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H

\__..·

12

!lEv 9Ewpw or1 Eivm TTEpiTTTWOil oTTou ll TTPOVIJOTIK~ EPIJilVEia rou OfliJOOIEUIJaro~

yiVETOI OVTIAf')TTT~ EOV 0 avayVWOTil~ OVOTpE~EI OE VEVOVOTO TO OTTOfa OEV

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TO OAO IOTOpiKO TTOU TTPOilV~91lKE Til~ ETTit51Kil~ t51l!JOOiEUOI'J~, aAAa Kpivw OTI OAO TO

OTOIXEia KOI VEVOVOTO OTTapafTilTO VIO Va KpfVW KOTO TTOOO TO t51l!JOOiEUIJO EiVOI

t5UO<pll1JIOTIKO J3piOKOVTOI OTO it5IO TO t51l1JOOiEUIJO. EiVOI VI 'aUTO TTOU OUIJ<pWVW IJE

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t5EV Of')IJOlVEI OTI, AE~EI~ TTOU TTEpiEXEI TO ap9po t5EV a<p~VOUV t5UO<pf)IJIOTIKO

UTTOVOOUIJEVO TTOU VO OTTOt5it50VTOI OTOV EVOVOVTO. OjJW~ t5ua<p~IJIOf) TTOU

TTPOKUTTTEI OUIJTTEpOOIJOTIKO OTTO TTPOVIJOTIKO UTTOVOOUIJEVO (true innuendo) t5EV ElVOI

OUTO TTOU TTpOKUTTTEI OTTO Tl~ AE~EI~, TOU it5IOU TOU KEIIJEVOU. npayjJOTIKO

UTTOVOOUIJEVO TTpOKUTTTEI IJOVO ETTEit5~ 0 avayVWOTil~ yvwpf~EI VEVOVOTO TTOU t5EV

J3piaKOVTOI OTO t51l!JOOiEUIJO, j.JE OTTOTEAEOIJO va E~O~EI TO OUIJTTEpOOIJO OTI OTO ap9po

EK<ppd~ETOI t5UOQ>I11JIOTIKO UTTOVOOUIJEVO VIO TOV EVOVOVTO. H t51dKpl011 IJETO~U EV6~

UTTOVOOUIJEVOU TTOU TTpOKUTTTEI OTTO TO dp9po Kal UTTOVOOUIJEVOU TTOU TTPOKUTTTEI

ETTEit5~ 0 OVOVVWOT11~ yvwpf~EI VEVOVOTO TTOU t5EV J3piOKOVTOI OTO KEliJEVO,

ETTE~Ilvouvrm ava,\unKa OTI'JV AyyAIK~ UTT09Eall Grubb v Bristol United Press 1:

«When read in conjuction with extrinsic facts words may in law of defamation have some special secondary meaning additional or different from, their natural ordinary meaning . This special or secondary meaning is not one in which the words viewed in isolation are capable of sustaining. It is one which a reader acquainted with the extrinsic facts will understand the words in the light of those facts».

EiTE TO dp9po OTTOt5it5EI EU9EW~ OTOV EVOVOVTO OTI AOit50pEi, J3pi~EI KATT ~ TOU TO

OTTOt5it5EI OUIJTTEpOOIJOTIKd W~ UTTOVOOUIJEVO, TO TTIO TTOVW OUIJTTEpOOIJO TTpOKUTTTEI

OTTOKAEIOTIKO IJOVO OTTO Tl~ AE~EI~ TOU KEIIJEVOU TOU t51'JIJOOIEUIJOTO~. To KpiT~piO VIO

TO KOTO TT600 EVO t5111JOOlEUIJO EiVOI t5UO(j>I11JIOTIKO ElVOI OVTIKEIIJEVIK6 KOI t5EV IJTTOpEf

VO E~OpTOTOI OTTO TllV UTTOKEIIJEVIK~ TTp69EOI1 TOU auyypacpta TOU t51'JIJOOIEUIJOTO~. To

KpiT~piO, TO OTTOiO Ecpapj.JO~ETOI, Kal EXEI ETTE~Epyaa9Ei OTil VOIJOAOyia, EiVOI KOTd

TTOOO AoyiKOi av9pWTTOI TTOU EXOUV t51af3dOEI TO ETTit51KO t5f)j.JOOlEUIJO, KOTW OTTO Tl~

1 [1963]1 Q.B. 309,327

··"\

13

O'UVS~KE~ nou EXEI 5r]I.JOO'IEUSEi, Sa TO. EPIJ~VEUaV IJE Tp6no nou va EiVOI

5UO'(jH11JIO'TIKO y1a TOV EVayOVT02.

0 AOVIKO~ avSpwnor;, EiVOI 0 avSpwnor; nou EXEI VEVIKE() VVWO'EI~ yta TOV KOO'IJO KQI

TO ne:pti30.J..J..ov TOU aJ..J..a 5EV EXEI onotE0'6~nOTE EI5JKE() VVWO'Eif) navw O'TI~ onoiE~ Sa

!Jnopoucre: va l3aO'IoSe:i yta va EPJ.IIlVEUO'EI Tl~ M~e:tr; ~ TWV cruv5uao!J6 Twv M~e:wv

nou avacptpOVTOI OTO 51l!JOOJEU!Ja3. H EPJ.IIlVEia, nou Sa ano5oSEi O'TO 51liJOO'iEU!Ja

Efvat navToTe:, npay!JaTtK6 e:upll!Ja, Kat e:~apTaTOt an6 Til ye:vtK~ e:vrunwcrll nou

51l!JIOUpye:iTOI an' aUTO OTO J..oytK6 avayVWOTil.

To £\tKaoT~pto, ea nptne:1 va e:~e:Tacre:t nota e:ivat ll PllT~ Kat cpuotK~ EPJ.IIlVEia rwv

AE~EWV O'TO OUVOAO TOU~. 9a nptnEI Va OUVKEVTpW6Ei OTil VEVIK~ OllJ.IaO'ia TOU

51l!JOOIEUJ.IaTO~ KQI Va anocpuyEI Til VOIJIKiOTIKil Kat anoonaOJ.IaTJK~ E~ETOOil TWV

AE~EWV nou avaq>EpOVTOI OTO Eni5IKO 51l!JOOiEUJ.Ia.

Sa nptnEI va J..ai3EI un64J'l TOU, OAOU() TOU~ O'XETIKOU() napayOVTE(), nou EXOUV

OXEOil IJE Til 51l!JOO'JEU01l TOU Eni5IKOU apSpou, EJTE aUTOi OJ napayOVTE~

5taTIJOTWVOVTat an6 TO i5IO TO 51l!JOO'iEUJ.Ia ~ an6 TllV J.laprupia, nou EXEI TESEi

EVWTIIOV TOU £\tKaOTilPiOU an6 TOU~ 5taBiKOU().

~TilV napouoa ne:pinrwoll, Sa nptne:t va Allq>Se:i un64Jil, ro ye:vtK6 nJ..aioto IJEOa oro

anoia OUVTO.XSilKE TO apSpo. EniOil(), tJ..aJ3a un64Jil!JOU TO O'UVOAO TOU apSpou, Kat

ext J.16vo TO anoondo!Jara, TO anoia KarayytJ..J..e:t o e:vayovTOr; 6rt e:ivat 6uoq>lliJIOTtKa

yt' aur6v.

~nr; anocpaoe:t~ Australian Newspaper Company v Bennet4 KaJ Speidel v Plato

Films Ltd5 Ayy'AtK6 £\tKaor~pto e:ne:~~VIlO'E 6rt e:ivat Oll1JavrtK6 va Allq>Se:i un64Jil 6J..o

TO 51l!JOOiEUJ.Ia ~ TO tpyo, yta Va !JnOpEO'EI TO £\tKaO'T~piO va aVTIAil<j>SEi nota 6a ~TOV

ll yvW!Jil rou J..oytKou av6pwnou oe: oxtoll IJE ra e:ni6tKa anocrnaoiJaTO.

2 Gatley on Libel and Slander, Sweet & Maxwell, Sixth Edition, Chapter 3 Interpretation, par.88 Objective Test.

3 1d. Par. 93

44 [1894] 2 AC 284

s [1960] AC 1090

14

E~aA.A.ou, oev eiv01 oper; 11 Elcrf}yflcrfl 6r1 OTflV nEpfnrwcrfl nou unapxouv ouo

meavtc; EPIJflVEiec; O'Tit; M~Eit;, fl!JJO lTOU EiVOI OUO'<pfliJIO'TIKf} KOI ll clAAil EPIJilVEia lTOU

VO !JilV EiVOI OUO'<plliJIO'TIKf}, TO LliKOO'Tf}piO VO EJVOI U1TOXPEWIJEVO VO 01TOOEX8Ef Til !Jil

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TTOIO EfVOI 11 j.Jia KOI O'WO'Tf} EPIJ'lVEia TWV AE~EWV, OVE~clPT'lTO OlTO TO VEVOV6t; 6TI

IJ1TOp£i va unapxe1 KOI ro EVOEXOIJEVO IJIO<; aAA!l<; EPIJilVEiac;.

H op8f} 8tcr11 e!v01, 6nwc; ETTE~IlVEiTOI OTilV AyyAIKf} an6cpacr11 Newstead v London

Express ltd6 6r1, OT'lV nepinrwcr11 nou unapxe1 O!Jcpl[3oAia we; npoc; TllV op8f}

EPIJ'lVEia TOU £1TfOIKOU Oll!JOO'IEUIJOTO<;, E[VOI lTOVTOT£ p6AO<; TWV EVOpKWV va

ano<i>acricrouv Kara n6cro Sa ElTIKparf}cr£1 11 EPIJ'lVEfa 11 onofa efv01 oucr<p'liJIOTIKf}.

I:r11v Kunpo, o OIOXWPIOIJ6<; IJETa~u rou Ka8f}Kovroc; rou OIKacrrf} va anocpacrfcrEI

Kara n6cro ro E1TiOIKo O!liJOOfEUIJa, ea t.mopoucre va EKA!lcp8ei an6 ro A.oy1K6

av8pW1TO W<; OUO'<p'liJIO'TIKO (question Of Jaw), KOI TO Ka8f}KOV TWV EVOpKWV va

anocpacricrouv Kara rr6cro ro enio1Ko O!liJOOiEUIJa Sa ti<Ail<p8Ef an6 ro A.oy1K6

av8pwno we; OUO'<p'liJIO'TIKO (question of fact), EiVOI 8EWP11TIKO, OIOTI 0 ElTOVVEAIJaTiac;

OIKOO'Tf}<; EKTEAEi KOI Ta OUO Ka8f}KOVTa.

I:r11v AyyAIKf} an6cpacr11 Slim v Daily Telegraph ltd7 yfvETOI wpaia avacpopa crrouc;

OUO'KOAOU<; KOI TEXVIKOU<; KOV6VE<; TOU OOTIKOU OOIKf}!JaTO<; TOU AI(3EAOU 1TOU KcllTOTE

1T£pi1TAEKOUV TO Ka8f}KOV TOU LliKOO'Tf} va OlTO<pacrfcr£1 IJE (30011 TOUt; KOV6VE<; Til<;

Kolvf}c; A.oy1K(J<; ae crxtcr11 IJE TllV op8f} EPIJilVEfa rou eniOIKou O!liJOOIEUIJaroc;:

(c/f this protracted exercise in logical positivism has resulted in our reaching a conclusion as to the meaning of either letter different from the first impression which we formed on reading it, the conclusion reached is unlikely to reflect the impression of the plaintiff's character or conduct which was actually formed by those who read the letters in their morning newspaper in 1961 ... [Diplock] Words are imprecise instruments for communicating the thoughts of one man to another ... but the notion that the same words should bear different meanings to different men and that more than one meaning should be 'right' conflicts with the training of a lawyer .. .for lawyers the major premise is that any particular combination has one meaning .. . and is capable of ascertainment as being the 'right' meaning by the adjudicator to whom the law confides the responsibility of determining it... When libel tried by judge it is he who has to arrive at a single right meaning as the natural and ordinary meaning of the words complained of ... It would be carrying artificiality too far for a judge to ask himself not only ' What is the natural and ordinary meaning in which the words would

6 [1940] 1 KB. 397 7 (1968) 1 All E.R. 497

15

be understood by reasonable men to whom they were published?' but also the further question ' could reasonable men understand them as bearing that meaning?.'

(EAEU9EpO UETOCDpacrn)

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To ap8po 17(y) TOU rrtpi AO"TIKWV Al>IKr)J.UlTWV N61JOU, KE<p. 149, rrpovoEi TO

aK6J\ou8a:

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TJ:)V arra0)(6AJ:)Oil TOU EiVaJ BuocpJ:)IJIOTJKE~.

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OTTOOEJ~EI 6TJ Ta .\6y1a aura OAJ:)8EUOUV yra TO rrp60WTTO TOU EV<lyovra, yra TTAr'JPil

16

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TOU.

rro ouyypa!JIJO Gatley on Libel and Slander, Sweet and Maxwell8, £1TE~'lVEfrm 6r1

TO op96 KpiT~piO yra Va a~IOAOyr)9Ef TO O'l!JOOfEUIJO OlTO OUT~ Tr)V TrTUX~ ElVOI W~

aKoi\ouew~:

((Even if the words do not relate to qualifications peculiar to the claimant's calling and would not be defamatory if published of others, they are actionable per se if they would be likely adversely to affect his professional reputation (and not merely his private character) in the eyes of reasonable people».

(EAtu9e:pn ue:n:tq>paan)

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0rr6TE TrpETrEI VO E~ETaOTEf TO KEfi.JEVO OTO OUVOAO TOU y1a VO OIOTTIOTW9£f KOTO TrOOO

ETr'lPEO~ETal OUO!JEVW~ r) UTrOOTaO'l TOU e:vayovra OE OXEOI"} IJE TO e:rrayye:,\!Jd TOU ~

ro a~fw!Ja rrou KOTEfXE w~ avTmp6owrro~ Tl"}~ Kurrpou OTO FRA.

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Til~ roTooe:Aioa~ «Christofias Watch». H M~l"}, oraxe:rpiOT~~. OI"}IJafve:r np6owrro rrou

8 Eleventh Edition, Section 4. Words Calculated to Disparage in any Office Profession, Calling Trade or Business pg. [149]

17

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18

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19

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20

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21

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LTI"JV AyyAIK~ urr69EOI"J Gough v Local Sunday Newspapers (North) Ltd.9

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XEIPIOJJOU TI"J<; KaTOOTaOI"J<;.

neparTEpW, OTI"JV AyyAIK~ urr69EOI"J Parmiter v Coupland10 (1840) 151 EP 340

ETTE~I"JY~91"JKE OTI EXEI OUO<pi"JJJIOTIK~ EVVOia 6TTOia ava<popa OE rrp6oWTTO JJE OI"JJJOOia

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4JUXIK~ OC5UVI"J y1a va OIKaiOUTal aTTO~I"JJJIWOEI<;. (BA. Gatley on Libel and Slander) 11.

9 [2003]1 WLR 1836 10 (1840) 151 EP 340 11 pg. [148] urroar)IJEfWar) 87

22

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~To cruyypa!Jj.la Gatley on Libel and Slander Sweet and MaxWell 11th edition

Chapter 2 Defamatory Imputations paragraph 2.32 ETTE~'lVElTOI 6r1 orroret5~TTOTE

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«It is defamatory to publish of a solicitor that he has been guilty of 'sharp practice' in his profession or a breach of professional confidence or other DISEREPUTABLE dishonest or incompetent conduct».

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23

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24

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ap9po.

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TO UAIK6 XWPi<; va EXEI tAe:yxo ~ VVWOFl yra TO TTEPIEXOIJEVO TOU. (innocent

dissemimation). rr,v AyyAIK~ urr66e:cr11 Vizelly v. Mudie's Select Library, TO

ye:yov6TO r')rav w~ aKoAouew~:

Mia J3rf3Aro9~KF1 KUKAoq>6p!lOE Jj1f3Aio TTOU OTTOOEiX9!lKE apy6Te:pa OTI e:ixe:

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T'lV KUKAocpopia TOU JjJJjAfou. 0 lord Justice Romer tAafje: UTT04J'l TOU TO

aK6Aouea yra va arrocpacricre:r 6n 11 urre:pacrmcr11 Til~ aewa~ KUKAo<popla~ r')rav

ETTITUX~<;.

25

<<That [they were] innocent of any knowledge of the libel contained in the work disseminated by [them], that there was nothing in the work or the circumstances under which it came to [them] which ought to have led [them] to suppose that it contained a libel, and that, when the work was disseminated by [them], it was not by any negligence on [their] part that [they] did not know that it contained the libel, then, although the dissemination of the work by [them] was prima facie publication of it, [they] may nevertheless, on proof of the before-mentioned facts, be held not to have published it».

LTr]V AyyA.IK~ urr69EO'l Byrne v Deane CA 12 AyyA.JK6 6.JKacrT~pJo ETIE~~V'lOE 6Tl

EK06Tr]<; oucr<pr]IJIOTIKOU rrEpiEXOIJEVou KEIIJEvou OEV EfvOJ rrp6crwrro rrou

ETIE~Epya~ETOI IJOVO TO OTOIXEfa ~ ETOIIJO~EI OVTfypa<pa TOU KEIIJEVOU. LTr]V AyyA.ia

EXEI 9£crmcr9Ef TO Defamation Act 1996, To orrofo rrpovoEf 6TJ rrp6crwrro OEV Efvm

OUVTOKTr]<;, EKOOTr]<; ~ UTIEU9UVO<; y1a Tr]V KUKAO<popfa TOU OUO<pr]IJIOTIKOU

TIEplEXOIJEVOU KEIIJEVOU EOV OOXOAEfTOI IJOVO IJE Tr]V EKTUTIWOr], Tr]V EKOOOr], Tr]V

KUKAO<popia ~ Tr]V TIWAr]Or] TWV ETifOIKWV KEIIJEVWV. 6.JaTUTIW9r]KE OTI TO OWOT6

KpiT~piO TIOU TIPETIEI va A.ai3EJ UTI04Jr] TOU TO 6.JKOOT~pJO y1a va arro<pav9Ei KOTO

TIOOO TO rrp6crwrro Sa TipETIEI va EfVOI UTI6A.oyo y1a TO OUO<pr]j.JIOTJK6 KElj.JEVO EfVal

KOTO rr6cro IJTIOpEf va E~OX9Ef W<; OUIJTIEpacrj..la OTI TO rrp6crwrro yvwpi~E y1a Tr]V

KUKAO<popfa ~ Tr]V EK9EOr] TOU OUO<pr]IJIOTIKOU KEIIJEVOU KOI ~TOV UTIEU9UVO<; y1a Tr]V

OUVEXI~OIJEVr] OVOpTr]O'l TOU KEIIJEVOU OE Or]j..IEiO TIEpfOTITO y1a TO KOIVO.

Aur~ 11 apx~ EXEI ETIEKT09Ef oro ofKmo ava<popJKa IJE opyavJOIJOU<; rrou rraptxouv . -

UTir]PECrfE<; OIOOJKTUOU K09W<; KOI rrp6crwrra TIOU EfVOI UTIEU9uva y1a Tr]V AEITOUpyia

KaJ OIOXEiplcrr]JcrTocrEA.iowv. LTr]V AyyA.IK~ urr69EO'l Bunt v Tilley13 Evayovrac; Kfvr]crE

aywy~ · Evavrfov rrapoxta urrr]pEcrJwv rou oJaOJKruou 5J6n oucr<pr]IJIOTIKO crx6A.Ja

Efxav avapTr]9Ei crE oJaOJKruaK~ crEAfoa avaprr]cr'l crxoAfwv (chat room). H arrafT'lO'l

TOU rrapaTIOVOUIJEVOU arroppf<p9r]KE EVOVTJOV TOU TIOPOXEO OIOTJ Kpi9r]KE OTJ OUT6<;

arrA.a OJEUKOAUVE Tr]V ETIIKOJVWVia KOI OEV ~TOV UTIEU9UVO<_; y1a Tr]V EKOOOr] TWV

OUVKEKPIIJEVWV OXOAfWV. nEpOITEpW, arrapJ9j.J~9r]KOV OJ rrapayoVTE<; TIOU rrpETIEI va

Ar]<p9ouv UTI04Jr] y1a va IJTIOpEOEI TO 6.JKOOT~pl0 va arro<pav9Ef KaTO rr6cro TO

5JaOJKTuaK6 IJEcro ~ <poptac; rrptrrEJ va Kpi9Ef urr6A.oyo y1a Tr]V avaprr]O'l crxoA.fwv

OVWVUIJWV KOI j.Jr].

«In determining responsibility for publication in the context of the law of defamation, it seems to me to be important to focus on what the person did, or failed to do, in the chain of communication. It is clear that the state of a defendant's knowledge can be

12 (1937) I KB 818,

13 and 407 EWCH 2006

26

an important factor. If a person knowingly permits another to communicate information which is defamatory, when there would be an oppbrtunity to prevent the publication, there would seem to be no reason in principle why liability should not accrue. So too, if the true position were that the applicants had been (in the claimant's words) responsible for 'corporate sponsorship and approval of their illegal activities».

(EAEU9EPD UETO<Dpacrn)

<<f1ta va KpteEi Kara rr6ao ro rrp6awrro rrou rraptXEJ TO f]AEKrpovtK6 JJtaw ETTIKOIVWVIat; EiVaJ EK06Tf]t; TOU KEIJJtVOU KaJ UTT6J..oyot; yta TO J..J{3EMoypc'Jcpf]J1a EIVaJ aqJJavnK6 va J..qcpeouv urr6tpf] 01 rrpaYJ1anKtt; Evt.pyEtEt; aurou rou ar6JJOU (J 17 rrapaJ..EitpEtt; rou Kara rqv rrapox(J aur(Jt; Tf]t; urrqpwiat; wt; arrortJ..wJJa Tf]t; orroiat; avapr(Jef]KE TO auyKEKPIJJtVO KEfJJEVO TTOU EiVaJ 0UOcpf]J110TJK6. To ETTiTTEOO Tf]t; yvt.i.Jaf]t; rou rrapoxta yta rqv avaprqaq TOU KEJJJtvou Eivm aqJJavnK6t; rrapayovrat; rrou rrptTTEJ va J..qcpeEi UTT6!pf]. LTf]V TTEpiTTTWOf] TTOU 0 rrapoxtat; Tf]t; OtaOtKTUaK(Jt; m:J..ioat; yvwpf(Et Kat ETTITptTTE/ Tf]V avc'JpTf]Of] OUOcpf]JJIOTIKOU TTEPIEXOJJtVOU OXOJ..iOU OTO auyKEKptJJf.VO taT6TOTTO, (J EKE{ TTOU ea Ei)(E Tf]V wxtpEta va EJJTTOOiaEJ TnV aVc'IPJf]Of] TOU axoMou rrporou aur6 EKooeEi KaJ EKrEeEi OEV urrapxo J..6yot; ytari o rrapoxtat; aur6t; va J117V Karaani urr6J..oyot; aurwv rwv rrpa~Ewv. To foto taxuEt arqv rrEpfmwaq TTOU 0 rrapoxtat; UTTOOTf]pi(Et 0/KOVOJJIKa KaJ EYK{JiVE/ rrapaVOJJEt; Opaarf]pt6Tf]TEt; Ota Tf]t; XP(JOf]t; TOU OtaOtKTUOU».

«I have little doubt, however, that to impose legal responsibility upon anyone under the common law for the publication of words it is essential to demonstrate a degree of awareness or at least an assumption of general responsibility, such as has long been recognized in the context of edt1orial responsibility ...

Of course, to be liable for a defamatory publication it is not always necessary to be aware of the defamatory content, still less of its legal significance. Editors and publishers are often fixed with responsibility notwithstanding such lack of knowledge. On the other hand, for a person to be held responsible there must be knowing involvement in the process of publication of the relevant words. It is not enough that a person merely plays a passive instrumental role in the process».

01-JW~ SEWpW OTI y1a VO SEWPilSEi KOTTOIO~ VOIJIKO UTTEUSUVO~ KOTO TO KOIVOOiKOIO .... , '

y1a TllV EKOOOil TOU OUO<plliJIOTIKOU KEIIJEVOU EiVOI OTTapaiTilTO VO KOTOOEIXSEi TO

ETTiTTEOO Til~ VVWOil~ KOI Til~ OVTiAill!Jil~ TOU KEIIJEVOU OTTO TOV TTOPOXEO WOTE VO

TTPOKUTTTEI w~ OUIJTTEpacriJa 6TI auT6~ Sa TTPETTEI va ava/\cii3E1 TllV EUSUVIl y1a TO

KEiiJEVO. AuT6~ ~Tav TTcivw o /\6yo~ TTou iS1axpov1Kci o EK06Til~ ESEwpEiTo

UTTEU8UVO~ y1a TO TTEpiEXOIJEVO KEIIJEVWV TTOU EXEI ETTITPE4JEI va EK0080UV.

BtJ3ma y1a va Eivm o EKi56Til~ UTTEUSuvo~ y1a TO i5ucrcpll1JIOTIK6 KEiiJEVO i5Ev Eivm

TTOVTO aTTapaiTilTO 0 EKOOTil~ va yvwpi~EI y1a TO OUO<pll1JIOTIK6 TTEpiEXOIJEVO TOU

KEIIJEVOU ~ OKOIJil Va yvwpi~EI TTOIE~ ETTITTTWOEI~ Sa EXEI VOIJIKO TO KEiiJEVO OTTO Til

OlliJOOiEucr~ Tou. EKi56TE~ OlliJOOIEUIJciTwv TTciVTon: SEwpouvwv UTT6/\oyo1 y1a TO

OlliJOOIEUIJOTO avE~ciPTilTO Eciv i5Ev yvwp1~av y1a TO cruyKEKPIIJEVO OlliJOOiEUIJa OTilV

E<plliJEpiiSa. ATT6 TllV clAAil y1a va KpiSEi OTOIJO UTT6/\oyo y1a TO OUO<plliJIOTIKO KEiiJEVO

27

TTPETT£1 va aTT00£1X9£i OTI £iX£ £V£py~ aVOj..ll~'l OT'lV EKOOO'l TOU OUVK£Kplj..IEVOU

"\ OUO<J>'lj..IIOTIKOU K£1j..IEVOU. 11£V £[VOl apK£TO va aTT00£1X9£i OTI TO OTOj..IO d9£Aa

£TTETP£4J£ ~ UTTOj30~9'10£ OTilV OlaOIKaofa Til~ 0111JOO[EU011~ TOU K£1j..IEVOU.

YTTapxouv TToMa oi'olxera TTou KaTa0£1Kvuouv on OTilV TTapouoa TT£piTTTWOI"J 01

UTT£U9UVOI TI"J~ IOTOO£AiOa~ «Christofias Watch»Kal aUTO[ TTOU OI")IJOOiEUOaV TO

ap9po «'Eva~ Mayapto~ OTf]V auJ..f} TOU Apra{tp{f]» £V£9appuvav, UTTOj30~9I")Oav

aAAO Kal yvwp1£;av y1a TO TT£pi£XOIJEVO TOU OXOAiou «Pf}ya», WOT£ va 9£WPI190UV

UTTOAOVOI y1a TI"JV avapTI")OI"J TOU OXOAiou OTI"JV OUVK£Kplj..IEVI"J IOTOO£AiOa. M£Ta~U

aJ..J..wv, mo KaTw eiva1 TTapayovT£~ TTou IJTTOpouv va AI"J<p9ouv UTT04JI"J:

1. H Olaj..IOp<pWOI"J TI"J~ IOTOO£AiOa~ OTTOU £KO[O£TOI ap9po TO OTTO[O TTapouorai;EI

Tov OI"JIJOoroypa<po w~ TTpoowTTo xaiJI"JAOu xapaKT~pa KOI meavov TTpoooTI"J~

TI"J~ TTaTpioa~ TOU. ATTO KOTW va £TTITPETT£Tal OTOU~ avayvWOT£~ va

avapT~OOUV OXOAia £1~ avTfOpaol") aUTOU TOU ap9pou.

2. TI")V OUVOTOTI1Ta TWV UTTEU9UVWV TI"J~ IOTOOEAiOa~ va 01aypd4JOUV

.ouyKEKPIIJEVa OXOAia ~ va Ej..ITTOO[OOUV TI"JV avapTr)OI"J TOU~.

3. TI")V ETTaVOAI"J4Jil OAAWV XAEUaOTIKWV ap9pwv KOTO TOU IOlou Ol")j..IOOIOVPO<J>OU

TTapOj..IOia j..IE TllV «AUJ..f} TOU Apra{tp{f]» aKOj..lf1 KOI j..IETO TI"JV avapTI10'1 TOU

oxoJ..iou «Pf}ya~».

napaAAI")AO UTTOPXOUV KOI OTOIXEia TTOU 9a j..ITTOpouoav UTTEU9UVOI TI"J~ IOTOOEAiOa~

«Christofias Watch» va ETTIKOAE090UV WOT£ va ETTIXEIPI"JIJOTOAOV~OOUV OTI OEV

TTPETT£1 va Kpl9ouv uTToAoyol y1a TI"JV tKoool") Tou ouyK£KPIIJtvou oxoAiou:

1. ETTETP£TTav oxoJ..1a oJ..wv Twv avayvwoTwv OUj..ITT£p1AOIJI3avoj..ltvou KOI

OVOVVWOTWV . TTOU EK<ppd091")KOV EVOVTiOV TWV OOWV aTTOO[OOVTOI OTO

OI"Jj..IOOIOVPO<pO OTO ap9po «'Eva~ Mayapto~ OTIJV auJ..f} TOU Apra{tp{f]».

2. To VEVOVO~ OTI 0£V UTT~PXE. a[Tf11JO TTpO~ TI"J OIEU9UV0'1 TI"J~ IOTOOEAiOa~ OTTO

TOV Ol")j..IOOIOVPO<pO TTOU ETTI"JPEOOTI")K£ OTTO TO OXOAIO va acpa!p£9£[ I")

OUVKEKplj..IEVI"J OVOPT'lOI"J OTTO TI"JV IOTOOEAiOa.

«as a case of continued publication of the same defamatory statements after receipt of the plaintiffs request of removal. Bunt was different because the claimant was relying on separate postings. His Lordship further remarked that the position of an

28

ISP is not analogous to that of a distributor. While a distributor may need to prove an absence of negligence to establish a defence of innocent dissemination, his Lordship said persons who truly fulfil no more than the role of a passive medium for communication, such as ISPs, cannot be characterized as publishers and hence "do not need a defence» 14

• ·

Ta TTIO lTClVW EfVOI Ol"'liJOVTIKO OXI ETTEI5~ EXOUV OXEOil IJE TOV Tp6TTO TTOU TO ETTf51KO

51l1JOcrfEu1Ja Sa rrptTTEI va EPIJilVEU8Ef wcrTE va Kp18Ef ll arrafTilOil Tou Evayovra aMa

y1a va Kara5EIX8Ef OTI UTTOPXEI OU~IlT~OIIJil UTT68EOil EVOVT[OV OUTWV TTOU ~TOV

UTTEU8UVOI y1a TllV IOTOOEAf5a «Chrisfofias Watch», y1a TllV OVclPTilOil TOU OXOAfou

«PfJYa». LlllA05~ 0 510XWPIOIJO~ IJETO~U TOU ap8pou «AuAfJ TOU Apra{tp{f]» Kal TOU

OXOAiOU «P(Jya», 5EV EfVOI EU51aKpiTO~ Kal ETOI ll ayaVOKTilOil TOU 51liJOOIOVPO<pOU

KOTO TWV UTTEU8UVWV Til~ IOTOOEAf5a~ TTpayj.JaTIK~ Kal 51KOIOAOVIliJEVIl.

Yrr68EOil IJE VEVOVOTO TTOU OIJOIO~OUV IJE TO VEVOVOTO OUT~~ Til~ UTT68EOil~ ~TOV ll

urr68Ecrll Delfias v Estonia Application 15 11 orrofa Karaxwp~SilKE EvavTfov Til~

Ecr8ovfa~ crTo Eupwrra"iK6 LliKacrT~plo Av8pwrrfvwv LliKOIWIJOTWv. Arro<pacrfcr81lKE

arr6 TO Grand Chamber TOU Eupwrra·iKou LliKOOTilpfou Av8pwrrfvwv LliKOIWIJOTWV

OTI ll KOTaj30A~ OTTO~Il!JIWOEWV y1a avapTilOil EIJTTPilOTIKOU, uj3p10TIKOU Kal

ETTIKfV5UVOU OXOAfOU OVWVUIJWV IJETO OTTO OVTIKEIIJEVIK6 Kal ETT[KalpO 51l1JOO[EUIJO

Til~ llAEKTpOVIK~~ E<pll1JEpf5a~, ~TaV 51KOIOAOVIliJEVO~ TTEpiOpiOIJO~ Til~ EAEU8Epfa~ Til~

EK<ppacrll~ TTOU 5EV rrapaj3IO~EI TO ap8po 1 0 Til~ Eupwrra"iK~~ ruv8~Kil~

Av8pwrrfvwv LliKOIWIJOTWV.

H llAEKTpOVIK~ E<pll1JEpf5a EfXE OUVTO~EI KOI avapT~OEI OTO llAEKTpOVIKO Til~ IOTOTOTTO

tva ETTfKalpO KOI OVTIKEIIJEVIKO ap8po y1a TllV KaTOOTaOil TWV TTAiliJIJUPWV OTil XWpa

EKE[VO TO 51cl0TiliJO. KaAOUOE TOV KOOIJO va OXOAIOOEI OUT6 TO ETT[KalpO 8Ej.JO Kal

avapT~81lKav 51a<popa crxoi.la ra orrofa ox1 1J6vo xapaKTilPf~ovTm arr6 KaKEVTPEXEia

aMa TTEpiEfXOV OXOAIO TTOU TTI8av6v Va EK8ETOV OE Kfv5uvo cruyKEKPIIJEVa OTOIJO

E~OIT[a~ TWV XOPOKTilPIOIJWV OTOU~ OTTO[OU~ EfXOV rrpoj3Ef 51a<popOI OXOAIOOTE~

EVOVT[OV OUTWV TWV TTPOOWTTWV. Ev5EIKTIKO OTTOOTTOOIJO TWV OXOAfWV TTaparf8ETOI

TTIO KOTW:

14 Eady J went on to distinguish Godfrey- supra note B

15 64569/09 16 June 2015

29

«1. (1) there are currents in [V]E1inameri

(2) open water is closer to the places you referred to, and the ice is thinner.

Proposal - let's do as in 1905, Jet's go to [K]uressaare with sticks and put [L.] and [Le.] in a bag

2. bloody shitheads ...

they bathe in money anyway thanks to that monopoly and State subsidies and have now started to fear that cars may drive to the islands for a couple of days without anything filling their purses. bum in your own ship, sick Jew!

3. good that {La. 's] initiative has not broken down the lines of the web flamers. go ahead, guys, [L.] into the oven!

4. [little L.] go and drown yourself

5. aha ... [/]hardly believe that that happened by accident ... assholes fck

6. rascal!!! [in Russian]

7. What are you whining for, knock this bastard down once and for all[.] In future the other ones ... will know what they risk, even they will only have one little life.

8 . ... is goddamn right. Lynching, to warn the other [islanders] and would-be men. Then nothing like that will be done again! In any event, [L.] vety much deserves that, doesn:t he.

9. "a good man lives a long time, a shifty man a day or two"

10. If there was an iceroad, [one] could easily save 500 for a full car, fckng [L.] pay for that economy, why does it take 3 [hours] for your ferries if they are such good icebreakers, go and break ice in PE1rnu port . . . instead, fcking monkey, I will cross [the strait] anyway and if I drown, it's your fault

11. and can't anyone defy these shits?

12. inhabitants of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa islands, do 1:0 to this dope.

13. wonder whether [L.] won't be knocked down in Saaremaa? screwing one's own folk like that.

14. The people will chatter for a couple of days on the Internet, but the crooks (and also those who are backed and whom we ourselves have elected to represent us) pocket the money and pay no attention to this flaming - no one gives a shit about this.

Once {M.] and other big crooks also used to boss around, but their greed struck back (RIP). Will also strike back for these crooks sooner or later. As they sow, so shall they reap, but they should nevertheless be contained (by lynching as the state is powerless towards them - it is really them who govern the state), because they only live for today. Tomorrow, the flood. ·

15. this [V.] will one day get hit with a cake by me.

damn, as soon as you put a cauldron on the fire and there is smoke rising from the chimney of the sauna, the crows from Saaremaa are there - thinking that ... a pig is going to be slaughtered. no way

16. bastards!!!! Ofelia also has an ice class, so this is no excuse why 0/a was required!!!

17. Estonian state, led by scum [and] financed by scum, of course does not prevent or punish antisocial acts by scum. But well, evety {L.] has his Michael mas ... and this cannot at all be compared to a ram's Michaelmas.[1] Actually sorty for [L.] - a human, after all ... :D :D :D

18 . ... if after such acts [L.] should all of a sudden happen to be on sick leave and also next time the ice road is destroyed ... will he [then] dare to act like a pig for the third time?:)

30

19. fucking bastard, that [L.] ... could have gone home with my baby soon ... anyway his company cannot guarantee a normal ferry service and the prices are such that ... real creep . . . a question arises whose pockets and mouths he has filled up with money so that he's acting like a pig from year to year

20. you can't make bread from shit; and paper and internet can stand everything; and just for my own fun (really the state and [L.] do not care about the people's opinion) ... just for fun, with no greed for money- I pee into [L. 's] ear and then I also shit onto his head».

To b.1Kacrr~p1o Til~ EcrSovfa~ KarEAil~E oro au, . .mtpacrj.Ja 6r1 ro apSpo ~rav

aVTIKEIIJEVIKO KOI aiJEPOAilTTTO aAAcl TO OXOAia TTOU avapr~SilKaV TTIO KclTW ~rav

Uj3piOTIKcl KaTa OUVKEKPIIJtVOU aTOIJOU Kal iSUO(j)lliJIOTIKcl OTO OlliJEfO TTOU

UTTtOKaTTTOV TllV UTT0Ail4Jil TOU ETTilpEa~OIJEVOU aTOIJOU KOI tTOI ETTiiSfKaOE

arro~lliJIWOEI~ urrtp rou ETTilpEa~61JEvou ar61JOU. 'EKplvE TTEpmrtpw 6r1, Sa rrptTTEI ll

llAEKTpOVIK~ E(j)lliJEpfiSa TTOU KaAOUOE TO KOIVO Va avapr~OEI OXOAia OE oxtail IJE TO

apSpo, TTOU ~TaV IOOppOTTiliJtVO Kal aVTIKEIIJEVIKO, Va KpiSEf UTTOAOVO y1a ra OXOAia

aura. To b.1Kacrr~p1o BEv tstxSilKE Til Stall 6r1 ll llAEKrpoviK~ E<i>lliJEpftsa aTTAa

rraptSETE XWPO OTO KOIVO W~ j.Jtao ETTIKOIVWVfa~ y1a ETTfKOIPO Stj.Ja Kal tKpiVE OTI IJE

TOV rp6TTO TTOU tiSpacrE ll llAEKTpOVIK~ E(j)lliJEpfiSa ~TOV UTTEUSUVIl y1a TllV avapTilOil

TWV cruyKEKplj.JtVWV OXOAIWV.

. .. «27. The County Court found that the news article itself published in the De/fi news portal was a balanced one. A number of comments, however, were vulgar in form; they were humiliating and defamatory and impaired L 's honour, dignity and reputation. The comments went beyond justified criticism and amounted to simple insults. The court concluded that freedom of expression did not extend to protection of the comments concerned and that L. 's personality rights had been violated. L was awarded EEK 5,000 (EUR 320) in compensation for non-pecuniary damage».

To b.1Kacrr~p10 AvSpwrrfvwv b.IKaiWIJOTWV tAaj3E UTT04Jil rou KOIV~ iS~AWOil rwv

Yrroupywv TWV Kparwv IJEAWV TOU LUIJj30UAfOU Til~ EupWTTil~ OE OXtOil IJE TllV

EUSUVIl TWV TTpOOWTTWV TTOU rrapEXOUV UTTilPEOfE~ OTO iS1aiSfKTUO y1a TllV ETTIKOIVWVfa

rwv IBEWV. Aur~ ll iS~AWOil tXEI Tl~ aK6AouSE~ rrp6VOIE~:

«The member states of the Council of Europe,

Convinced also that it is necessary to limit the liability of service providers when they act as mere transmitters, or when they, in good faith, provide access to, or host, content from third parties; · ·

Recalling in this respect Directive 2000131/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2000 on certain legal aspects of information society services, in particular electronic commerce, in the Internal Market (Directive on electronic commerce);

31

Stressing that freedom of communication on the Internet should not prejudice the human dignity, human rights and fundamental freedoms of others, especially minors;

Considering that a balance has to be found between respecting the will of users of the Internet not to disclose their identity and the need for law enforcement authorities to trace those responsible for criminal acts;

Declare that they seek to abide by the following principles in the field of communication on the Internet:

Principle 1: Content rules for the Internet

Member states should not subject content on the Internet to restrictions which go further than those applied to other means of content delivery.

Principle 3: Absence of prior state control

Public authorities should not, through general blocking or filtering measures, deny access by the public to information and other communication on the Internet, regardless of frontiers. This does not prevent the installation of filters for the protection of minors, in particular in places accessible to them, such as schools or libraries.

Provided that the safeguards of Article 10, paragraph 2, of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms are respected, measures may be taken to enforce the removal of clearly identifiable Internet content or, alternatively, the blockage of access to it, if the competent national authorities have taken a provisional or final decision on its illegality.

Principle 6: Limited liability of service providers for Internet content

Member states should not impose on service providers a general obligation to monitor content on the Internet to which they give access, that they transmit or store, nor that of actively seeking facts or circumstances indicating illegal activity.

Member states should ensure that service providers are not held liable for content on the Internet when their function is limited, as defined by national law, to transmitting information or providing access to the Internet.

In cases where the functions of service providers are wider and they store content emanating from other parties, member states may hold them co-responsible if they do not act expeditiously to remove or disable access to information or services as soon as they become aware, as defined by national law, of their illegal nature or, in the event of a claim for damages, of facts or circumstances revealing the illegality of the activity or information.

When defining under national law the obligations of service providers as set out in the previous paragraph, due care must be taken to respect the freedom of expression of those who made the information available in the first place, as well as the corresponding right of users to the information.

In all cases, the above-mentioned limitations of liability should not affect the possibility of issuing injunctions where service providers are required to terminate or prevent, to the extent possible, an infringement of the law.

Principle 7: Anonymity

In order to ensure protection against online surveillance and to enhance the free expression of information and ideas, member states should respect the will of users of the Internet not to disclose their identity. This does not prevent member states from taking measures and co-operating in order to trace those responsible for

32

criminal acts, in accordance with national law, the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and other international agreements in the fields of justice and the police».

01 YTToupyoi cru!Jq><.ilvl"}crav or1 ro OlaOiKruo IJTTOpEi va ~oi"}S~crEI crrrtv TTpowSI"}crl"}

IOEwv Kal TTAI"}po<popiE~ OIJW~ cru!J<pwvl"}crav on Sa IJTTopoOcrE va ETTI"}pEacrEI ra

av9pwmva OIKOIWIJOTO OUVKEKpi!JEVWV OTOIJWV, OTI"}V TTEpiTTTWOI"} TTOU OUT~ I"}

ETTIKOIVWVia TTapa~la~EI TI"}V IOIWTIK~ TOU~ ~W~ KOI TOU~ EK9ETEI OE XAEUOOIJO KOI OE

KiVOUVO Tl"}~ OWIJOTIK~~ TOU~ OKEpOITOTI"}TO~. r1' OUTO OTTO<pacriOTI"}KE OTI IJTTOpEi VO

uTTaPXEI J..oy1Ko~ KOI lcroppoTTI"}IJEVO~ TTEplopiOIJO~ Til~ EAE09EP11~ EK<ppacrl"}~ crro

OlaOiKruo TTpoKEI!JEvou va Ola<puJ..axeouv aura TO aTOIJIKa OIKOIW!Jara. H crucrTOcrl"}

rwv uTToupywv crTO Kparl"} IJEAI"} rou ru!J~ouAiou ~TOv va 9E(7TTicrouv EIOIK~

VO!J09Ecria TTOU va OIETTEI TO OIKOIWIJOTO KOI UTTOXPEWOEI~ OAWV TWV EIJTTAEKOIJEVWV

OTI"}V TTOPOX~ OUTWV TWV UTTI"}PEOIWV OTO OIOOiKTUO.

To ap9po 10 TTpOVOEi W~ OKOAOU9w~:

<<10.1. Everyone has the right to freedom of expression. This right shall include freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority and regardless of frontiers. This Article shall not prevent states from requiring the licensing of broadcasting, television or cinema enterprises.

2. The exercise of these freedoms, since it carries with it duties and responsibilities, may be subject to such formalities, conditions, restrictions or penalties as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society, in the interests of national security, territorial integrity or public safety, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, for the protection of the reputation or rights of others, for preventing the disclosure of information received in confidence, or for maintaining the authority and impartiality of the judiciary».

H Ecr9ovia EiXE 9EcrTTiOEI TETOIO EVOTTOII"}IJEVI"} VO!J09Ecria KOI TO iliKOOT~piO EKpiVE OTI

0 OIOXEipiOT~~ Tl"}~ OIOOIKTUOK~~ OEAiOa~ op9a Kpi91"}KE UTTEU9UVO~ y1a OXOAIO TWV

avayvwcrrwv. 'HTOV yvwcrro OTI yiVOVTOV TETOIOU EiOOU~ OXOAIO OTO cruyKEKPIIJEVO

OIOOIKTUOKO TOTTO KOI ~TOV TTpO~AETTTO OTI OVE~apTI"}TO OXOAIO ~TOV EUTTpOOOEKTa.

Aura TO OXOAIO ~TOV ETTI9UIJI"}Ta W~ avriopacrl"} OTO ap9po TTOU 0 OIOXEipiOT~~ EiXE

avapT~OEI OTO OIOOiKTUO. 0 OIOXEIPIOT~~ EiXE a!JEOO OIKOVOIJIKO OUIJ<pEpOV OTTO

CUTE~ Tl~ OpOOTI"}piOTI"}TE~ KOI ETOI EiXE OUIJ<pEpOV OTTO TI"}V avapTI"}OI"} TWV OXOAiWV

IJETa TI"}V OI"}IJOOiEUOI"} TOU ap9pou OTI"}V OUVKEKPIIJEVI"} IOTOOEAiOa:

«65. In particular, the Chamber considered that the news article published by the applicant company that had given rise to the defamatory comments had concerned a matter of public interest and the applicant company could have foreseen the negative

33

reactions and exercised a degree of caution in order to avoid being held liable for damaging the reputation of others. However, the prior automatic filtering and notice­and-take-down system used by the applicant company had not ensured sufficient protection for the rights of third parties. Moreover, publishing news articles and making readers' comments on them public had been part of the applicant company's professional activities and its advertising revenue depended on the number of readers and comments. The applicant company had been able to exercise a substantial degree of control over readers' comments and it had been in a position to predict the nature of the comments a particular article was liable to prompt and to

· take technical or manual measures to prevent defamatory statements from being made public. Furthermore, there had been no realistic opportunity of bringing a civil claim against the actual authors of the comments as their identity could not be easily established. In any event, the Chamber was not convinced that measures allowing an injured party to bring a claim only against the authors of defamatory comments would have guaranteed effective protection of the injured parties' right to respect for their private life. It had been the applicant company's choice to allow comments by non-registered users, and by doing so it had to be considered to have assumed a certain responsibility for such comments. For all the above reasons, and considering the moderate amount of damages the applicant company had been ordered to pay, the restriction on its freedom of expression was considered to have been justified and proportionate. There had accordingly been no violation of Article 10 of the Convention. control. Intermediary service providers should not be treated as traditional media and should not be subject to the same liability regime. 95. The Helsinki Foundation argued that authors should be accountable for their defamatory comments and the State should provide a regulatory framework making it possible to identify and prosecute online offenders. At the same time, it also contended that the possibility of publishing anonymously on the Internet should be regarded as a vafue».

To .61KOOTI'Jpl0 ETTE~r'JVIlOE TTOOO EUKOAO EiVal va OI0008Ei IJEOO OE A.iya OEUTEp6A.ETTTa

UAIKO TTOU TTAilVWVEI TllV UTTOAillJ.IIl TOU OTOIJOU Kal TOV EK8ETEI OE KiVOUVO IJE TllV

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ETIIKOAE08Ef TO ap8po 10 Til~ I:utJj300il<; y1a va OTTO<pEUVEI TllV EU81lVIl TOU y1a OXOAIO

Twv avayvwcrTwv Tou:

((D. The Court's assessment .Defamatory and other types of clearly unlawful ~peechi, including !hate) ~eechl and ~eec~ lincitin~ ~§ can be disseminated like never before, worldwide, in a matter of seconds, and sometimes remain persistently available online. These two conflicting realities lie at the heart of this case. Bearing in mind the need to protect the values underlying the Convention, and considering that the rights under Article 10 and 8 of the Convention deserve equal respect, a balance must be struck that retains the essence of both rights. Thus, while the Court acknowledges that important benefits can be derived from the Internet in the exercise of freedom of expression, it is also mindful that liability for defamatory or other types of unlawfuljspeeqhl must, in principle, be retained and constitute an effective remedy for violations of personality rights.

34

112. Firstly, the Court obseNes that the Supreme Court recognised (see§ 14 of its judgment of 10 June 2009 as set out in paragraph 31 above) that "[p]ublishing of news and comments on an Internet portal is also a journalistic activity. At the same time, because of the nature of Internet media, it cannot reasonably be required of a portal operator to edit comments before publishing them in the same manner as applies for a printed media publication. While the publisher [of a printed media publication] is, through editing, the initiator of the publication of a comment, on the Internet portal the initiator of publication is the writer of the. comment, who makes it accessible to the general public through the portal. Therefore, the portal operator is not the person to whom information is disclosed. Because of [their] economic interest in the publication of comments, both a publisher of printed media and an Internet portal operator are publishers/disclosers as entrepreneurs". 114. Secondly, the Court obse!Ves that the Supreme Court of Estonia found that the

· "legal assessment by the courts of the twenty comments of a derogatory nature [was] substantiated. The courts [had] correctly found that those comments [were] defamatory since they [were] of a vulgar nature, degrade[d] human dignity and confain[ed] threats" (see § 15 of the judgment as set out in paragraph 31 above). Further, in § 16 of its judgment, the Supreme Court reiterated that the comments degraded "human dignity" and were "clearly unlawful". The Court notes that this characterisation and analysis of the unlawful nature of the comments in question (see paragraph 18 above) is obviously based on the fact that the majority of the comments are, viewed on their face, tantamount to an incitement to hatred or to iyiolence1 against L. 115. Consequently, the Court considers that the case concerns the "duties and responsibilities" of Internet news portals, under Article 10 § 2 of the Convention, when they provide for economic purposes a platform for user-generated comments on previously published content and some users - whether identified or anonymous - engage in clearly u~lawful ~P.~~q7Ji, which infringes the personality rights of others and amounts to !hate; ~eec and incitement to I violence! against them. The Court emphasises that the present case relates to a large professionally managed Internet news portal run on a commercial basis which published news articles of its own and invited its readers to comment on them».

nEpOITEpW, TO L\IKOOT~piO Av8pwrrfvwv L\IKOIWIJOTWV 8EWPI"}OE roue; OIOXEIPIOTtc; Tl"}c;

IOTOOEAfoac;, UTT6Aoyouc; VIO TO OX6AIO TWV OVOVVWOTWV roue; a<pou EAOf3E UTT6ljJI"}

TOU Tl"} OUVOT6TI"}TO roue; VO OlaypciljJOUV aura TO OX6Aia Kal Va EAEVXOUV TO

m:p1EX61JEVO OUTWV TWV OXOA[WV WOTE VO j.JI"}V avapTI"}8EI A6yoc; OTO OIOOiKTUO TTOU

~TOV EIJTTPI"}OTIK6c;, OTTEIAI"}TIK6c; Kal XAEUOOTIK6c; YIO TO OTOj.JO:

«145. The Court a/so notes in this regard that the "Rules of comment" on the Delfi website stated that the applicant company prohibited the posting of comments that were without substance and/or off-topic, were contrary to good practice, contained threats, insults, obscene expressions or vulgarities, or incited hostility, lvio/encei or illegal activities. Such comments could be removed and their authors' ability to post comments could be restricted. Furthermore, the actual authors of the comments could not modify or delete their comments once they were posted on the applicant company's news portal- only the applicant company had the technical means to do this. In the light of the above and the Supreme Court's reasoning, the Court agrees with the Chamber's finding that the applicant company must be considered to have exercised a substantial degree of control over the comments published on its portal».

TtAoc;, EKpiVE 6r1 01 ouyKpi!JEVEc; AE~Eic; rrou XPI"JOIIJOTTOI~SI"}KOV arr6 ra rrp6owrra

TTOU rrpo£f31"}KOV OTO OUVKEKPIIJEVO OX6Aia TTpOKOAOUOOV TO IJlOOc; EVOVTlOV

35

OUVKEKPIJ.JEVOU OTOJ.JOU Kal OUVIOTOUOOV clJ.JEOI"J OTTEIA~ KOTcl TI"J~ OWJ.JOTIK~~

OKEpaiOTI"JTa~ OUTOU TOU OTOJ.JOU:

«159. Lastly, the Court observes that the applicant company has argued (see

paragraph 78 above) that the Court should have due regard to the notice-and-take­

down system that it had introduced. If accompanied by effective procedures allowing

for rapid response, this system can in the Court's view function in many cases as an

appropriate tool for balancing the rights and interests of all those involved. However,

in cases such as the present one, where third-party user comments are in the form

ot{hatel i§p_eec~ and direct threats to the physical integrity of individuals, as

understood in the Court's case-Jaw (see paragraph 136 above), the Court considers,

as stated above (see paragraph 153), that the rights and interests of others and of

society as a whole may entitle Contracting States to impose liability on Internet news

portals, without contravening Article 10 of the Convention, if they fail to take

measures to remove clearly unlawful comments without delay, even without notice

from the alleged victim or from third parties.

162. Based on the concrete assessment of the above aspects, taking into account

the reasoning of the Supreme Court in the present case, in particular the extreme

nature of the comments in question, the fact that the comments were posted in

reaction to an article . published by the applicant company on its professionally

managed news portal run on a commercial basis, the insufficiency of the measures

taken by the applicant company to remove without delay after publication comments

amounting t~hate\ ~ and ~peech: \inciting iviOfe/iC~ and to ensure a realistic

prospect of the authors of such comments being held liable, and the moderate

sanction imposed on the applicant company, the Court finds that the domestic courts'

imposition of liability on the applicant company was based on relevant and sufficient

grounds, having regard to the margin of appreciation afforded to the respondent

State. Therefore; the measure did not constitute a disproportionate restriction on the

applicant company's right to freedom of expression.

Accordingly, there has been no violation of Article 10 of the Convention».

rE OVTi8EOI"J J.JE TI"JV lTIO TTOVW TTpOOEVVIOI"J OTTOU TO ElTIKiVOUVO TOU OXOAiOU 8EWpEiTar

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ElTIKorvwvia~ (speech which incites violence).

36

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16 395 u.s. 444 (1969)

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38

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«It is I think, clear that .. . not only must the defence be specifically pleaded, but the facts and circumstances must also be stated showing why and how the occasion is privileged. 17

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17 Gatley on Libel and Slander Sweet and Maxwell Eleventh Edition par. 29.19

Basis of privilege to be stated footnote 76

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arr6cpacrll Byrne and Others v. The Financial Times Ltd.19. LTilV urr6S£Oil Marks

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·~ plaintiff is entitled to know with certainty on what the defendant intends to rely in support of his plea. Indeed, it has been said that the justification ought to state the facts with as much particularity as an indictment. No doubt in the great majority of cases a plea in this bald form ought to be supplemented by particulars from which the plaintiff can ascertain the precise nature of the charge which it is proposed to make against him, for he needs this information in order to prepare his evidence for the trial."

18 1 AAl::J. 1683 ( 1997) 19 Times Law Reports, 3/9/91 20 [1939]2 All E.R. 605, 608

41

T£Ao~ O'TI"JV urr69EO'I"J Lucas-Box v. News Group Newspapers Ltd. 21 ava<pepovTar

Ta E~~~:

·~ .... whatever may have been the practice to date, in future a defendant who is relying on a plea of justification must make it clear to the plaintiff what is the case which he is seeking to set up. The particulars themselves may make this quite clear, but if they are ambiguous then the situation must be made unequivocal."

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«When fair comment is pleaded the defendant MUST spell oat with sufficient precision to enable the plaintiff to know the case he has to meet, what is the comment which the defendant will seek to say attracts the fair comment defence ( Control Risks Ltd. V New English Libraryf2 ».

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21 [1986]1 All E.R. 177, 183 22 [1990] 1 WLR 183

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44

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45

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aA.A.wv VEVOVOTWV.

23 [1908] 2 KB 309, Tab 3, at 319-320

46

«The Jaw as to fair comment, so far as is material to the present case, stands as follows: In the first place, comment in order to be justifiable as fair comment must appear as comment and must not be so mixed up with the facts that the reader cannot distinguish between what is report and what is comment: see Andrews v. Chapman The justice of this rule is obvious. If the facts are stated separately and the comment appears as an inference drawn from those facts, any injustice that it might do will be to some extent negatived by the reader seeing the grounds upon which the unfavourable inference is based. But if fact and comment be intermingled so that it is not reasonably clear what portion purports to be inference, he will naturally suppose that the injurious statements are based on adequate grounds known to the writer though not necessarily set out by him. In the one case the insufficiency of the facts to support the inference will lead fair-minded men to reject the inference. In the other case it merely points to the existence of extrinsic facts which the writer considers to warrant the language he uses. In this relation *320 I must express my disagreement with the view apparently taken by the Court of Queen's Bench in Ireland in the case of Lefroy v. Burnside, where the imputation was that the plaintiffs dishonestly and corruptly supplied to a newspaper certain information. The Court treated the qualifications "dishonestly" or "corruptly" as clearly comment. In my opinion they are not comment, but constitute allegations of fact. It would have startled a pleader of the old school if he had been told that, in alleging that the defendant "fraudulently represented," he was indulging in comment. By the use of the word 'fraudulently" he was probably making the most important allegation of fact in the whole case. Any matter, therefore, which does not indicate with a reasonable clearness that it purports to be comment, and not statement of fact, cannot be protected by the plea of fair comment. In the next place, in order to give room for the plea of fair comment the facts must be truly stated. If the facts upon which the comment purports to be made do not exist the foundation of the plea fails. This has been so frequently laid down authoritatively that I do not need to dwell further upon it: see, for instance, the which has been frequently approved of by the Courts».

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rrptrrEI va aq>opa yEyov6ra 6rrw~ aura txouv iS1arurrw8Ei OTflV rrpayJ.IOTIKOTilTO.

«[29} A commentator must not deliberately distort the true situation. That would be relevant on ''malice" even according to Lord Nicholls's criterion. It would not be honest. The matter of distortion (whether dishonest or otherwise) may also come into play, however, at the stage of the objective test, because one cannot decide whether a hypothetical commentator could hold an opinion in a vacuum. Even at this point, it is surely necessary to test the matter against some factual assumptions».

(EM;ueton uwi(J)paanJ

24 [2002) QB 737, at p 748, para 29

47

«'Eva~ axoJ..JaaT!'K oE:v rrptTTEJ aK6mJla va oJaarpE:f3J..ciJaE:J ra rrpayJlaTJKa yE:yov6ra Tl]~ UTT68E:OI]~. Eav TO lXEI KaVE:I OK6TTJjla aur6 ()a l]rav rrapayovra~ y1a aTTOOEIXBEf I] KaKomaria TOU OXOAJaar{J JlE'. f3aal] TO Kplr{Jp!O TTOU t8E:OE: 0 Lord Nicholls. H oJaarptf3J..wa!] rwv yEyov6rwv oE:v E:ivaJ tvTIJll] rrpaKTJKI]. Kara rr6ao I] OJaarptf3J..WOI] TWV YEYOV6TWV ty1vav KaK6f3ouJ..a I] a8E:Aa TOU OXOAJaar{J 6J1W~ OTO OTa0/0 TTOU TO iJJKaarl]pJO KpiVEI KaT{/ TT600 TO OX6AJO {Jrav E:UJ..oyo JlE'. aVTIKE:IJlE'.VIKa KpJrl]pJa OE:v arro<paai(Eral xwpf~ ava<popa 6J..wv rwv yEyov6rwv Tl]~ urr68wl]~ o16TJ OI]JlaVTJK6 Efvm va A!]<p8ouv 6J..E:~ 01 TTEplaraaE:J~ urr61J11] y1a va KpiBE:f Kara rr6ao o axoJ..Jaarl]~ E:vl]pyf}aE: KaK6mara. AK6Jll] KaJ aro arao1o aura ro (l]TI]Jla KpfvEraJ JlE f3aal] Karro1wv yEyov6rwv Kmll] rrEpJaraaEwv».

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LE OXEOI"] J.IE TO KOTQ TTOOO tva crxoAIO EiVOI EUAOVI"J KpiTIK~ 0 A6plio~ Diplock J (as

Lord Diplock then was) ETTE~~VI"JOE~ TTOIE~ EiVOI 01 KaTEU8UVT~p1E~ ypOJ.Ij.JE~ TTpO~

TOU~ EVOpKOU~ y1a TI"]V UTTEpOOTTIOI"] Tl"]~ EUAOVI"J~ KpiTIK~~ OTI"]V UTT08EOI"] Silkin V.

Beaverbrook Newspapers Ltd. and Another5 w~ aKoAou8w~:

«Would a fair-minded man holding strong views, obstinate views, prejudiced views, have been capable of making this comment? If the answer to that is yes, then your verdict in this case should be a verdict for the defendants. . .. If you were to take the view that it was so strong a comment that no fair-minded man could honestly have made it, then the defence fails and you would have to consider the question of damages." See also Halsbury's Laws of England, Vol 28, 4th ed (Reissue:1997) ,

, para t45.

In relation to malice in the context of fair comment (which is different from the malice in the context of qualified privilege), Lord Nicholls of Birkenhead NPJ said in Albert Cheng v Tse Wai Chun26

:

"My conclusion on the authorities is that, for the most pari, the relevant judicial statements are consistent with the views which I have expressed as a matter of principle. To summarise, in my view a comment which falls within the objective limits

25 [1958] 1 WLR 743, Tab 5, at 749 26 (2000) 3 HKCFAR 339 at p 3601 to 3610

48

of the defence of fair comment can lose its immunity only by proof that the defendant did not genuinely hold the view he expressed. Honesty of belief is the touchstone. Actuation by spite, animosity, intent to injure, intent to arouse controversy or other motivation, whatever it may be, even if it is the dominant or sole motive, does not of itself defeat the defence. However, proof of such motivation may be evidence, sometimes compelling evidence, from which lack of genuine belief in the view expressed may be inferred. Proof of motivation may also be relevant on ·other issues in the action, such as damages. It is said that this view of the law would have the undesirable consequence that malice would bear different meanings in the defences of fair comment and qualified privilege, and that this would inevitably cause difficulty for juries. I agree that if the term 'malice' were used, there might be a risk of confusion. The answer lies in shunning that word altogether. Juries can be instructed, regarding fair comment, that the defence is defeated by proof that the defendant did not genuinely believe the opinion he expressed. Regarding qualified privilege, juries can be directed that the defence is defeated by proof that the defendant used the occasion for some purpose other than that for which the occasion was privileged. This direction can be elaborated in a manner appropriate to the facts and issues in the case.».

(EAEU9EpO JJETacppacrn)

«Ga JlTTOpoOo£ tva aTOJlO rrou txtt toxup{J arrorpl) Kat-(J rrpoKaTaAI)rpl) va KaVE:t OX6Ato KpiTIK{J~. Eav I) arraVTI)Oij E:iVat BwK{J T6TE: I) E:TUJli)YOpia TOU IJ.tKaOT!jpiOU rrptTTE:t va E:fvat urrtp TWV E:vayoJJtvwv. Eav KptT(J~ TWV ytyov6Twv KaTaA(J{E:t oTo OUJJTTtpaOJla 6TI TO OX6Ato {Jrav T600 aOtKO TTOU Kavtva TTp60WTJO ai(TtKE:tJlE:VtKa Kat ttAtKptva otv ea JlTTopoOo£ va Kavtt TtTOto ox6Ato T6T£ I) urrtpaomol) arroTuyxavE:t Kat TTptTTE:t va a{tOAOyi)BE:i TO ({JTI)Jla TWV aTTO(I)JliCJJOE:WV. rta TO ({JTI)Jla Tlj~ KaKOTTIOTia~ yta OX6At0 TTOU tytVE: ora TTAaiota TTpOVOJliOU JlE: aipW!j TTapaTTtJJTTW OTI)V arr6cpaOI) TOU Lord Nichols.

To ouJJrrtpaoJla JlE: {3aol) Tt~ apxt~ Tl)~ voJloAoyia~ Kat arr6 OI)Ac.iJOE:t~ otacp6pwv IJ.tKaOTI)piwv OUJlTTiTTTE:t JlE: · OtKt~ JlOU arr6rpE:t~ w~ rt~ txw E:KcppaoE:t Kat JlE: i5E:OJ1E:Oouv w~ etJla apxfJ~. KaTa TI)V OtK{J JlOU Kpiol) Kat ouvorpf(ovra~, tva ox6Ato rrou JlTTopE:f va BE:Wp!jBE:i aVTIKE:tJlE:VtKa E:0Aoylj KpiTIK{J TTa0£t va E:iVat UTTE:paOTT/01) J16VO E:aV aTTOOE:tXBE:i 6rt 0 E:Vay6J1E:VO~ OE:V TTiOTWE: E:tAtKptva TO OX6Ato TTOU tKaVE:.

TV{Jata TTE:TTOiBI)Oij 6rt TO OX6Ato aAI)BE:OE:t E:iVat TO KptT{Jpto TTOU AaJ1{3avE:Tat UTT6tplj. Eav E:vtpy{Jott JlE: TtTOto Tp6rro Karroto~ arr6 txepa, ((JAta, rrp6Bwl) va {3Mrp£t, rrp6BWI) va rrpoKaAt.oE:t (t'/TI)Jla avTmapaBwl)~ (J aMo KiVI)Tpo, 6rroto Kat va tfvat, aK6J11) Kat va E:iVat TO J16VO {J TO K0pt0 E:AaT(JptO auT6 OE:V E:KJli)OE:Vi(E:t TI)V UTTE:pCJOTT/01). OJ1w~ arr60E:t{l) TtTotou Ktv(JTpou JlTTOpE:i va tfvat oxwK6~ rrapayovra~ yta aMa (!jT{JJlaTa Tlj~ aywy(J~ W~ TO ({JTI)Jla TTOU aTTO(I)JliWOaV.

Gtwptirat 6rt TtTota rrpootwtol) Tou otKaiou rrapayE:t avtmBOJli)T£~ ouvt.rr£t£~ E:TTE:to(J TO oTOtXE:io Tl)~ KaKomoTia~ ea (Jrav otcpopo0J1E:vo~ rrapayovra~ KaTa Tl)v t{traol) Tl)~ UTTE:paOTT/01)~ Tlj~ E:OAOylj~ KptTtK(J~ Kat TOU TTpOVOJliOU UTT6 TTE:ptoptOJ100 Kat aUT6 Ba OI)Jltoupy(JoE:t rrp6{3AI)Jla oTOu~ tv6pKou~. XuJlcpwvci.J, 6rt I) XPfJOI) Tou 6pou «KaKia» JlTTOpE:i va rrpoKaAt.oE:t oOyxuol). Eivat KaAOTE:pa va arrocpE:Oyaat I) XPt'/OI) auT(J~ Tl)~ At.{l)~ E:{' oAoKA(Jpou. Mrropti va KaBool)yi)BoOv ot tvopKot o£ oxtol) JlE: TI)V UTTE:pCJOTT/01) Tlj~ E:0Aoyl)~ KptTtK(J~, 6Tt E:KJli)OE:Vi(E:Tat E:aV aTTOOE:tXBE:i 6Tt 0 E:Vay6J1E:VO~ OE:V TTiOTWE: TO OX6Ato TTOU tKaVE:. X£ oxtolj JlE: TTpOV6J1tO UTT6 TTE:ptoptOJ16 Ot tVOpKOt JlTTOpE:f va KaBOOI)yi)Bo(Jv 6Tt I) UTTE:paOTT/01) E:KJli)OE:Vi(E:rat E:av aTTOOE:tXBE:f 6Tt 0 E:Vay6J1E:VO~ XPI)OtJlOTTOiljOE: TI)V TTE:pioraOij yta OKOTT6 aMo aTT6 aUT6 yta TO OTTOiO OUV{JBW~ BE:WpE:irat 6Tt I) TTE:piOTaOI) aTTatTE:i TI)V E:cpapjloy{J TOU TTpOVOJl[OU. AUT{J I) ool)yia JlTTOpE:i va otarurrwBti JlE: TtTOto Tp6rro rrou va rrpooapJ16(E:rat ora ytyov6Ta Tlj~ UTT6BWI)~».

,·, }: .,I .~

49

To TTIO TTClVW OTTOO'TTOO'IJO KOTa<5EIKVUEI OTI UTTClPXEI OVTIKEIIJEVIKO KpiT~piO TTOU

rrpETTEI va E<pap1J60'EI To LliKacrT~plo v1a va KpfvEI KaTa rr6cro TO crx6,\1o Efvm EUAOVO

OIJW~ IJOpTupfa VIC Tl~ UTTOKEIIJEVIKE~ TTpOSEO'EI~ TWV TTpOO'WTTWV TTOU EfVOI

UTTEUSUVOI VIC TO O'XOAIO, (511,\a(S~ Tl1~ KOKOTTIO'Tia~, EiVOI IJOpTUpia TTOU IJTTOpEi va

Al1<pSEi urr6l.J.I'l v1a va KpiSEi TO Eu,\ovo Tou crxoAiou.

H urrEpacrmcr11 Tl1~ EUAOVI1~ KpmK~~ E~ETa~Eral crE <Suo crTa<S1a. To rrpwTo crTa<S1o

EfVOI TO OVTIKEIIJEVIKO KpiT~piO KOTcl TTOO'O 01 ETTi<51KE~ AE~EI~ IJTTOpEi va SEWPI1SOUV OTI

EfVOI O'XOAIO ETTf VEVOVOTWV. To J3apo~ arr6<5EI~I1~ VI' OUT6 TO O'Tcl<510 TO EXEI 11 TTAEUpa

TWV EVOVOIJEVWV cru1Jcpwva IJE TO IuyypaiJIJa Gatley on Libel and Slander Sweet

and Maxwell27. LlEUTEpO, EclV TTPclVIJOTI 01 AE~EI~ TTPclVIJOTI ETTI<5EXOVTOI OUT~ TI1V

EPIJ11VEia KOI IJTTOpEf va SEWPI1SOUV OTI TTp6KEITal VIC O'XOAIO rrapa Tl1 <5IOTUTTWO'I1

KclTTOIOU VEVOVOTO~, 11 UTTEpclO'TTIO'I1 KOI TTclAI Sa OTTOTUXEI EKTO~ KOI EclV 01 EVOVOVTE~,

TTOU EXOUV TO J3apo~ arr6<5EI~I1~ TTAEOV, OTT0<5Ei~OUV OTI aUTO TO O'XOAIO EVIVE

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IJEPO~ TWV KpiTI1PfWV TTOU OTTOTEAOUV TI1V UTTEpclO'TTIO'I1 Tl1~ EUAOVI1~ KpiTIK~~. ETTE1<5~

W~ OVE<pEpa TTP011VOUIJEVW~ 01 AE~EI~ TTOU Karavpa<pOVTOI O'TI1 O'UVKEKpiiJEVa

TTp6TaO'I1 <5EV ETTI<5EXOVTOI EPIJ11VEia OTI TTp6KEITal VIC O'XOAIO a,\,\a O'UVIO'TOUV

<5IOTUTTWO'I1 VEVOVOTWV. AUTO O'UJJJ3aiVEI, ETTEI<5~ OTTOUO'Icl~EI TO TTPOVIJOTIKO SEJJEAIO

OTTO TO <511JJOO'iEUJJO, OTTO TO OTTOiO 0 OVOVVWO'TI1~ Sa IJTTOpOUO'E va OVTIAI1<pSEi OTI TO

O'XOAIO TTpOKUTTTEI EUAOVO OTTO TO VEVOVOTa. 01 EVOVOIJEVOI EXOUV xapaKTI1PiO'EI TOV

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TTTWIJclTWV, <5IOTESEIIJEVO~ VIC TO TTclVTa TTpOKEIIJEVOU Va ETTIKpaT~O'EI 11 <51K~ TOU

TTOAITIK~ SEO'I1. H <Spacr11 Tou w~ <51KI1V6po~ Tou Evavovra aK6JJI1 Kal va ~rav a,\~SEia

OTI ~TOV <pOpTIK~ KOI EVOXAI1TIK~ VIC clAAOU~ O'TI1V UTTEpclO'TTIO'I1 TOU TTEAclTI1 TOU, <5EV

TOV KclVEI avSpWTTO TTOU J3pf~EI, EUTEAi~EI KOI OTTEIAEf ~WE~ avSpWTTWV. fl' OUTO 0

OVOVVWO'TI1~ TTOU Sa <S1aJ3a~E aUTO TO OTTOO'TTOO'IJO <5EV Sa TO OVTIAOIJJ3av6TaV W~

O'XOAIO, aMa Sa TO OVTIAOIJJ3av6rav W~ VEVOV6ra VIC TO xapaKT~pa KOI <5pcl0'11 TOU

EVclVOVTa KOI Sa UTTESETE OTI UTT~PXOV a,\,\a VEVOVOTa TTOU <5EV EVO'WIJOTWS11KOV O'TO

<5111JOO'iEUIJO TTOU va <51KOIOAOVOUO'OV OUT~ T11V SE0'11. To TTIO TT1Sav6v EiVOI OTI 0

OVOVVWO'TI1~ Sa OVTIAOIJJ3av6rav OTI 0 EVclVOVTa~ EiVOI TO rrp60'WTTO TTOU KIVEi TO

V~IJOTO O'E O'XE0'11 IJE TI1V IO'TOO'EAi<5a «Christofias Watch» ~ O'TI1V KOAUTEP11 TWV

TTEpiTTTWO'EWV OTI EfVOI 11S1K6~ OUTOUPVO~ KOI O'UIJIJEpf~ETal Tl~ SEO'EI~ TOU~ TTA~pW~,

27 Eleventh edition par. 1223 Words being capable of comment

50

KOI EiVOI a6paro~ UTTOOT11PIKT~~ T11~ IOTOOEAfOa~ KOI TOU Epyou Tl1~· E~~VI100

OVOAUTIKO TTIO TTOVW VIOTI OTTOUOIO~OUV VEVOVOTO OTT6 TO OTTO[a TETOIO OU~.ITTEPOOIJO ·~··

IJTTOpE! va TTpoKUlJ.IEI. AvaTT6q>EUKTO 11 UTTEpacrmcr11 rou EUAoyou crxoArou TTPETTEI va

OTTOTUXEI ETTEIO~ OEV EiVOI OUTE tVTIIJO IJE j30011 TO VEVOV6TO TTOU EKTfSEVTOI OTO

0111-JOO[EUIJO OAAO KOI OUTE OIKOIO~ xapaKTI1PIOIJ6~ VIO Tl1 yvwcrr~ OpOOI1 TOU

EVOVOVTO.

H YnEPAl:nll:H nPONOMIOY riA ZHTHMA ~HMOl:IOY EN~IACI>EPONTOl:

0 EIJIJEOO~ TTPOTTI1AOKIOIJ6~ TOU aruxou OI11JOOIOVPOQ>OU MaKapiOU L\pOUOIWTI1 010

TWV apSpwv KOI OXOAIWV T11~ IOTOOEAiOa~ «Chrisfofias Watch», EfVOI EVO ~~T111JO TTOU

Sa EVOitq>EpE TO KOIV6 W~ ~~TI11JO TTOU UTTEpSEIJOTi~EI TI1V OVOVKI1 TTpOOTOcrfa~ TOU

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TI1V avayvtiJp1011 6TI 11 EAEUSEpfa T11~ tKq>p0011~ TOU A6you OEV E[VOI OTT6AUTI1 6TOV

OUT~ 0011VEI OE KOTOTTOT11011 OAAWV E~fcrou 0111-JOVTIKWV avSpWTTIVWV OTOIJIKWV

OIKOIWIJOTWV n~ ~~TI11JO OI11JOO!ou EVOiaq>tpovro~ Sa IJTTOpOUOE va EIVOI KOI

0111-JOOIEUIJOTO TTOU Oq>OpOUOOV TOV EVTOTTIOIJ6 TWV UTTEUSUVWV T11~ OUVKEKpi1JtVI1~

IOTOOEA!Oa~. 01JW~ TO ETTIOIKO 0111-JOO[EUIJO OEV EfVOI tva croj3ap6 apSpo TTOU

KOTOTTIOVETOI ETTf T11~ oucrfa~ IJ' OUTO TO ~11T~IJOTO. E!VOI tva IJ1Kp6 0111-JOO[EUIJO KOTW

OTT6 T11V ETTIKEq>aAfoa «napacrK~VIO» TTOU KUpiO~ OKOTT6~ OUTOU TOU 0111-JOOIEUIJOTO~

~TOV VO KOTOKpfVEI Tl1 0p0011 TOU EVOVOVTO Oq>OU OVtAOj3E TI1V UTTEpclOTTI011 TOU

EVOVOVTO 2 W~ OIK11y6po~ TOU. No!JI~w 6TI OEV EiVOI SEIJO TTOU EVOIOq>EpEI TO EUpU

KOIV6 6TI 0 EVOVOVTO~ tXEI KOTOXWP~OEI aywy~ Alj3tAAOU KOTO Tl1~ KlrA KOI TOU

NIKOU Tpi1JIKAIVIWTI1 ~ 6n tXEI KOTOVT~OEI q>OpTIK6~ KOI KOUpaOTIK6~ IJE TOV Tp6TTO

TTOU XEipi~ETOI TI1V UTTEpOOTTI011 TOU TTEAOTI1 TOU. EIVOI q>OVEp6 6T1 OKOTT6~ TOU

0111-JOOIEUIJOTO~ ~TOV 6XI 1J6VO VO KOTOKpiVEI TOV EVOVOVTO W~ TTOAITIK6 TTp60WTTO

OAAO OT11V oucria va KOTOOEI~EI 6n EiVOI OKOTOAAI1AO~ EKTTp60WTTO~ Tl1~ XWPO~ TOU

VIO TI1V TTpOOOTTI011 avSpwTTIVWV OIKOIWIJOTWV ~ va TOV ~EOKETTOOEI 6TI OEV EiVOI

OUT6 TTOU OIOTEIVETOI 6TI E[VOI OTI1V 0111J6010 TOU ~W~. ETTOIJtVW~, TiSETOI EUAOVO TO

EpWTI11JO KOTO TT600 11 OTTIAW011 T11~ EIK6Va~ TOU EVOVOVTO OTO EUpUTEpO KOIV6 E[VOI

~~T111JO OI11JOcr!ou EVOiaq>tpovro~. YTTOPXEI AyyAIK~ VOIJOAoyla TTou xpovoAoyE!rm

OTT6 TO 1999 El~ TI1V OTTOia avayvwpf~ETOI 6n 11 UTTEPOOTTI011 TOU TTpOVOIJIOU VIO

~~TI11.JO 0111.JOO[OU EVOIOq>tpOVTO~ I.JTTOpEi VO ETTEKTOSEI KOI OTO j.Jtcra I.JO~IKr'}~

EV111JtpWOI1~ 6TOV OUTOI 0111.JOOIEUOUV OTO Eup(J KOIV6 KOTOKpiTta OUI.JTTEplq>Opa TTOU

51

acpopa TrOAITIKcl rrp6owrra. Aur~ ll um:paOTriOil TrOU dVaJ ll cpUOIK~ ETrEKTaOil TOU

KOIVOOJKaiou OEV KaMJTrTEI Kcl9E TrEpiTrTWOil ouocp~J..IIOil~ KaTa TrOAITIKOU TrpOOWTrOU.

APXJKa ll urrEpaomoll rou rrpovo!Jiou oro KoJvooiKaJo ~rav i5Ja9tOJJ..IIl J..16vo orrw

TrEplTrTWOil 6TrOU UTr~PXE KclTrOIO Ka9~KOV (eire VOJJIKO, KOIVWVIKO f} 1]91K6) TOU

ar61JOU va J..IIA~OEI y1a tva ~~TilJ..Ia OE tva clAAO clTOJ..IO ~ OIJOOa ar61JWV TrOU ElXE

EVOJacptpov va aKOUOEI TllV ElOilOil aK61Jil Kal EclV aur~ ~TaV l\av9aOJ..IEVIl KQJ

OUO<PilJ..IlOTIK~ y1a TO rrp60WTrO TOU Evayovra. 0 l\6yo~ TrOU UTr~PXE E~afpEOil y1a TO

rrpov61JIO oro oiKmo Til~ ouocp~J..IIOil~ Eivm va Ev9app0vovrm auroi rrou txouv

Ka9~KOV va J..IIA~OOUV rrpo~ rrpooraoia TWV aTrOOEKTWV Till) TrAilpOcpopfac; KOJ 6XJ VO

cpoj3o0vral KUpWOEII) OJ6TJ 01Ei5Woav TllV TrAilpOcpopia, aK61Jil KaJ EclV aur~ ll

TrAilpocpopia ~rav 1\aveaoJ..ItVIl ~ j3am~6rav OE 1\aveaoJ..IEVEI) TrAilpocpopiEc;.

Avayvwpi~ETOJ 6TJ TO OUIJ<pEpOV Till) KOIVWViac; E~UTrllPETEiTOJ KaAUTEpa 6rav

rrpoorarEOEraJ aur~ ll EmKoJvwvia rrap6l\o rrou ll urr6Ail4Jil rou ar61JOU ea TrAilY£1

ai5JKOJOA6VIlTa arr6 Til) 4JEUi5Eic; KOJ/~ l\av9aOIJEVEI) TrAilPO<popiE~. 01JWI) KaTa TO

KOIVOi5iKaJO ETrpETrE 0 TrAilpocpopl006Til~ Va i5Jai5WOEI TllV TrAilpocpopia OE clTOJ..IO ll

OJ..Iai5a aT61JWV IJE aval\oyo OUIJ<pEpOV y1a va aKOUOEI TllV TrAilpOcpopia. (Adam V

Ward28). I:rllv OlliJai5JaKr; Ayyl\JK~ urr69EOil Reynolds v. Times Newspapers Ltd

and Others 291l Boul\~ rwv Aopi5wv KaJ ouyKEKPIJ..IEVa o A6pooc; Nicholls ETrE~riVIlOE

6TJ aUT~ ll apx~ TOU KOIVOiSJKafou Ecpap1J6~ETOJ Kal OE IJEOa IJa~JKril) KUKAOcpopfac; TrOU

TrAilpOcpopoOV TO KOJV6 OE OXEOil J..IE ~llT~J..IaTa i51lJ..IOOfOU EVi5JacptpOVTO~. To ~~TilJ..Ia

i51lJ..IOOfOU EVi5JacptpOVTOI) i5EV J..ITrOpd va EfVal TETOJa TrAilpocpopfa TrOU arrAa TO KOJV6

Sa dXE TrEPIEPVEJa va 1Jcl9EJ, ~ va TllV OXOAIOOEI y1a va TrEpclOEI TllV wpa TOU (TrX

KOUTOOJ..ITrOAJ6) al\1\a TO ~~TiliJa 9a TrpETrEJ va r;rav ooj3ap6 KclTJ TrOU VEVIKcl

ETrllPEcl~EI TllV KOIVWVfa KOJ Til) ~WEI) TWV av9pWTrWV WOTE va UTrclPXEI ooj3ap6

EVi5Jacpf.pov y1a TllV TrAilpOcp6pll01l aUT~/) Til~ EiOilOil~ aK61Jil Kal EclV aUT~ ~rav

1\aveaoJ..IEVIl. I:rllv urr69EOil Artists Ltd. v. Little~0 ro TJ Efvm ~riTilJ..Ia i51l1JOofou

EVi5Jacptpovroc; ETrE~IlYri91lKE aval\uTJKa arr6 rov Lord Denning w~ aKol\o09wc;:

«'Whenever a matter is such as to affect people at large, so that they may be legitimately interested in, or concerned at, what is going on; or what may happen to them or others; then it is a matter of public interest on which everyone is entitled to make fair comment».

28 [1917] AC 3,09

29 [1999]4 All ER

30 [1969]2 QB 375, 391

52

Ta yEyov6ra orrw un69EOil Reynolds31 ~rav w~ aKo,\ouew~: :=tonaoE TTOAITIK~

KplO!l OTO l!.ouj3AiVO TO 1994 TTOU o5r']VIl0E OTilV TTapaiT!lOil TOU TTpW9UTTOUpyo(J Til~

Jp,\av5ia~. H napaiT!lOil TOU npw9unoupyou Til~ lp,\av5ia~ r']rav ~rlTilJ.Ja 5!lJ.JOoiou

EV510q>EpOVTO~ KOI OTO HVWJ.JEVO BaoiAEIO ETTEI5(] aUTO~ r']rav OVOJ.JEJ.JIVJ.JEVO~ OTilV

OlaOIKOOia ETTlTEU~Il~ Elp~VIl~ OT!lV B6pEIO lpAaV5ia. /\lye:~ J.JEPE~ J.JETO TllV napaiTilOil

TOU 1TpW9UlTOUpyo(J 11 EQ>IlJ.JEpi5a OllJ.JOOiEUOE ap9po J.JE TllV aK6AOU91l ETTIKEq>OAf5a:

«Why a fib too far proved fatal for the political career of Ireland's peacemaker and Mr. Fixit'.

H OUOia TOU 5rlJ.JOOIEUJ.JOTO~ r']TaV 6TI TTapaiT(]91lKE ETTEI5(] OK61TIJ,Ja EiXE TTEI 4JEJ.JOTa

OTOU~ cruvaOEAq>OU~ TOU OTO Yrroupy1K6 LUJ,Jj30UAIO. 01 EV6pKOI TTpWT651KO

OTTOq>OOicrav 6TI aural 01 IOXUPIOJ.JOI r']rav ava,\118~~ KOI ETTlOil~ OTT0pplq>9!1KE W~

aj300IJ.Jilll UlTEpacrlTIO!l TO TTPOVOJ,JIOU y1a ~~TilJ.Ja 5!lJ.JOcrlou EVOIOq>EpOVTO~.

0 /\6p5o~ Nicholls KaT' Eq>EO!l 5EX911KE 6TI TO ~rlTilJ.Ja r']rav EUpure:pou TTOAITIKOU

EV510q>EpOVTO~. 0J,JW~ ElTE~rlV!lOE OTI TO TTpOVOJ.JIO ElTEVEpyEi OTilV TTpOOTOOia

OXOAJWV TTOU lTpOKLJTTTOUV OlTO VEVOV6Ta VVWOTO OTO KOIV6 KOI OEV ElTEVe:pyEI OTilV

TTpocrracria AOV900J.JEVWV KOI/r'} 4JEU5WV ye:yov6TWV TTOU OTT00[50VTOI OTOV EVOVOVTO

XOPIV Til~ TTA11POQ>6PI1011~ TOU KOIVOU.

Lordships.

It is important to keep in mind that this defence is concerned with the protection of comment, not imputations of fact. If the imputation is one of fact, a ground of defence must be sought elsewhere. Further, to be within this defence the comment must be recognisable as comment, as distinct from an imputation of fact. The comment must explicitly or implicitly indicate, at least in general terms, what are the facts on which the comment is being made: see the discussion in Duncan and Neill on Defamation, 2nd ed. (1983), pp. 58-62».

nEpOITEpW, 5EV ElVOI 6,\a Ta ~!lTr']J.JaTa O"T!lV ElTIKOipOT!lTO lTOU J.JTrOpe:[ VO

xapaKTI1PI09ouv OTI e:[VOI ~llTrlJ.JOTa 5!lJ,JOcriou EVOIOq>EpOVTO~. nptrre:l va e:IVOI 9EJ,JO

VIO TO orroio 0 511J.JOOIOVPOQ>O~ TrpETrEI KOI EXEI Ka9r'}KOV va TrAilPOq>opr']OEI TO KOIV6

516TI TOU~ aq>opa OJ.JEOO. LTOIXEia TrOU AOJ.Jj30VOVTOI UlT04Jil y1a va Kpi9Ei Kara rr6cro

TO ~r'JT!lJ.JO EIVOI 6VTW~ O!lJ.JOcrlou EVOIOq>EpOVTO~ EiVOI 11 q>UO!l KOI 11 TrllVrl TOU UAIKOU

rrou EXEI OllJ.JOOJe:u9Ei Ka9w~ KOI or cruv9r']KE~ urr6 Tl~ orroie:~ ro u,\rK6 O!lJ.JOOIEU91lKE.

LTilV rrapo(Jcra rre:piTrTWO!l EKTIJ.JW OTI TO OUVKEKpllJEVO ~r'JT!l!JO KOTEA!l~E OT!lV

31 Supra note 31

53

E<pi"}I.JEpi5a OTr) OEAi5a «napaaKtJVIO», W<;; OI.JEOr) OVTi5pOOr) OTO VEVOV6<;; 6TI 0

Evayovrac; KaraxwprJOE 5uo aywyt.c; Kara rou KILA Kal rou NiKou Tpii.JIKAIVIWTrJ oE

OXEOr) I.JE Tr)V UlTEpOOlTIOr) TOU EVOVOVTO 2 OTO ~IKOOTf)piO. EiVOI Or)I.JOVTIK6 VQ

Ar)<p9Ei U1T64Jr) 6TI KOTO TOV E1Ti51KO xp6vo 5EV EiXE Kpi9Ei arr6 Tr)V EpEUVO f) 51KOOTIKO

KOTO rr6oo 0 EVOVOVTO<;; 2 f)rav OUV5E5EI.JEVO<;; I.JE Tr)V IOTOOEAi5a KOI ETOI r) E<pr)I.JEpi5a

9EWpr)OE 6TI r) OUJ.IlTEplq>Opci TOU EVOVOVTO VQ KIVf)OEI Tl<;; 500 OVWVE<;; f)TOV

KOTOKpiTEO KOI EI.JI.JEOO UlT05EfKVUE OTO KOIV6 Tr)V OKOTOAAr)A6Tr)TQ TOU we; rrp60W1TO

1TOAITIK6. EiVOI OJ.l<pij30AO KQTO 1T600 EiXE 51KQlWI.JO TO KOIV6 VO I.J09EI YIO Tr)V

KOTOXWPrJOr) TWV aywywv W<;; ~f)Tr)I.JO 5r)I.JOOJOU EV510q>EpOVTO<;; K09W<;; KOI Tr)V 5pOOr)

TOU EVOVOVTQ W<;; 51Kr)y6por;, UlTEpOOlTIOr)<;; TOU EVOVOVTa 2. 01.JW<;; 0 EVciyovrar;, f)rav

EK1Tp60W1TO<;; Tr)<;; xwpar;, OE ElTITporrf) Av9pW1TJVWV 51KOIWI.JOTWV OTO OUI.Jj30UAIO Tr)<;;

· EupWlTI"J<;;. 1owc; oKorr6c; roue; f)rav va ava5Ef~ouv Tr)V aKaTaAAI"JA6Tr)Ta rou we; rrp6owrro rrou 5Ev ot.j3ETOI ra av9pwmva 51KOIWI.JOTO 6hwv. Aur6 ea I.JlTopouoE va

OlTOTEAEOEI ~f)Tr)I.JO 5r)I.JOOJOU EV510q>EpOVTO<;; WOTE VQ OOKI")9Ef ElTippof) I.JEOW TOU

KOIVOU y1a Tr)V lTOUOI") TOU EVOVOVTO. 01.JW<;; 5EV 9EWpW 6TI I") UlTEpOOlTIOr) J.llTOpEf va

lTETUXEI EOV OUT6<;; f)TOV 0 OK01T6<;; TOU 5r)I.JOOIEUI.JOTO<;;, QlTAOUOTOTa E1TE15f) Ta

yEyov6ra rrou rrpoj3ahhovra1, f)ro1 6r1 j3pf~EI XAEUci~EI KTA, 5Ev Efvm avTIKEII.JEVIKf) KOI

op9f) r) KOAU4Jr) TOU 9EI.JOTO<;; 51")1.JOOIOVPO<piKO EOV 0 EVciyovrar;, XOPOKTI")pi~ETOI J.l'

aur6 rov rp6rro 1-16vo ElTEIBf) avt.haj3E TI"JV urrEpciomorJ rou Evciyovra 2 Kal

KOTaXWPI"JOE 5uo aywytr;, y1a 5uo<pf)J.IIOI"J. 0UTE 51KOIOAOVOUVTal aura lTOU TOU

KOTaAoyi~ouv, 5r)Aa5f) 6TI EJVOI OKOTOAAI")AO<;; avrmp6owrror;, Tr)<;; XWPO<;; TOU E1TEI5f)

QVEAOj3E Tr)V UlTEpOOlTIOr) TOU EVOVOVTO 2. TETOIQ 9EWpr)Or) TWV rrpayi.JOTWV 9a E9ETE

TOV EVOVOVTO OE 5UOI.JEVf) 9EOI"). ~r)A05f), TOV EXOUV 5UO<pr)I.JlOEI, I.JE VEVOV6TO lTOU

EJVQI AOV900I.JEVO f) 4JEU5f), KOI r) E<pr)1.JEpf5a E1TE15f) 9a ElTIKQAEJTOI TO 1TpOV61.JIO 0

EVOVOVTO<;; 5EV 9a I.JlTOpOUOE VQ KOVEI TilTOTE VIO VQ OVTI5pciOEI EVOVTJOV Tr)<;;

5uo<pf)I.JIOI")<;;. Aur6 9a OAAQ~E KOI TO BfKOIO Tr)<;; 5uo<pf)I.JIOI")<;; lTOU UlTOXPEWVEI TOU<;;

Evay61.JEVOU<;; VO arro5Ef~OUV Tr)V 0Af)9EIO TWV 5UO<pr)J.IIOTIKWV IOXUPIOI.JWV KOI

OVTI9ETW<;; 9a f)TOV UlTOXPEWJ.IEVO<;; 0 EVOVOVTO<;; VO UlTOOTEJ ~r)J.IIO OTr)V UlT6ArJ4Jrl TOU

01T6 5UO<pr)I.JIOTIK6 ··5r)J.100lEUJ.IO lTOU 5EV lTOpOUOIO~EI Tr)V 0Ar'}9EIQ KOI va EiVOI

OVf}I.JlTOpO<;; Va OVT15pciOEI Ka9wr;, TO 5r)I.JOOiEUI.JO KOAUlTTETcll 01T6 1TpOV61.JIO.

54

rnw mo mxvw AyyA.1K~ arr6q>aall Reynolds32 arroppicp61lKE aur~ ll rrpoatyy1all 6r1

011!-JOOIO rrp6crWTTO ~ TTOAITIKd TTp6crWTTO Sa TTPETTEI VO UTTOOTOUV OUO(j)ll!-JIOTIK~ '---/

KPITIK~ YIO ~llT~IJOTO Oll!JOOlOU EVOiacptpoVTO~ OKO!Jil KOI EOV aura OEV 0Ail8EUOUV.

I:E dA.A.E<; XWPE<; Til<; KOIVOTI'OAITEiac; OTI'W~ crnc; HnA ll UITEpdcrTI'IOil TOU Oll!JOOIOU

rrpocrWTTOU IOXUEI ((3A.. TI'IO KOTW TO OK6A.ou6o arr6arracr!JO):

«In the United States the leading authority is the well-known case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan 376 U.S. 254. Founding itself on the first and fourteenth amendments to the United States Constitution, the Supreme Court held that a public official cannot recover damages for a defamatory falsehood relating to his official conduct unless he proves, with convincing clarity, that the statement was made with knowledge of its falsity or with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not. This principle has since been applied to public figures generally».

O!JW~ TO AyyA.IKO ftlKOOT~piO apv~61lKE VQ EVOWIJOTWOEI OTO rrpOVOIJIO XWPi~

ITEPIOplcr!J6 Kai OOIOKpiTO 01TOIOO~ITOTE 6EIJO 1TOU acpopd 1TAilpOcpopiES y1a TO

noA.mKd opW!JEVa rou r6rrou. Eiv01 Oll!JOVTIK6 va undpXEI EA.EU6Epia tKcppaall~ crE

OXEOil IJE 1TOAITIKO ~llT~IJOTQ xwpic; 1TEP10pl01JOU~ OE OlacpopETIK~ 1TEpl1TTWOil

U1TOOK01TTETOI ll Oll!JOKPOTia 1TOU (3acri~ETOI OTilV EAEU6Epia TOU A.6you 1TOU

01TOAO!J{30VOUV TO IJEOO IJO~IK~~ EVIl!JEpWOil~· 0 1TEpiOplOIJOc; TOU A.6you 1TpE1TEI VO

yiVETOI IJE ITpOOOX~ KOI 1TpE1TEI VO OIOq>UAOTTETOI ll IKOVOTilTO TWV !JEOWV IJO~IK~c;

EVIliJEPWOil~ va EPEUVOUV KOI va 1TAilpocpopo(Jv TO KOIV6 y1a ~llT~IJOTO Oll!JOcriou

EVOiacptpovroc;. An6 TllV dMil ro dTOIJO npt1TEI va rrpoaraTEUETal arr6 avoiKEIE'.;

Em6EOEI<; KOTd Tile; U1T0Ail4Jil'.; TOU. 'Eva Oll!JOOIO np6awrro IJITOpEi va TI'AilVEi

OVE1TOV6p6WTO OTO IJOTIO TOU KOIVOU. Mia 4JEUOOA.oyia Elc; (3dpoc; Oll!JOOIWV

1Tp00W1TWV criyoupa OEV E~U1TilPETEi TO KOIVO. ~UVE1TW~, ll U1TEpdcrTTIOil TOU

1TpOVOIJlOU OEV IJITOpEi va KOAU4JEI Kd6E 1TEpiiTTWOil ouacpll!JIOTIK~c; Oll!JOOIOypacpiac;

KOI ourE yivETOI avEKT~ rtro1a Oll!JOOioypacpia xap1v Tile; EA.EU6Epiac; Tile; EKcppaallc;.

I:UVEITW'.;, ll EAEU6Epia TOU A.6you ITEpiOpi~ETOI W~ opi~EI 0 VOIJOc;, KOI 0 1TEplOplOIJO'.;

rrpE1TEI VO ElVOI IJOVO OUTO'.; ITOU ElVOI avayKaioc; y1a Til OIOT~PilOil Tile; EAEU6Epiac; TOU

A.6you OE IJlO Oll!JOKpOTIK~ KOIVWVia KOI VIO TllV 1TpOcrTacrfa TWV OIKOIWIJOTWV TOU

OTOIJOU. EiVOI avayKaio VO 1TEpiOpl06Ei TO 1TpOVOIJIO EKEi 01TOU 01TOOlOOVTOI OTOV

Evdyovra yEyov6ra rrou OEV txouv oxtail !JE TllV aA.~6E1a Kal nou EiVOI ETTI~~IJIO y1a

TllV U1T0Ail4Jil TOU y1a XOPIV EVIl!JEPWOilc; TOU KOIVOU. 0 A6plio~ Nicholls E1TE~IlVEi

y1ari ETTI~~IJIO 4JEuooA.oyia OEV IJ1TOpEi va TUXEI npoaracriac; IJE TllV unEpdamall Tou

1TpOVOIJlOU.

32 Supra note 31

55

«With defamatory imputations of fact the position is different and more difficult. Those who read or hear such allegations are unlikely to have any means of knowing whether they are true or not. In respect of such imputations, a plaintiff's ability to obtain a remedy if he can prove malice is not normally a sufficient safeguard. Malice is notoriously difficult to prove. If a newspaper is understandably unwilling to disclose its sources, a plaintiff can be deprived of the material necessary to prove, or even allege, that the newspaper acted recklessly in publishing as it did without further verification. Thus, in the absence of any additional safeguard for reputation, a newspaper, anxious to be first with a 'scoop~ would in practice be free to publish seriously defamatory misstatements of fact based on the slenderest of materials. Unless the paper chose later to withdraw the allegations, the politician thus defamed would have no means of clearing his name, and the public would have no means of knowing where the truth lay. Some further protection for reputation is needed if this can be achieved without a disproportionate incursion into freedom of expression>>.

Em:~~V'lOE OTI '1 OWOT~ IOOpporria EiVOI Va TTpOOTaTEUETal '1 UTTEU8UV'1

~'li.JOOIOVPO<pia ~lOTI OUT~ E[VOI KaA~ Kal avayKaia. Aur6 OE avri8E0'1 IJE Til

~'li.JOOIOVPO<pfa TTOU £iva1 OVEU8UV'1, ~EV EAEVXEI Tl~ TTAilpOcpopiE~ T'l~ KOI EK8ETEI TO

clTOIJO OE ETTI~~IJIO lJ.IEU~oAoyia EirE OKOTTIIJO ~ OTTO OjJEAEIO KOTcl T'lV tpwva TOU

~'lT~IJOTO~.

«The common law does not seek to set a higher standard than that of responsible journalism, a standard the media themselves espouse. An incursion into press freedom which goes no further than this would not seem to be excessive or disproportionate. The investigative journalist has adequate protection. The contrary approach, which would involve no objective check on the media, drew a pertinent comment from Tipping J. in Lange v. Atkinson [1998] 3 N.Z.L.R. 424, 477:

It could be seen as rather ironical that whereas almost all sectors of society, and all other occupations and professions have duties to take reasonable care, and are accountable in one form or another if they are careless, the news media whose power and capacity to cause harm and distress are considerable if that power is not responsibly used, are not liable in negligence, and what is more, can claim qualified privilege even if they are negligent. It may be asked whether the public interest in freedom of expression is so great that the accountability which society requires of others, should not also apply to the media»

KartAil~E OTO OUIJTTEPOOIJO OTI ~EV IJTTOpOUOE va avayvwpiOTEi IJIO VEVIK~ KOT'lVOpia

yla T'lV UTTEpclOTTIO'l TOU TTpOVOj..liOU OE oxto,., IJE 6Aa TO StjJaTa, 6TTOIO KOI va EiVOI

aura, rrou acp'opouv T'lV ou~~T'lO'l rroAmKwv rrpoowrrwv ~ 8E1Jarwv. napt8EOE tva

KaraAoyo KPIT'lpiwv rrou Sa IJTTopouoav va A11cp8ouv urr64J'1 arr6 ro Ll1Kaor~p1o y1a

VO Kpi8Ef KOTcl TTOOO TO ~~T'li.JO IJTTOpEf Va 8EWP'18£i ~'li.JOO[OU EV~IacptpOVTO~ KOI ETOI

va £iva1 rrpoorarEUIJtvo arr6 rrpov61..110. Aur6~ o KaraAoyo~ Eival w~ aKoAouew~:

1. The seriousness of the allegation. The more serious the charge, the more the public is misinformed and the individual harmed, if the allegation is not true. H

aof3ap6-rrrra Til<; KaTilyopia<;. ·· t>ao mo aopapft dvaL 11 KatJ1yop(a t6ao

56

nEpLaa6n:po napanAilpocl»opdtaL to KOLVO KaL. nAI\ttEtaL ll un6Ailtllll tou

atOJ.lOU 6tav 0 LO)(UpLOJ.lOC: dvaL tlJEu6{Jc;.

2. The nature of the information, and the extent to which the subject-matter is a

matter of public concern. H c~»uall twv nA11pocl»opuilv KaL aE noLo j3a9J.16 to

~litllJ.la ElvaL tEtOLO nou np£nEL va Ev6Lacl»£pEL to KOLv6.

3. The source of the information. Some informants have no direct knowledge of

the events. Some have their own axes to grind, or are being paid for their

stories. H mw~ 1'11C: 7tArtpo<j>6prtarw KcinoLoL nAilpocl»opLo66tEc; 6Ev E)(ouv

CtJ.lEOil yvwall twv yEyov6twv. KcinoLOL £xouv aMotpLa KLVIltpa, .; E)(ouv

Mllpw9d yLa tllV Latopla touc;.

4. The steps taken to verify the information. Ta J.1Etpa nou E)(ouv Allc1»9d an6 tllV

Ecl»llJ.1Epl6a yLa EnLj3Ej3alWall tWV nAilpOcl»opLWV.

5. The status of the information. The allegation may have already been the subject

of an investigation which commands respect. H Katllyopla tile; nAilPOcl»oplac;.

Enl napa6dyJ.1atL o LOXUPLOJ.loc; J.lnopd va {Jtav li61l to avtLKELJ.lEVO aoj3ap{Jc;

KaL EJ.lnEpLatatWJ.lEVIlC: tpEuvac;.

6. The urgency of the matter. News is often a perishable commodity. n6ao

Endyouaa ElvaL ll MllPOcl»op(a WatE va dvaL avayKala ll CtJ.lEOil 61lJ.10alEUall

tile;.

7. Whether comment was sought from the plaintiff. He may have information

others do not possess or have not disclosed. An approach to the plaintiff will

not always be necessary. Katci n6ao un{JpxE EnLKOLvwv(a J.lE tov Evciyovta yLa

tllV MllPOcl»op(a. 0 Evciyovtac; J.lROpEl va KatE){EL MllPOcl»op(a nou ciMoL 6Ev

E)(ouv f) nou 6Ev ExEL anoKaAucl»tEl. /lEv dvaL . anapa(tlltO ncivtOtE o

61lJ.lOOLOypcicl»oc; Va EnLKOLVWV{JOEL J.lE tOV EVCtVOVta.

8. Whether the article contained the gist of the plaintiff's side of the story. Katci

noao tO cip9po EK9EtEL KQL tllV 9EOil tOU Evciyovta En( tWV MllPOci»OpLWV.

9. The tone of the article. A newspaper can raise queries or call for an

investigation. It need not adopt allegations as statements of fact. 0 t6voc; tou

cip9pou; To cip9po npEnEL va ElvaL avtLKELJ.lEVLKo, aJ.1Ep6Ailnto watE va

Ev9appuv9El ll 6LE~aywy{J EpEuvac; Enl tou 9EJ.latoc;. llEv dvaL avciyKil ll

E<l»llJ.1Epl6a va ncipEL Stall aE oxtail J.1E tLc; MllPOcl»op(Ec;.

10. The circumstances of the publication, including the timing. OL auv9{JKEc; Kcitw

an6 tLc; onolEc; 61lJ.100LEUtllKE to cip9po {) ll XPOVLK{J atLyJ.l{J tile; 61lJ.100(EUOilC:

AuTc<; o KardJ..oyo<; ~!lTI"II.JdTwv y1a EAEYXO OTIC TO b.JKacrTriplo i5EV EfVOI aTicJ..uTo<;

KQI/ri E~QVTA!lTIKC<; CIJW<; KpfVW CTI KOVEVO r'j CJXEi5CV KOVEVa OTIC TOU<; 1TIO TIOVW

TiapdyOVTE<; i5EV xapaKT!lPl~OUV TO TIOpCV i5!l1JOO[EUIJO IJE EUVO'iKC TpCTIO WCJTE VQ

57

m:rcr9w 6Tr acpopa KOj.Jj.JOTI UTTEU9UVI")~ 51")j.IOOIOypacpfa~.

To 51")j.IOO[EUj.Ja EfXE OKOTT6 va EK9EOEI TOV EVOVOVTa yra TI")V TTpOOWTTIK6TI")Ta TOU

Kal aKaTOMI")AO yra Tl") 5pOOI") TOU W~ TTpOaOTTIOTri av9pWTTfVWV 5rKaiWj.IOTWV.

0j.IW~ 5EV Efvar EVa croj3ap6 ap9po TTOU EK9ETEI 61\a TO VEVOV6Ta TTpO~ TO KOIV6 yra

va aTTocpacricrEI TO yEyov6Ta. Efvar EVa OUVTOIJO ap9po OE OEAf5a TTOU OVOj.JO~ETar

«napaaK{JVJO», 51")1\a5r; 6xr croj3apr; 51")1JoaroypacprKri Epyacrfa IJE tpwva. EK9ETEr

KOTTOia VEVOV6Ta j.JE j.JOV6TTI\EUpO Tp6TTO rrafpVEI 9EOI") ETTf TWV yEyov6TWV KOI

Karal\riyEr OE OUj.JTTEpacrj.la 6rr 0 EVOyovra~ j3pi~EI, EUTEAi~EI KTA. H VVWIJI") ri 9EOI")

TOU EVOVOVTa 5EV ~I"JTri91"JKE TTpOTOU 51")j.IOOIEU9Ei. LUVETTW~, 0 avayVWOTI")~ Eivar

6j.JI")p0~ Tl")~ j.JOV6TTAEUpl")~ Kp[OI")~ TOU ap9pou OE OXEOI") j.JE TO TTOIOV Kar 5pOOI") TOU

EvayovTa Kar OTI"JV oucrfa rrapaTTI\I")pocpopEfrar w~ rrpo~ Ta yEyov6Ta. Orr6TE 5Ev

UTTOPXOUV OcpEAI") arr6 TI")V 51")j.IOOlEUOI") TOU ap9pou yra TO KOIV6 TTapa TI")V j3,\aj31")

TTOU auT6 TTpOKaAEf OTI")V UTT6AI")4JI") TOU EVOVOVTO. Efvar yr' auT6 TTOU I") UTTEpOOTTIOI")

TOU TTpOVOj.llOU aTTOTUVXOVEI W~ UTTEpOOTTIOI").

LUVETTW~, TO 51")j.IOOlEUj.la Efvar 5UOcpl")j.JIOTIK6 yra TO TTp60WTTO TOU EVOVOVTO 5r6TI

TOU aTT05i5EI VEVOV6Ta, riTOI 6TI Efvar TTp60WTTO TTOU EXEI KOVEI EVa ri TTEpi006TEpa

aTT6 TO TTpOyj.JaTa TTOU TOU arro5f5EI TO 51")j.IOOlEUj.Ja 51")1\a5ri va j3pf~EI va EUTEAf~EI

KTA Kal 6TI TETOia 5pOOI") xapaKTI")pf~EI TI")V TTPOOWTTIK6TI")TO TOU Kal TTapOAAI")Aa TO

51")j.JOO[EUj.Ja 5EV TTapa9ETEI Kavf.va VEVOV6~ TTOU . va 5rKaiOAOyEf TETOIO

OUj.ITTEpaOj.la. Or EVay6j.IEVOI aTTETUXaV va arro5Ef~OUV Tl~ UTTEpaOTTJOEI~ TTOU EXOUV

TTpOj30AEI OTI")V EK9EOI") UTTEpOOTTIOI")~.

AvacpoprKO j.IE TI")V 9EOI") TOU K. fliOVUOJOU 6TI 0 EVOVOVTa~ Sa TTPETTEI Va Kpi9Ef yra

TI")V 5pOOI") TOU W~ TTOAITIK6 TTp60WTTO Kal 6XI W~ 51KI")y6po~ Kar W~ TETOIO

TTp60WTTO va ETTI5Ef~EI TTEpi006TEpl") aVOXri OE KpiTIKri 9EWpW 6TI TO 51")j.IOOfEUj.la

KTUTTO TI")V UTT6AI")4JI") TOU EVOVOVTO j.JE Tp6TTO TTOU ETTI")pEO~EI TI")V ETTayyEAj.laTIKri TOU

OTa5ro5pOj.Jfa W~ 51KI")y6pou TTOU IJEVOAO IJEPO~ Tl")<; Epyacrfa~ TOU Efvar I")

TTpOOOTTIOI") av9pWTTiVWV 51Ka1Wj.JOTWV Ka9w~ Kal aAI\E~ 9EOEI<; Kal a~IWj.laTO TTOU

KaTEXEI o Evayovra~ E~arTfa<; auTr;~ Til~ ErrayyEI\IJaTrKr;~ 5pacrl")<; Kar 6xr TO persona

TOU W~ TTOAITIK6~.

Oj.Jwt; aK61JI") Kar va 9EWpi")9Ef 6n rrp6KErrar yra rrol\rTrK6 rrp6crwrro Kar rral\r Sa

58

TTptTTEI VO OTTO~I"li.IIWSEi y1a Tfl ~flj..llcl TTOU EXEI UTTOerTEi ll UTTOAflljJ~ TOU OTTO TO

<Suercpfl!JierTIKO <Sfl!JOerlEUIJO <SIOTI <5EV tXEI aerKflSEi IJOVO KpiTIK~ erTOV EVOVOVTO TflV

OTTOia TTptTTEI VO UTTOerTEi ETTEI<S~ EXEI ETTIAE~EI VO erUIJIJETEXEI erTflV TTOAITIK~ aptva

we; <Sfl!JOOIO TTpoerWTTO OAAcl TOU EXOUV OTTO<SOSEi KclTTOIO VEVOVOTO y1a TflV

TTpOerWTTIKOTflTO TOU KOI TflV <Spderfl TOU TTOU <SEV OAflSEUOUV. AKOIJfl KOI TTOAITIKcl

TTpOerWTTO TTpOerTOTEUOVTOI erE TETOIO TTEpiTTTWerfl <SIOTI <SEV aerKEiTOI OTTAcl KpiTIK~

aMa ETTI<SEXOVTOI ETTI~~IJIO ljJEU<SOAOyia.

AKOIJll KOI TTpOerWTTO TTOU OV~KEI erTflV ercpaipa TTpoerwTTWV TTOU ·Sa TTptTTEI VO

Em<StXETOI EUAOVfl KPITIK~ y1a Tic; TTpa~Eic; Tou (JlA. MaKap1oc; ApouaniJTJlc; v

IwrftpJlc; nanaaa(l(lac;)33 OTTOAOIJf3clVEI TTpOerTOeria YIO ETTI~~IJIO ljJEU<50AOyia erTflV

UTTOAflljJfl TOU. AUTO <SEV EiVOI KpiTIK~ ~ VVWIJll y1a TO clTOIJO TOU aMa yEyovoc;

<Suercpfl!JierTIKO. Omv aTTo<Si<SETOI tva <Suercpfl!JierTIKO yEyovoc; erE TTpoerwTTo OKOIJll KOI

erE <Sfl!JOOIO TTpoerwTTo auToc; Sa nptTTEI va tXEI T~v TTpoermeria Tou VOIJOU. H

EAEUSEpia Tflc; tKcppaerflc; TTOU <Si<SEI TTpoerTOeria erTO KOIV6 KOI erE <Sfl!JOOIOypacpouc; VO

EK<ppd~ouv EAEUSEpa TflV yvW!Jll TOuc; avacpopiKa IJE <Sfl!JOerla TTpoerwTTa KOAUTTTEI

IJOVO KpiTIK~ ETTi VEVOVOTWV.

ATTO{O!JIWUEIC:

LTptcpOIJOI TWpa erTO ~~Tfl!JO TWV OTTO~fliJIWerEWV. KaTa TflV clTTOljJfl IJOU TO j..ltTpO

TWV OTTO~fliJIWerEWV erTflV TTapouera TTEpiTTTWerfl Sa TTPETTEI VO TTEpiOplerSEi erE

OTTO~fliJIWerEic; TTOU erTOXO tXOUV TflV OTTOKOTaerTOerfl TOU EVOVOVTO erE erxterfl IJE TflV

~fl!Jicl TTOU tXEI UTTOerTEi ll UTTOAflljJ~ TOU. H ~fl!Jicl erTflV UTTOAflljJfl TOU OTOIJOU EiVOI

TTPOVIJOTIK~ KOI <SEv IJTTOpEi va urrof3aS1JierTEi. H ~ll!Jid erTflV UTTOAfll!Jll Tou aTOIJOU <SEv

EiVOI ~fl!Jicl T6ero EIJ<pOV~c; 6ero EiVOI ll ~fl!Jicl erTO erWIJO OTTO tva TpOUIJO, OIJWc; EiVOI

~fl!Jicl TTOU EiVOI UTTOPKT~ KaSwc; ll UTTOAflljJfl TOU OTOIJOU <SEV <SIOXWPi~ETOI OTTO TO

aTOIJO. OTTwc; tXEI ETTE~llv~erEI TO AVWTOTO l11KOerTflpiou TOU Kava<Sa erTflV un6SEerfl

Hill v Church of Scientology Toronot34 11 ~ll!Jicl erTflV UTTOAfll!Jll Tou aT61JOU

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60

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35 Eleventh Edition, Malicious Falsehood, paragraph 21.8 pg. 675

61

«The law here merely follows the normal approach to drawing inferences about a person's knowledge, belief or intention».'

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64

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OTTO~fliJIWOEWV TTOU EiVOI KOIVWVIKO OTT05EKTE~ y1a TO 5E501JEVO Tfl~ KUTTpOU.

rrflV OTTOcpOOfl Miloslavsky v United Kingdom41 TO Eupwrra'iKO AIKaar(JpiO

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01 OTTO~fli.JIWOEI~ TTPETTEI va EiVOI IOOppOTTfliJEVE~ OVOAOVE~ IJE T11V sfliJICt TTOU

40 I A AAd 22 (2003)

41 'I~"P· 1995, 811994/455/536

42 No 68416/01 ECHR 2005-ll

65

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((the question now is whether a reasonable jury could have though the award necessary to compensate the claimant and reestablish his reputation» 43 ot OXCOTJ Jle (TJJliCl 0£ UTT6AT]Ipf} TOU aT6JlOU.

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43 (Gatley on Libel and Slander Sweet and Maxwell Eleventh Edition paragraph 9.4).

66

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