, 1997). If a relationship lacks authenticity

and mutuality, then cynicism and lack of trust

may lead individuals to discount the positive

feedback that they receive from significant oth-

ers and to view the feedback as insincere, inac-

curate, or irrelevant to their identity. Research

shows that individuals are prone to focus on

negative information (e.g., competency gaps)

and to subvert positive information (e.g.,

strengths), given that negative emotions often

tend to have a stronger impact on psychological

functioning than positive emotions (Baumeister,

Bratslavsky, Finkenauer, & Vohs, 2001). Imagine

the subordinate whose boss tells him he did afantastic job with his recent quarterly report,

after demeaning and threatening him for weeks

about completing the report on time. The likeli-

hood that the subordinate will incorporate this

feedback into his RBS portrait is extremely low.

In addition, the level of identification thatsomeone feels with a person providing a reflec-

tion should affect its level of impact on the self-

revision process (Ibarra, 2003). For example, role

models, mentors, or people with whom one iden-

tifies are likely to affect the revision of the RBS

portrait more strongly. Identification with a

mentor means that an individual already seeshim/herself as similar to the mentor and projects

movement toward more similarity in the future

(Thomas, 1989). This form of connection may en-

able an individual to integrate RBS feedback

more easily from someone with whom the indi-vidual identifies than from someone with whom

he or she identifies less. By identifying with

each other, individuals may come to know them-

selves through their relationships with one an-

other (Kaplan, 1984).

At the same time, there are instances in which

a high-quality connection with a feedback givermight actually inhibit, rather than enable, the

revision of the RBS. For example, Ibarra (2003)

argues that changes in self-identity often re-

quire new connections, because old connections

(particularly strong connections) may bind peo-ple to old ways of viewing themselves. The qual-ity of the connection may be considered both a

potential enabling mechanism and a potential

interfering mechanism for revising the RBS.

Thus, a fruitful direction for future research in-

volves developing and testing how the qualities

of the connection that one has with feedbackgivers shape the RBS revision process. This

elaboration would help to illustrate how the RBS



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revision process is deeply affected by the struc-ture of relationships in which one is embedded.

A third complication involves specifying theextent to which inaccurate or inconsistent per-ceptions of reflected appraisals affect the im-pact of an appreciative jolt on the RBS. It is

important to acknowledge that people may sendeach other inaccurate information about theirstrengths and capabilities. For example, somepeople might use stereotypical images of socialidentity groups to form the basis of their as-sumptions about who one should be at onesbest (e.g., women as nurturing, men as forcefuland commanding during a crisis), and they mayimpose such expectations on others (see Acker,1990; Darley & Fazio, 1980; Snyder & Stukas, 1999)rather than share feedback about who one actu-ally is at ones best. In future research scholars

should investigate whether there is an optimaldegree of positive discrepancy between onescurrent RBS portrait and the feedback one re-ceives from ones social context regarding onesRBS.

Even though a jolt inherently implies a dis-crepancy or disruption, when one receives feed-back that is too discrepant from the self-concept,one is unlikely to incorporate this feedback intoones self-schema (Kenny & DePaulo, 1993;Swann, 1987). Yet revision of the RBS hinges onlearning new information about ones strengths

and capabilities. If one were only to receiveinformation that confirmed ones current portraitof the RBS, this portrait would become morerigid and narrow, rather than more vivid, sub-stantive, or expansive.

Research shows that individuals are able tolive with contradictions in their self-concept,given that they are only aware of a small part ofself-knowledge (i.e., the phenomenal self) at anypoint in time (Baumeister, 1999). They can alsosustain a small number of positive illusions (i.e.,beliefs about the self that are not necessarilytrue), because such illusions afford heightened

motivation and persistence (Taylor & Brown,1988). In fact, research suggests that the desirefor self-enhancement or favorable informationabout oneself is stronger than the desire for con-sistent or accurate knowledge about oneself, atleast for most individuals (Baumeister, 1999).These distinctions suggest that it is important toexamine the extent to which enhancing yet dis-crepant reflected appraisals spark revisions tothe RBS portrait. The above cited research on

self-verifying versus self-enhancing feedback il-lustrates the need for specification of the condi-tions under which an individual will internalizeversus reject social information about his or herRBS.

Finally, a fourth complication involves elabo-

rating and testing how the organizational con-text affects revisions to the RBS portrait. In ourmodel we have focused on the power of jolts andresources in explaining the level of change inself-knowledge, but numerous opportunities forextension are possible. For instance, research-ers could examine how reward systems and or-ganizational culture affect the content andstructure of peoples RBS, as well as shape howthey change over time. For example, some orga-nizations institutionalize practices (such as re-ward schemes or appreciation rituals) that make

developing and growing their employees animportant activity. In these kinds of organiza-tional contexts, people receive frequent andelaborate feedback about the value that theycontribute to others and to the work of the orga-nization. The care-enabling infrastructure ofsuch contexts cultivates a care-conducive cul-ture that promotes employee growth and self-redefinition (McAllister & Bigley, 2002).

In these kinds of contexts, changes in self-knowledge that are consistent with a revisedRBS are likely to be a normal and expected part

of being an organizational member. At St. Lukesof London, for example, people assume Every-one is brilliant and Its a matter of findingtheir place and allowing them to reach theirpotential (Lewin & Regine, 2000: 261). At Veri-fone, growing people and growing the businessare assumed to go hand in hand (Lewin &Regine, 2000). In both of these organizations, af-firmative practices embedded in formal rewardsystems and reinforced by informal norms ofinterpersonal treatment can make upward revi-sions of the RBS a natural part of being an or-ganizational member.

Just as features of organizational contextscould enhance the likelihood of a positive RBSportrait, characteristics of organizational con-texts could directly diminish the possibility ofthis form of self-development. For example, inorganizational contexts where it is unsafe tolearn from mistakes (Weick & Sutcliffe, 2002),where individualistic achievement trumps col-lective achievement, and where silence as op-posed to voice is the norm and expected practice



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Our theory of the RBS portrait helps organiza-tional researchers to see the links between the-ories of personal identity and career change inorganizations (e.g., Higgins, 2001; Hill, 2003;Ibarra, 1999, 2003) and theories of resource-based views of the firm (Barney, 1991). In partic-

ular, our theory helps researchers see how themicrocontext inside organizations contributes tothe creation of difficult-to-imitate, rare, andvaluable organizational resources in the form ofindividuals striving, growing, and developingthemselves in ways that move them toward ex-cellence and extraordinariness. We see realpromise in helping to uncover some of the mi-crodynamics through which strategic human re-sources are built and sustained. We view theRBS (and the processes that create and directthis important knowledge structure) as a key-

stone in the sustainable development of strate-gic human resources that contribute to an orga-nizations capacity to compete effectively overtime.

Instead of considering human capital as afixed asset, we describe the dynamic process ofcreating social contexts where individuals areable to evolve in the direction of their capabilityand potential (Coleman, 1988; Schultz, 1961).More traditional notions of human resourcemanagement are based on two assumptions: (1)organizations benefit by effectively using the

human resources they acquire, which suggeststhat they attempt to employ the best individu-als, and (2) organizations benefit from identify-ing and eliminating personal weaknesses inemployees. In this paper we present an addi-tional means of human resource management:creating contexts that maximize the possibilityfor employees to envision and enact their best-self. In contrast to normative methods of humanresource management, such as traditional per-formance evaluations, which encourage lookingacross employees to see who is the best, ourtheory of the RBS aligns with developmental

theories that highlight means of building hu-man capital through enhancing employeesskills, talents, and performance. Thus, it is im-portant to be clear that while organizations canuse the RBS portrait for employee development,it is not intended to be a new method of evalu-ating people. Instead, we discuss the strategichuman resource capacity inherent in helpingpeople discover who they are when they are attheir personal best.

Implicit in our theory of the RBS is the as-sumption that organizations cannot maximizetheir strategic human resource capacity with asolitary focus on eliminating limitations andweaknesses; organizations must also focus onbuilding the strengths that reside within their

employees, systems, and structures (Clifton &Harter, 2003). In line with the Gallup Organiza-tions research on human strengths (Bucking-ham & Clifton, 2001; Clifton & Harter, 2003), weposit that organizations experience the greatestgains in human development when they investin what people do best naturally. We do notencourage organizations to ignore weaknesses,but we do suggest that organizations will bemore likely to achieve excellence (via customerloyalty, employee retention, and productivity)when they focus and build on employees

strengths, with only a secondary focus on under-standing and managing weaknesses (Clifton &Harter, 2003). Changes in the RBS portrait overtime provide one explanatory theory for under-standing why a strength-based approach to em-ployee development is effective from an individ-uals point of view.

We do not consider the resources that enabledevelopment to be limited or depleting (e.g.,money, time, promotions); instead, we describesocially embedded resources that are regener-ated through human development (e.g., positive

emotions, positive relationships, personalagency). This view of socially embedded re-sources parallels descriptions of social and hu-man capital as resources that are generatedthrough use but that depreciate with nonuse(see Adler & Kwon, 2002, for a review). As indi-viduals discover their core competencies anddraw on these competencies to add value totheir social system, the system is enriched, andthe core competencies of the organization (Pra-halad & Hamel, 1990) are transformed.

In this way, the theory of RBS compositionmaps a microlevel process for individual growth

that may result in upward spirals of increasingcollective capability and potentiality in organi-zations. However, it is important to note thatalthough revising the RBS portrait enhances in-dividuals identity, well-being, and action, thesechanges may not always benefit the organiza-tion. If, for example, employees discover thatthey are unable to actualize their RBS withintheir current organization, they may seek em-ployment with other organizations that will pro-



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vide opportunities for them to enact their RBSmore frequently.

This theory of RBS composition also has im-plications for managing change in organiza-tions. We describe both personal and social fac-tors that enable the composition of the RBS

portraitthe individual and the organizationcocreate the context for change through psycho-logical, relational, and physical resources. In sodoing, we paint a picture of individuals as hav-ing personal agency; they proactively negotiatetheir work identities to determine who they areand what they do. This perspective builds onresearch on job crafting (Wrzesniewski & Dutton,2001), self-development (Ashford & Tsui, 1991),feedback seeking (Ashford, 1986; Ashford, Blatt,& VandeWalle, 2003), and identity construction(Ashforth, 2001; Ibarra, 1999; Rafaeli, Dutton, Har-

quail, & Mackie-Lewis, 1997) in organizations.Yet work organizations also expand or con-

strain the possibilities for being extraordinary.They do this by both affecting the pattern of joltsthat confront individuals and by affording ordenying the resources that contribute to revisingthe RBS portrait. Creating workplaces wherepeople can be authentic or fully there (Kahn,1990, 1992) involves not only facilitating self-discovery to discover true sources of strengthand competence but also allowing these sourcesof strength and competence to flourish. Rather

than expecting mediocre performance, organi-zations that operate by setting stretch goals aspart of their business strategy might also expectextraordinary contributions from employees.Thus, our theory suggests that leaders mightcreate high-performing organizations (Collins,2001; Hamel & Prahalad, 1994; Tichy & Sherman,1993) by creating high-performing individuals(Spreitzer et al., 1995).

For example, consider two organizations thatvary systematically in the degree to which theirculture values developing employees as part ofthe core ideology. One organization, vitality.

com, sees passion, growth, development, andlong-term tenure with the organization as desir-able and normal. The other organization, trans-action.com, values individuals direct and regu-lar contributions to the bottom line and isunconcerned about development and long-termemployment. Work organizations that have cul-tures (values, norms, and shared beliefs) thatpromote employee development are more likelyto have more formal and appreciative jolts (such

as the RBS intervention), and when employeesface challenges, they are more likely to haveaccess to critical resources (e.g., positive affect,positive relationships, and personal agency) forself-revision. In these kinds of organizations, wewould expect individuals to flourish as a result

of continual revisions of the RBS portrait. Whilehypothetical, this contrast invites theoreticaland empirical exploration of what features ofwork organizations enable individuals move-ment toward becoming extraordinary.

Becoming extraordinary is about a pursuit ofpotentiala never-ending journey with newjoys to uncover. The journey of becoming ex-traordinary is ongoing and evolves over time,with no discernible final end state. By under-standing how individuals continually evolveinto the RBS, without comparing them to other

individuals, we can determine how to generateextraordinary contributions and performance inwork organizations. The theoretical quest to un-derstand and empirically test how organization-al contexts help individuals thrive is a directanswer to the call for more studies that extendthe field of positive organizational scholarship(Cameron et al., 2003; Dutton, 2003a; Spreitzer,Sutcliffe, Dutton, Sonenshein, & Grant, in press).As such, we encourage the continued pursuit oftheory and data that help to uncover pathwaystoward becoming extraordinary in work organi-

zations.

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Adler, P. S., & Kwon, S. W. 2002. Social capital: Prospects for

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