onderzoeksopzet gamecultuur definitief

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“ ...one of the sweetest pleasures as a game designer isseeing your game played in ways that you did not anticipate” (Salen & Zimmerman, 2003 p. 540).

University of UtrechtFaculty of the HumanitiesDegree program: pre-MA New Media & Digital Culture

Student: Mark A. JansenStudent ID: 3637603

Title: Making the rules: the case of HaloMonth and Year: January 2011Supervisor: R. Glas



1. Introduction

The cause for this research is my personal experience with the First-PersonShooter (FPS) game Halo on the Xbox console platform and the specific

way it was played in a social group.

1.1 Introducing the research

The research concerns the rules of the game. More specifically, it is about

changing the rules. Available content on online video site YouTube

demonstrates that Halo is, and has been, played in radically different ways,

probably not foreseen by the game designer. Examples are ‘Red vs. Blue’and the so-called ‘Warthog Battles’. The research concerns one of the many

ways Halo can be played. Halo’s design offers players “...custom rules for

all the basic game types.” (MobyGames, 2011). However, not all elements

of the game are adaptable nor customizable, which leads to creativesolutions.

1.2 Framing the object

The research concerns Halo’s competitive multiplayer gameplay mode.

More specifically, the research is about the team-based Capture The Flag

(CTF) gametype within a Local Area Network (LAN) context. Furthermore,the research only considers gameplay in the map ‘Sidewinder’.

1.3 Defining game concepts

The paragraphs above contain potentially intimidating terms, such as FPS,CTF and LAN. They may seem rather exotic to the reader who is unfamiliar

with them. Basic knowledge about these concepts is required for the reader in order to understand this paper. However, it is beyond the scope of this

paper to review these concepts extensively. Therefore, I refer the reader tothe Appendix, where I provide a short description of relevant terms.

2. Research Design

In this section the research question, the research method and the theoretical

framework will be described.

2.1 Research question

The research answers the following research question:

A. What is the motivation of game players in redefining the rules?

The question is broken down in the following sub-questions:

A1. Why were the players not satisfied with the suggested gamerules?

A2. What was the goal of changing the rules?

A3. What did the process of changing the rules look like?

2.2 Theoretical framework

Here I describe the theoretical framework employed in this paper.

2.2.1 Participation research

The paper concerns participation research. More specifically, ‘games as a

social phenomenon’, after one of the chapter titles in the “Handbook of Computer Game Studies” by Raessens & Goldstein (2005). Within ‘games

as a social phenomenon’ the concept of participatory culture and the three

domains of participation are used. These domains are interpretation,reconfiguration and construction (Raessens & Goldstein, 2005 pp. 378-381).



2.2.2 Participatory culture

Although this research mainly uses the reconfiguration domain, I provide

here a short definition of the two other domains in order to grasp thesituation of reconfiguration. Thereafter I will adress reconfiguration

separately due its prominence in this research. Raessens uses the conceptual

framework of the British tradition of cultural studies to situate the concept

of interpretation. Here, cultural texts “...are viewed as open texts thatdifferent groups of viewer interpret differentlym, depending on social,

cultural and other contexts...” (Raessens & Goldstein, 2005 p. 375)

For Raessens, construction is “...understood as the addition of new game

elements. This can exist as modifying existing games, or as in makingentirely new games. Construction can take many forms and may seem

related to reconfiguration. However, Raessens explains that “You can really

speak of construction when players work with game-mods or game patches,

editing tools and source codes.” (Raessens & Goldstein, 2005 p. 381). Here,the player adds elements to the system.

2.2.3 Reconfiguration

According to Raessens, reconfiguration can be two things. First, it “...exists

in the exploration of the unknown, in the computer game representedworlds.” (Raessens & Goldstein, 2005 p. 380). Second, reconfiguration is

“...when a player in this process of exploration is invited to give form to

these worlds in an active way by selecting one of the many pre-

programmed possibilities in a computer game.” (Raessens & Goldstein,2005 p. 380). The player selects objects and actions from a fixed set, as

opposed to construction which concerns adding new elements. Essentially,

this is the basis of participation, where the designer controls the fixed and

finite set. The invitee, the user, has freedom in selecting an option limited tothe spectrum, or frame, offered by the designer.

The rules of a game are part of the configuration. Next, I will offer a brief

overview of what game rules are by means of the book Rules of Play,

written by Salen and Zimmerman.

2.2.4 Rules of the game

“To play a game is to follow its rules.” (Salen and Zimmerman,2004, p.

117). However, the phenomenon of game rules is more complex than this

sentence suggests. Rules are a fixed set of abstract guidelines; the game’sformal structure. The rules determine which actions are permitted out of all

the possible actions. “Players voluntarily submit to the game, they limit

their behaviors to the specific restrictions imposed by the game rules.”

(Salen and Zimmerman, 2004, p. 124). In effect, the game rules handicapthe players. As soon as the players are in-game, they are inside the games’

articifial context, its magic circle. Here, all players must obey the rules to

participate. In sum, game rules limit player action and they are explicit,

fixed, binding and repeatable (Salen and Zimmerman, 2004, p. 125).

Elements of the game rules are situated on a continuum from unstated to

stated. Salen and Zimmerman describe game rules on three levels, namely;

implicit, constituative and operational rules (2004, p. 130). Implicit rules

are the unwritten rules of a game, which is essentially about proper game

behavior. The constituative rules of a game are the formal structures thatexist below the rules presented to players. The operational rules are the

guidelines players require to play. Boundaries between these levels can be

fuzzy, especially between the operational and implicit rules. Here, thecontext is important in determining which rule belongs where.

So, which rules are really the true rules of the game? In other words, do the

rules as formal structures of a game have a bearing on the game’s formal

identity? (Salen and Zimmerman, 2004, p. 134). Implicit rules are crucial, but are also similar from game to game. Thus, these are not of the essence.

In turn, it is “The constituative and operational rules of a game [which]

work in concert to generate the formal “meaning” of a game.” (Salen and

Zimmerman, 2004, p. 134). In the end, the three levels assist in determininga clear ruleset which relates to the actions and outcomes of meaningful play.

When rules are ambiguous, the game is destroyed and the players lose their

interest. In turn, a game needs individuals, players, for support. Without

players, there is no game. “When a game creates ambiguity, it is alwayswithin some larger frame that is clearly articulated and shared by all

players. … Rules themselves must ultimately be unambiguous.” (Salen and



Zimmerman, 2004, p. 137).

Conflict is an intrinsic element of every game (Salen and Zimmerman,

2004, p. 250). “One core principle of conflict in games is that it is fair .Game conflict is impartial conflict: it is premised on the idea that all players

have an equal chance at winning, that the game system is intrinsically

equitable, that the game’s contest takes place on a level playing field ...”

(Salen and Zimmerman, 2004, p. 260). Such a fair game would eliminate allextraneous variables so that the player with the most developed skills wins

the game. This would give what Caillois, quoted by Salen and Zimmerman,

describes as “...precise and incontestable value to the winner’s triumph.”

(2004, p. 260). However, in practice most games strive for, but hardly ever accomplish fair play.

2.3 Research method

The research concerns a case study. The research method used in this studyis qualitative fieldresearch. More specifically, participatory ethnography,

since the researcher participated in the group himself. The analysis is basedon semi-structured interviews with a sample of respondents from the group

of players. The interviews were conducted by means of VOIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol) telephony. The answers were recorded and these form the

basis on which the research question is answered.

2.3.1 Group

The social group varied in size between 12 and 16 males who played

together on a regular basis. In 2006 the players’ age varied from 16 to 22

years. In 2010, all players were either having applied sciences and/or

university degrees or actively pursuing them. IIt is important to note that thesocial ties of the group were formed a priori to playing Halo. The people

involved were living in the same city and going to the same high school,

some of them situated in the same class. Furthermore, there were also

familial ties within the group, with two sets of three and two people being brothers.

2.3.2 Sample

The five interviewees were selected from the group in question, which

varied in size between 12 and 16. Sampling was based on the behavior

variable frequency of play, i.e. the interviewees were the most frequent players of the group.

3. Structure of argumentation

Here the argumentation structure of this paper is provided.

The paper starts with and introduction of the research, the object under

study and some relevant game concepts. In addition, I will clarify thequestions guiding this research. Hereafter comes the theoretical framework.

In the analysis I will quote the interviewees and elaborate about what, why

and how the players changed the rules of the game. These answers will be

connected to the theory provided by the theoretical framework. The paper ends with a conclusion which answers the research questions.

4. Value of the research

Halo is part of the FPS-genre which is still very popular, with recentreleases regarding the Call of Duty and Medal of Honor franchises. The

research is valuable for both academics as well as game designers, because

it provides insights into what game players demand from the rules of the

game and the opportunity to change these rules. The goal is to producegameplay that appeals even more to game players.

4.1 Scientific value

The research provides insights into what motivates the players of the objectunder study to change the rules of the game. In turn, this contributes to the

body of knowledge concerning participatory media culture as well as game

rules.

4.2 Societal value



With new releases of violent videogames such as Halo, societal uproar

occurs often. The FPS-genre is criticised for displaying aggression and

violence. The first-person view is supposed to make things even moreintense. Although this research is not after such effects or their very

existence, it may yield insight into what gamers consider to be ‘meaningful

play’ (Salen and Zimmerman, 2004, p. 134). This means that there is more

to a game than its visible content than suggested by the debate about

aggression and violence. Games can be a social phenomenon.

5. Analysis

6. Conclusion

7. imitations of the research

The research provides in-depth insights on a relatively ‘small’ area, since itconcerns a very specific combination of peripherals, software and people.

Thus, the results might be hard to generalise, at least beyond the FPS-genre.This is due to the unicity and specificity of the case and its situation within

the context. Although the research concerns a case study, Halo can beconsidered a typical FPS game. This speaks in favor of the generalisability

of the research within the FPS-genre.

It can be argued that the participation of the researcher in the group is a

weakness, because it may cause bias (Van Gemert, 2009). Therefore, issuessuch as interpretation and personal factors may lead to different results

when replicating the research. To complicate matters, replicating this type

of research is difficult in itself, due to situational circumstances.

The group in which the researcher participated played together between2003 and 2006. At this the researcher had no intent of doing research, so he

participated on an equal basis with the other participants. Therefore, there

was no role stress of being participant and researcher at the same time.

However, this brings the potential disadvantage of ‘going native’ (VanGemert, 2009). Furthermore, data collection took place in 2010, about four

years after the group stopped playing on a regular basis. This period

between the events and the collection and analysis may have negative

effects, such as respondent’s diminished ability to recall events from their

memory.

8. Bibliography

8.1 Academic sources

Van Gemert, F. 2009. De rijke inzichten van participerende observatie.

Retrieved from http://www.sociologiemagazine.nl/artikel/de-rijke-inzichten-van-participerende-observatie

Raessens, J., & Goldstein, J. H. (2005). Handbook of computer game

studies. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play : Game design

fundamentals. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

Wright, T., Boria, E., & Breidenbach, P. (2002). Creative Player Actions in

FPS Online Video Games: Playing Counter-Strike. Retrieved from

http://www.gamestudies.org/0202/wright/

8.2 Non-academic sources

Esemono, 2010. A bird’s eye view of Sidewinder. Retrieved from

http://halo.wikia.com/index.php?title=Sidewinder&image=Sidewinder-jpg

Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of camping. Retrieved from

http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-camping.htm

Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of camper. Retrieved from

http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-camper.htm

Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of LAN. Retrieved from

http://www.sociologiemagazine.nl/artikel/de-rijke-inzichten-van-participerende-observatie


















http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-lan.htm

Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of console. Retrieved from

http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-console.htm

Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of multiplayer. Retrieved from

http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-multiplayer.htm

Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of first person. Retrieved from

http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-first_person.htm

Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of FPS. Retrieved from

http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-fps.htm

Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of capture the flag. Retrieved from

http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-

capture_the_flag.htm

Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of peripheral device. Retrieved from

http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-peripheral_device.htm

Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of power up. Retrieved from

http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-power_up.htm

Magnike2, 2011. Sidewinder. Retrieved from

http://halo.wikia.com/wiki/Sidewinder

MobyGames, 2011. Halo: Combat Evolved. Retrieved from

http://www.mobygames.com/game/xbox/halo-combat-evolved

9. Appendix

9.1 Description of game concepts in alphabetical order

Camping, Camper, Camp

Camping is the action of staying in the same place (the camp) for long

periods of time, usually in hiding, and just waiting for the enemy to come

by. A camper is usually frowned upon in the FPS community (GamingDictionary, 2011).

Capture The Flag (CTF)

Capture the Flag is ”...a special mode usually found in multiplayer games,where two teams will engage in battle and try to take the opponent's flag in

order to bring it back to their own base, while protecting their own flag.”

(Gaming Dictionary, 2011).

Console

The console is “...an entertainment system, portable or not, which lets you play video games.” . This research concerns the Xbox console.First Person Shooter (FPS)

A First Person Shooter is “...a game which puts you in the driver's (or killer)

seat. You will indeed be seeing all the action through the eyes of the

character you are playing...” (Gaming Dictionary, 2011). The first persongame player sees “...through the eyes of the protagonist.” (Gaming

Dictionary, 2011).

Halo: Combat Evolved

Halo is “...a first-person shooter with considerable driving elements and thefirst game in the popular Halo series... Halo also has a significant

multiplayer component with …capture the flag with the unusual addition

that the flag takes your weapon spot while you are holding it, so shooting

your way in and out of the base on your own is not an option … There isalso a game editor which allows you to set custom rules for all the basic

game types. All the playable weapons and vehicles from the campaign








http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-capture_the_flag.htm

























mode are available in the multiplayer maps with the ability for members of

the same team to share the game's distinctive Warthog vehicle, which is

essentially a small truck with a mounted gun on the back.” (MobyGames,2011).

Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN abbreviates the descriptive term Local Area Network. Such as

network connects computers in a common location (Gaming Dictionary,2011). Here, the network consists of four Xbox consoles located in a house,

often in two rooms due to the divide of the group into two competing teams.

Map

The map is the “...game universe you are in when you play a game.”(Gaming Dictionary, 2011). This research is limited to one specific map

called ‘Sidewinder’.

Multiplayer

This research concerns multiplayer gameplay. This means “...a video gamethat can be played by a few players ... over a network, over the Internet, or

in a LAN.” (Gaming Dictionary, 2011). Halo allows a total number of 16

players to play at the same time in the map Sidewinder.

Peripherals

Peripherals are “...hardware (as opposed to software) extension ... device[s]

used in computer science, like a mouse...” (Gaming Dictionary, 2011).

Example of peripheral devices in relation to the Xbox console are thecontroller, network cables and the network hub/switch.

Powerups

Powerups are “...a bonus. It is an object that you can find in the game world

and that will add itself to your original skill to boost it. … These can be

either found in the game

, or by killing an enemy, or even in secret places.”

(Gaming Dictionary, 2011).

Health Pack

The health pack restores the health of the protagonist, in-game it lookssimilar to a first-aid kit.

Active Camouflage

Active camouflage makes the player transparent, and therefore less easy to

see. This power up is often referred to as invisibility, although it does notmake the players completely invisible.

Over-shield

The over-shield in Halo is called shield because it protects you against

enemy attacks. The word ‘over’ designates that it is located over the health points. The over-shield restores automatically, while the health points can

only be restored by picking up a health pack.

Sidewinder

Sidewinder is one of the 13 available multiplayer maps of the game Halo.

From a bird’s eye perspective the map resembles a horseshoe. “The main

feature of this map is the ice patches on the front of the horseshoe in between the bases... On the outer edge of the map are two large cliffs that

are connected to each base with teleporters. ... On the inner edge, there is a

network of tunnels which lead to the opposing bases. Four power-ups can

be found in the lower section of the tunnel. There is a Sniper Rifle, two

Shotguns, Health Pack, Plasma Pistol, Pistol and an Assault Rifle insideeach base.” (Halopedia, 2011).

9.2 Interview transcripts

http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-game.htm




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