Bachelor thesis - Jolieke Hillen - 1575689.pdf

7/25/2019 Bachelor thesis - Jolieke Hillen - 1575689.pdf

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Smile!How to use your prof ile picture to enhance personal brand

and create a desired online image on LinkedIn.

Name: Jolieke Hillen

Student ID: 1575689

Host institution:

University of Applied Sciences Utrecht

Supervisor: Ronald Voorn

Bachelor: Communication Management

Specialisation: International Commercial


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WORD OF THANKS

I would like to thank all the people who have helped and supported me thro

assignment, and without whose help I would not have been able to complete

First of all, I want to thank my supervisor Ronald Voorn for his guidance, v

suggestions and seemingly infinite knowledge. Our discussions inspired me

subject of profile pictures and personal branding. But, mostly, I want to than

inspiring me time and time again, and helping me remember why I love this

we spoke each other, he left me full of energy and motivation.

I also want to thank my other teachers within ICC, Luc van Dijk and Anjali

who (in addition to Ronald Voorn) provided me with all the knowledge and

during my research.

A big thanks to all the people in my online network and the students of Utre

Applied Sciences, who have filled out my questionnaire. Without their help

would not exist!

Furthermore, I want to thank Bart-Jan van Os for helping me with checking

and conclusions in SPSS and statistics, Christiaan Dekker for being my spacompanion during the last year, and my close family and friends for their su

And lastly, I am forever grateful to my partner, Reijer Lomans, who has bee

strength and my mainstay throughout this whole process. Thank you for you

feedback, saving me from making false assumptions, and most importantly

wavering support and believe in me.


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SUMMARY

This thesis argues that people apply personal branding techniques in the cre

identities through personal profiles on social network sites such as LinkedIn

a desired online image of themselves. Within these personal profiles, the pr

an important role, as choosing the right picture influences the image the aud

user.

The research in this thesis focuses on how different ways of smiling in prof

influence a users online image, and how this information may be used for o

branding purposes. The main question of this thesis reads:

In what ways can different ways of smiling in profile pictures be used to enh

branding to create a desired online image on LinkedIn?

In order to provide a conclusive answer to this question, and provide reader

recommendations, the following sub questions are answered:How do peopl

images using personal branding? How do profile pictures differ in content?

network sites and how are they used? How can perceived images of users of

sites be measured? And what is the influence of different ways of smiling in

on the perceived image of users on social network sites?

A combination of a literature study and an experimental design was applied

methods. A between-group, independent experiment was conducted in the f

questionnaire. Respondents were randomly assigned into four groups. Four

the same person were used, depicting that person with different ways of sm

smiling without visible teeth, smiling with visible teeth and laughing. Each

showed one of the four photographs. The respondents were asked to answer

how they perceived the warmth and competence of the person in the picture

data were analysed in SPSS by doing an exploratory factor analysis, an anal

and a comparison of the mean scores of the photos.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction ................................................................................................

1.1 Subject and relevance ...........................................................................

1.2 Main question and sub-questions .........................................................

1.3 Research methods .................................................................................

1.4 Thesis structure ....................................................................................

2. Theoretical framework ...............................................................................

2.1 How do people create online images using personal branding? ..........

2.2 How do profile pictures differ in content? ...........................................

2.3 What are social networking sites and how are they used? ...................

2.4 How can perceived images of LinkedIn or SNS users be measured? ..

2.5 What is the influence of different ways of smiling in profile pictures o

image of LinkedIn users? ...........................................................................

3. Methods ......................................................................................................

3.1 Operationalization ................................................................................

3.2 Different ways of smiling .....................................................................

3.3 Research strategy .................................................................................

3.4 Research method ..................................................................................

3.5 Design of the experiment .....................................................................

3.6 Collecting the pictures ..........................................................................

3.7 The questionnaire .................................................................................

3.8 Respondents .........................................................................................


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4.7 Conclusions ..........................................................................................

5. Discussion ...................................................................................................

5.1 Conclusions ..........................................................................................

5.2 Limitations ...........................................................................................

5.3 Recommendations ................................................................................

Appendices .....................................................................................................

Reference list ..............................................................................................

Photos used in the pre-test ..........................................................................

SPSS data and results .................................................................................

Questionnaire .............................................................................................


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1. IntroductionWe communicate with the people around us constantly; through offline and

communication, through the way we present ourselves, the way we dress, th

and the information we present about ourselves online, for example. We als

the image others have of us, so that people may see us the way we want to b

even apply marketing techniques to present ourselves in the best way possib

professional context, this is called personal branding. Social media provide

tool for personal branding, as they allow us to influence the way we present

others to a very high degree.

This thesis argues that people apply personal branding techniques in the cre

identities through personal profiles on social network sites such as LinkedIna desired online image of themselves.

1.1 Subject and relevance

Millions of people in the Netherlands use social media. LinkedIn is the wor

professional network (LinkedIn, 2015) and almost half of the entire Dutch p

has a Linkedin profile (Multiscope, 2015). It ranks #4 in the top 5 of most u

in the Netherlands and 3.8 million Dutch people use LinkedIn actively (Tur

van der Veer, 2015).

One very important part of personal profiles is the profile picture. It has bee

necessity to have a profile picture on your LinkedIn profile (Photofeeler, 2

to Abbot (2014), a profile is 14 times more likely to be viewed if it has a pro

Warner & LaFontaine (2014) argue that many users do not even connect to

without a profile picture. Furthermore, profile pictures influence other peop

a user (Pearson, 2010). Thus, for people that want to use effective personal


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example, the photo should depict a persons head and shoulders (Doyle, 20

making up 60% of the picture (Abbot, 2014). It is also important to smile, a

likely to connect to people who are smiling in their picture (Agarwal, 2012)

of these sources cite any research to substantiate their claims, or explain how

a profile picture actually influence the users online image.

The websitewww.photofeeler.comlets people rate profile pictures in terms

likability and influence factors. After analyzing 60,000 ratings, the site pres

stating that smiling with visible teeth and laughing have a positive effect on

likability, that formal dress positively affects perceived competence and inf

squinching (a combination of squinting and pinching your eyes) positively

factors (Photofeeler, 2014a, and Photofeeler, 2014b). While the research see

applied statistical analysis to the collected data, Photofeeler does not mentio

and calculations were done exactly, nor what their specific outcomes were.

stated on what grounds the choice for the three factors were made. The scie

of the research is unclear.

Within academic studies, the subject ofprofile pictures has been studied as

research has studied avatars (customized cartoon representations of the user

pictures. Some studies imply that the results for avatars may also be relevan

However, most studies focus on how photos or avatars can convey informat

users personality (Fong & Mar, 2015; Noor & Evans, 2003; Steele, Evans

Sung & Moon, 2011; Blisle & Bodur, 2010). There is little academic resea

pictures actually influence someones perceived online image.

It is not clear what influence a profile picture really has on a users perceive

how certain elements in profile pictures can be used in personal branding to

image. This thesis aims to fill a gap in academic research and to give practic

recommendations on the effect of online profile pictures on perceived imag


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with substantial recommendations, the following sub questions need to be a

1.

How do people create online images using personal branding?

2. How do profile pictures differ in content?

3. What are social network sites and how are they used?

4. How can perceived images of users of social network sites be measur

5. What is the influence of different ways of smiling in profile pictures o

image of users on social network sites?

1.3 Research methods

A combination of different research methods was used for this thesis. First o

study was conducted to investigate existing literature on the topics of person

social network sites, profile pictures and the effect of different content in pi

of this study provide a necessary theoretical framework that gives readers c

understanding of how different concepts come into play within the subject.

A quantitative research strategywas chosen to provide an answer to the ma

thesis. Since the aim is to measure the effect of smiling in a profile picture o

image of a user, it is reasonable to apply a quantitative method. Qualitative

allow objective measurement of effect sizes. Moreover, the creation of an im

else is an unconscious process. It is contradictive to research how exactly th

constructed by asking people directly why they make a certain judgment ab

all, people cannot consciously explain what happens during an unconscious

The research method that was used in the research for this thesis is the Bran

Agents Framework, or BIAF, by Kervyn, Fiske & Malone (2012). The BIA

peoples perceptions of brandson two dimensions: warmth and competence

questions on a 7-point Likert-scale. Since the image that is created by perso

processes can be considered a (personal) brandand the recommendations in


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questionnaire. Respondents were asked questions about their sex, age and le

before being shown the photograph. They were then asked to what extend th

each of the four statement of the BIAF, answering on a 7-point Likert scale.

data of the experiment were statistically analyzed using SPSS.

1.4 Thesis structure

The next chapter, Chapter 2, provides the theoretical framework of this thes

the results of the literature analysis arranged by sub question. Chapter 3 expmethods in further detail, accompanied by substantiation of the choices that

regard. Chapter 4 presents comprehensive results of the analysis of the rese

with clarifications of the exact statistical analyses that were used. Chapter 5

the reader with the conclusions and limitations of this research, followed by

recommendations for professionals looking to apply these findings for their

Lastly, a visual overview of these recommendations is provided in the form


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2. Theoretical framework

To be able to conduct an appropriate experimental research and provide a w

advice to the main question of this thesis, an exploratory literature analysis

This chapter presents the findings from this analysis for each of the five sub

2.1 How do people create online images using personal bran

In order to understand how profile pictures influence and enhance personal LinkedIn, the concept of personal branding should first be explored. This pa

different definitions and explanations of this concept, followed by a further

how impression management techniques are applied by people in order to c

images through personal branding. In addition, the roles of online media an

in this process are examined. Finally, ethical criticism on the personal brand

discussed, followed by a short conclusion of the literature analysis for this s

Personal branding

According to Shepherd (2005) personal branding is applying to people the

and branding principles originally developed for products and corporations

means personal branding comes down to marketing people instead of produ

between traditional (product) branding and personal branding, Bendisch, La

(2007) refer to the results of personal branding efforts as people brands. W

extensive work written on traditional marketingprinciples and theories, aca

dealing withpeople brandingis rather rare (compared to literature on tradit

and more theoretical than practical in nature (Bendisch et al., 2007). More

however, deal with personal branding on a very practical level. These bookKwakman, 2004; Harmsen, 2011; Harmsen, 2012; Harmsen & Rosenmller

Zwieten & van de Grift, 2009; van Zwieten, van de Haterd & Scholte, 2009

specific advice on how to apply traditional marketing techniques for their o

often do not go into much detail about the academic theories behind these id


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image they have of that person. To create a strong image, exchange, contin

and individuality are required (Bendisch et al., 2007).

Online personal branding

Online personal branding is the process of applying personal branding actio

media. This can involve different tactics, such as creating and maintaining

networking profiles, personal websites, and blogs, as well as using search e

techniques to encourage access to one's information (Labrecque, Markos &

Impression Management

One way individuals try to create or influence the image others have of them

impression management. Goffman (1959) presents this idea of impression m

through a metaphor of dramaturgy, saying life is a stage for activity. People

idealized versions of themselves instead of authentic ones. In this way, pewhat and how they present themselves to others, thus trying to influence the

others have of a person. According to Higgins (1987, as referenced in Siiba

three types of self-domains: the actual self (or how you think you are); the

you want to be, or what Goffman calls idealized self); and the ought self (ho

should be). When people are presenting an idealized version of themselves,

effectively giving a performance; an activity that occurs before an audience

influence on these observers. According to Goffman, these performances ta

specific behaviour settings, which he distinguishes into a front stage and a

front stage is where we give a performance, which means that you present

so that you embody a certain role - i.e. try to give of the right impression, so

sees you as you want to be seen. The back stage is where the performer cancharacter, i.e. where you are your authentic, not-idealized self. When diffe

role you play at a certain time) collide, conflicts can arise. Essentially, any p

back stage to another front stage. For example, when you are trying to make

business deal over your cell phone while you are at a very different (not bus


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someone wants to project and what outcome they desire. Impression constru

process of actually creating the desired impression. There are five factors th

kind of impression people try to create; (1) how you see yourself; (2) the ide

you desire and those you dont desire; (3) the constraints of the front or role

values and (5) your current social image.

Impression management techniques have proven to be effective in professio

situations. For example, impression management can have a positive effect

performance ratings (Wayne & Liden, 1995) and also seems to be able to in

future employer during a job interview (Gilmore & Ferris, 1989; Stevens &

Impression management on online media

Hogan (2010) has applied Goffmans theory of Impression Management sp

media. He proposes that, because media provide a window into the privatethe back stage is no longer private. Data is no longer addressed to a specific

Goffmans performances, but is submitted to a data repository (e.g. status u

Facebook and photos on Flickr). Since information online is accessible to a

audience - the whole Internet - there is no regulation on who can see particu

about an individual (i.e. compared to a traditional, offline back stage). In ad

argues that because online performances are recorded, the nature of the perf

altered. It now exists as an isolated object online and is no longer bound to

was present when the performance took place. Because social media sites a

space and time (which is an important aspect of Goffmans situational appr

proposes an additional exhibition approach. He calls recorded performanc

people post online artefacts, which no longer take place in a behaviour setexhibition site. Curators (the algorithms of websites) now control what a

to a particular audience, e.g. the newsfeed algorithm on Facebook.

Profile pictures as part of online personal branding


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(2006, as referenced in Siibak, 2009) also found that people select photos ac

same set of rules (or rules of conduct) that they use for assessing photos o

people read visuals, and how they create visuals to be read in desired way

strategies for online impression management (Pearson, 2010).

According to Bendisch et al (2007), the natural appearance of a person can

characteristic that adds to his or her distinctiveness, which again makes pic

on a SNS very important. Naumann, Vazire, Rentfrow & Goslings (2009) h

people judge other peoples personalities based on their appearance, and tha

this based on photographs. This means physical appearance plays a large ro

impressions of others.

Critique on personal branding theories

Lair, Sullivan & Cheney (2005), propose several ethical points of critique o

personal branding. First of all, they warn that personal branding has the pot

people, saying personal branding offers a startlingly overt invitation of sel

commodification. In addition, they find that because personal branding cla

individuals can succeed as long as they find the right way to promote them

personal branding successfully), it also suggests that the reasons for failures

were unable or even unwilling to do so. Lair et al claim that most personal b

fail to take circumstances or social categories such as gender, age, race and

They conclude that personal branding does not appear to be for everyone, bu

theories dont send the message that it is.

Conclusions

Personal branding is the use of traditional marketing techniques for brandin

to create a desired image of a person in the eyes of a public. These techniqu

used on online media, by creating personal websites and blogs, creating pro

networking sites and administering techniques such as Search Engine Optim


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artefacts online in an exhibition site. Curators control what artefacts ar

which audience. Furthermore, online media do not function as traditional s

audiences (e.g. friends, family and colleagues) come together on social netw

may create conflicts between different roles or identities people try to presen

audience. Visual elements (and more specifically profile pictures) play an im

online impressions management and online personal branding techniques, b

the user understands the rules of conduct for the specific medium and by gi

characteristics that add to the distinctiveness of a personal brand.

2.2 How do profile pictures differ in content?

To better understand the effect different ways of smiling in profile pictures

someones image, it is important to explore what profile pictures are in the f

they may differ from each other in their content. This paragraph presents th

investigation.

Profile pictures in general

Most Social Network Sites encourage users to upload a profile image (usua

a picture - often of themselves- so a profilepictureis perhaps a more apt na

(2008) states that, on Facebook, a profile picture acts as the most pointed a

photographic self-presentation on the Facebook profile. It is likely that this

profile pictures on LinkedIn. On LinkedIn, the profile pictures appears on th

corner of a profile, next to their name and title (see figure 2.1). The profile p

displayed next to updates and comments made by that user.


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Figure 2.2.Example of LinkedIn search results

If a user does not choose a specific profile image, LinkedIn will

substitute a generic silhouette to appear with comments and updates(see figure 2.3). Information on a profile of a user without a profile

image will shift to the left, leaving the name and title of that person to

fill the entire top of the profile page.

According to Strufe (2010), a profile picture influences a profiles popularit

way, and profiles with a profile picture are viewed more frequently than pro

Different content

Several studies have been conducted towards different profile pictures and t

found that profile pictures differ in content in several ways. Siibak (2009) p

people tend to emphasize the things that are important to them through sele

photos. Steele, Evans & Green (2009) separate pictures in different categori

! Subject of the image (is it a photo or a drawing; depicting a person,

! Depicted body portion (face and shoulders, full body, or body witho

Fiim


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Other categories that were found include the level of physical activity of the

picture, if the photo was posed or not and appropriateness of the picture (Hu

Hambright, Portwood, Schat & Bevan, 2015). In addition, there were also d

between whether the photos are edited or not (e.g. black & white photos, cu

saturation or the use of filters). Lastly, Strano (2008) includes if someones

includes friends, family or romantic partners and if photos depict a special o

location.

Strano (2008) states that people choose profile pictures that they themselve

as attractive. He also found that people often chose humorous shots or pict

were having fun. According to Siibak (2007, as referenced in Strano, 2008)

sites were more likely to display a profile picture of themselves smiling than

course, since LinkedIn is not a dating site, we cannot automatically assume

holds true for LinkedIn users). Krmer & Winter (2008) state that people w

on a scale of extraversion often chose a different style of profile picture, e

black & white, with altered colours or with added filters. In addition, people

expectations of creating positive impressions were more likely to chose po

with serious facial expressions and a solid background, whereas people who

and high expectations of impression management often chose more experim

party pictures (Krmer & Winter, 2008).

Conclusions

Overall, users of social network services are often encouraged to upload a p

LinkedIn, this image is displayed on someones profile page and alongside

updates made by that person. Having a profile picture positively influences

number of views of a profile. Profile pictures can be distinguished into diffe

the elements they depict. Examples are how many people are in a photo; wh

or not and if yes, how; if they wear head or eye covering; if they make eye c

location were the picture was taken and if the photo was edited. Different pe


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2.3 What are social networking sites and how are they used?

Although the main question of this research focuses on the best way of usin

to create a desired image on LinkedIn, it is necessary to understand the conc

Network Sites (SNSs) and how people use them. This paragraph explores th

followed by a more in-depth review of LinkedIn within the context of this i

What are Social Network Sites

boyd & Ellison (2008) define Social Network Sites, or SNSs, as websites w

characteristics: (1) people can construct a profile within a bounded system,

connect with other users (e.g. by befriending them as on Facebook, or by

them as on LinkedIn) and (3) they can see with which users they are connec

which other users are connected to each other within the site. The fact that S

to enter into relationships with others makes them a practical tool for netwo

terms Social Network Sites and Social Networking Sites are indeed oft

interchangeably. However, since networking is usually not the sole purpose

first term is used for this study. What doesmake SNSs different from other

fact that they enable users to articulate their relationships and visuallydepic

(boyd & Ellison, 2008). The first SNSs were launched in the mid 90s. Curr

different SNSs exist. Within the Netherlands, the most widely used SNSs ar

YouTube, Google+, LinkedIn and Twitter, respectively (Turpijn, Kneefel &

2015).

How are social network sites used

Different SNSs provide different functions to their users, which influence th

are used. In order to further investigate personal branding on SNSs, and moLinkedIn, it is useful to explore how people use SNSs. This paragraph will

that, followed by a more in-depth review of LinkedIn in particular.

SNSs provide people with the means to build and maintain an online social


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Personal contacts (your friends or connections; the network you

Posts (updates about what you are doing, sharing links, photos or vi

Messaging (wall posts or quest book entries, recommendations, dire

chat)

All these elements may come into play when people form impressions of ea

Siibak (2009) found that online impression management creates an ever-pr

needing to perform oneself appropriately, and the twin need to be constantly

acceptable, or simply okay, in the context of one`s peers. People may rei

in some way in order to present themselves positively online. They can do t

emphasizing positive traits and omitting flaws. Although SNSs allow this to

is more restricted on platforms that include relationships with people you kn

Because your (online) identity is grounded in offline relationships, the amou

can stretch the truth is bound, since it might result in offline social sanctio

people tend to present profiles that are somewhat true to their offline ident

2008).

Visuals can be used in SNSs as forms of virtual impression management (P

to emphasize things users find important (Siibak, 2009). They also influenc

popularity and number of views in a positive way (Strufe, 2010).

Because SNSs include not only information provided by users themselves b

friends, people can find information about others they have recently met on

different uncertainty reductions in this process, including observing the ta

by viewing their profile, status updates and interactions with others), proact

know someone without actually confronting them (e.g. by asking others abo

actual direct interaction with the target. On social network sites, people wer

three of these techniques (Antheunis, Valkenburg & Peter, 2010). Accordin

warranting principle we trust information about someone that is generated


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What is LinkedIn and how is it used

LinkedIn is a professional SNS, aimed at professional self-promotion and b

networking. It is the fourth largest social medium within the Netherlands, w

users. 0.4 million Dutch users use LinkedIn every day (a rise of 33% compa

Within daily use, the age group of 40 to 64 years old is best represented, fol

group of 20-39 years old (Turpijn, Kneefel & van der Veer, 2015).

LinkedIn reports itself as the world's largest professional network with mo

million members in 200 countries and territories around the globe. Their m

states they aim to create economic opportunity for every member of the gl

(LinkedIn, 2015).

LinkedIn profiles take the form of an online resume, encouraging users to p

information about their current and past jobs, education, skills and experien

SNSs, users can connect to each other to create an online network. But an im

difference between how this is used on LinkedIn compared to other SNSs, i

you not only connect to people you already know, but to people you may or

Dijck, 2013). Another noticeable difference in the interface of LinkedIn is t

actively explore the direct connections of their connections (i.e. people in thnetwork) and ask to be introduced to them. Thus, the power of LinkedIn fo

not in their direct network, but their extended network 2nd

or even 3rd

degr

An algorithm computes lists of people you may know and would like to c

order to help users grow their network.

In addition to being introduced to their extended network, LinkedIn is also u

find jobs, people or business opportunities that someone in their network re

follow a company, to keep track of the accomplishments of their contacts an

congratulate them on their new jobs, to see who have viewed your profile, t


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strategy for influencing this warranting principle for your own advantage. H

be noted that it is not possible to give anything other than positive endorsem

mean that people put less trust in these endorsements, since they do not prov

Skeels & Grudin (2009) suggest that professionals may use LinkedIn differ

on where they are in their career or on the job market. Well-established pro

only use their account when they accept connections to connect. Some activ

such as old friends, to connect, but most report only excepting but never senOlder employees may use LinkedIn for recruiting purposes, for learning mo

they met or will meet, or to discuss and ask questions to other professionals

through the interest groups.

On the other side of the spectrum, people in their early-to-mid twenties usu

LinkedIn profile when they enter the job market. They mainly useLinkedIn

updated resume. For this group, LinkedIn provides an easy to create, inexpe

web page. They also start to grow their network, adding professionals that m

know, and to keep in touch with friends and acquaintances from college or

start to go their separate ways after graduation.

Others use LinkedIn more as an online alternative to filing paper business c

by connecting to people they meet at a conference, network event or profess

and as a self-updating address book, helping them to keep track of people th

advancements of their careers. Because LinkedIn provides options to occasi

connections and easily make a gesture by congratulating someone on accom

new jobs, it also enables people to keep their relationships alive.

Conclusions

Social Network Sites are websites with three distinctive functions: they let p


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be introduced to their extended network, keep track of people they know an

themselves online by means of an online, updated resume. Employers also u

post jobs, find appropriate candidates and to find out more about prospectiv

2.4 How can perceived images of LinkedIn or SNS users be m

Different studies have used different measuring methods to study the percei

users (including LinkedIn). Although some researchers have selected their o

measure the effect of photos (such as Naumann, Vazire, Rentfrow & Goslin

use well-established, existing methods. In order to choose an appropriate m

present study of this thesis, it is imperative to first explore what methods ha

the past and what advantages and disadvantages they bring to the table for t

Firstly, many studies use a psychological outlook, using the Big Five scal

personality dimensions. The five dimensions include (1) openness, (2) cons

extraversion, (4) agreeableness and (5) neuroticism. Fong & Mar (2015), N

(2003) and Sung & Moon (2011) used this model to study avatars and profi

the present study is executed within the context of personal branding, this m

bad fit to the research. Personal branding, after all, does not focus exclusiv

perceive your personality, but also on how they judge your professionalism

personality is not necessarily a good indicator of professionalism or competmight not provide the right answers to the main question.

A second method that was found is impression agreement, also called se

agreement (applied by Steel, Evans & Greene, 2009). This method calcula

correlation between how somebody rates their own personality and someon

impression of that persons personality. If the impressions have a high correcorrespond with each other. Although this method is very useful in personal

whether someones actual self matches theirsocial self (Sirgy, 1982), this m

focuses only on personality dimensions. As explained in the previous parag


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explained 15% of total variance accounted for in the original study by McC

(1972). Using all three dimensions would provide a better answer about how

smiling in profile pictures affect the perceived image of LinkedIn users. Bu

respondents have to answer 18 questions about a photo, which means filling

questionnaire takes more time. Since as many respondents as possible need

short amount of time, this creates a disadvantage for using this method.

A fourth method that might be appropriate for the present study is the Brand

Agents Framework (BIAF) by Kervyn, Fiske & Malone (2012). This framew

the Stereotype Content Model, which measures two dimensions of social pe

and competence (Fiske, Cuddy, Glick & Xu, 2002). The warmth dimension

someones intentions towards others, such as helpfulness, sincerity, friendli

trustworthiness. Warmth links to whether you like someone or not. The com

dimension measures how people judge someones ability to carry out their iincludes factors like efficiency, intelligence, conscientiousness and skill, an

whether you respect someone.

The BIAF builds on the Stereotype Content Model by suggesting that cons

relationships with brands that resemble relationships between people. Con

perception of a brands perceived intentions and ability elicit distinct emotio

consumers behave towards these brands. How a brand performs on the BIA

creating and implementing brand positioning and marketing communication

Since personal branding proposes that people present themselves as brands,

appropriate to use a method that also approaches its subjects as brands. Mor

Stereotype Content Model on which the BIAF is based, is a well-established

measuringpeoplesperceived intentions and abilities. Since personal brand

line between people and brands, the BIAF seems an excellent fit for this stu

the BIAF uses only four questions, meaning respondents do not need to hav


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2.5 What is the influence of different ways of smiling in prof

the perceived image of LinkedIn users?

Although several studies have been conducted on the effect of different elem

and avatars, little academic research focuses on the effects of smiling in pho

accurately provide an answer to this sub-question, more research is need. Th

experiment was conducted to further investigate how different ways of smil

perceived image. The design and results of this experiment are provided as

this thesis, in chapters 3, 4 and 5. This paragraph summarizes the findings o

this concept.

One study that may provide a first direction for an answer to this question, i

done by Naumann, Vazire, Rentfrow & Goslings (2009). They studied how

impressions are formed based on peoples appearances. Their findings impl

might try to shape others impressions of them by altering their appearance

They also suggest that some aspects of appearance are within our control, su

Thus, their research provides an indication that smiling is an element in pho

influence, and that this might affect others impressions of us.

Vernon, Sutherland, Young & Hartley (2014) studied the effect of different

influence first impressions. They found that a substantial proportion of th

impressions could be attributed to objectively defined facial features. Of the

dimensions they studied, approachability was strongly positively linked to m

shape, concluding that a smiling impression is a key component of an imp

approachability.

Other research suggests that impression agreement is higher when people w

their profile pictures (Steel, Evans & Greene, 2009). Their results indicate t

agreement was highest when people were smiling with visible teeth, with sm

i ibl h d I ddi i ili ll h d bl


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3. Methods

In order to provide an answer to all five sub-questions, and subsequently th

(as described in chapter 1: Introduction), a quantitative strategy was applied

framework for the research study, a literature analysis was conducted prior

study. The results of this analysis were described in chapter 2: Literature Fr

research for this thesis was conducted in the form of an independent (betwe

experimental design, using an online questionnaire method. This chapter wi

investigate the choices that were made in this design process, and explain th

disadvantages of the applied methods. Firstly, the main concepts of the main

questions are operationalized based on the results of the literature analysis.

of different ways of smiling will be further defined and explained. The res

design and method will be discussed, followed by a more in-depth explorati

pictures that were used were obtained, how the questionnaire was construct

respondents were gathered. Lastly, the actual respondent group is analysed

obtained number of respondents and their average age, sex and education le

3.1 Operationalization

As a result of the literature analysis, the main concepts from the main and su

now be further defined. A clear definition of each concept is needed in orde

subsequent research, which will provide answers to these questions. The ma

thesis is:In what ways can different ways of smiling in profile pictures be u

personal branding to create a desired online image on LinkedIn?

Different ways of smiling

As found in the literature analysis, the pictures that users of SNSs choose as

contain differences in the elements they depict (see paragraph 2.2 of Chapte

framework for further details on this concept). For the purposes of this stud

to try and research all these elements. Therefore, only different ways ofsmi


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Online image and desired online image

According to Bendisch et al. (2007) a brand image cannot be detached from

human being and includes both the perspective of the self-image of the ind

the perspective of others and the image they have of that person. Within the

thesis study, online image and perceived images of users both refer to th

perspective as described by Bendisch et al; the image others have of a perso

personal branding efforts or the personal brand itself. In this context, image

the perspective of the (actual or intended) receivers of the marketing commThe desired online image is the image the person intends to project; the w

public to see him. This may or may not overlap with the actual image the ot

person.

LinkedIn

LinkedIn is a business-oriented Social Network Site and the worlds largest

network (LinkedIn, 2015). It is mainly used in the context of professional n

goals like keeping in touch with (former) colleagues and other professional

finding new employees or finding a new job. Users create a personal profile

their professional skills and accomplishments and resembles a resume. User

to each other, join interest specific groups, send personal messages and postthe Netherlands, LinkedIn was #4 in the top 5 of most used social media pla

was used by 3.8 million Dutch people, of which 0.4 million visited the web

et al, 2015).

3.2 Different ways of smiling

Since studying the effect of all different elements in profile pictures is not fe

constraints of this thesis, this study only focuses on the effect of four differe

smiling. The element of smiling was chosen for various different reasons. F

always present in pictures of a person, since they are usually either not smil


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Within the study, four different ways of smiling are distinguished:

1. Not smiling

2. Smiling without visible teeth

3. Smiling with visible teeth

4. Broadly smiling or laughing

3.3 Research strategy

A quantitative research strategy was chosen for this study. This choice was

order to study the influence of smiling in profile pictures, the size of an effe

measured. Effect sizes cannot be objectively measured in a qualitative way.

impressions we form of others are based on unconscious biases for examp

specific facial structures with personality traits (Vernon, Sutherland, Young

It is therefore contradictive to try and reveal how people arrive at a certain ijudgement of someone using qualitative research methods such as in-depth

focus groups. After all, we cannot consciously explain what happened durin

process.

3.4 Research method

As explained in section 2.4 of the theoretical framework (chapter 2), there a

measure how we form an image of others based on a picture. For this study,

Intentional Agents Framework (or BIAF) by Kervyn, Fiske & Malone (2012

The BIAF measures peoples perceptions of brands on two dimensions: war

competence, by using a 7-point Likert-scale.

In personal branding, traditional marketing techniques are used to brand peo

this process is that we create specific image: a personal brand. Moreover, th

give advice for professionals in a professional branding context. It is therefo

measure this image as a brand and not as if it were a personality (i e by usi


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3.5 Design of the experiment

The research was designed in the form of a between-group, independent exp

natural design might have given better, more extensive results, but this meth

respondents to judge many different (pre-coded) pictures in order to provide

results. This poses a risk, since people might become influenced to give a ce

judging a few photos, since they might start to realise what the experiment t

provides a high risk of wear-out. In order to be able to test many different p

these risks, a high number of respondents was needed. Gathering that many

within the given timeframe would prove to be very hard, if not impossible.

between-group design was chosen.

Four samples of respondents were composed, each of which were shown a

depicting one of the four ways of smiling. Respondents were then asked to

questions from the BIAF with regard to the picture. Since the study aims to

different ways of smiling influence peoples image of them, the pictures we

their own, without the context of an online profile. This was done to preven

opinions about what is appropriate or desirable for profile pictures on Linke

their answers.

In order to be able to compare the results of the four sample groups, the gro

homogenous as possible. Therefore, the target group was limited to a specif

30 years old. Any respondents outside of this age group were ruled invalid

Although this limits statements made after generalisation as well, it was dee

not being able to compare the sample groups in the first place.

According to the central limit theorem (Field, 2011) samples that are greate

respondents can be assumed to have a normal distribution, with a mean equ

population mean. This means that, in order to be able to make statements ab

population (generalisation), each sample in the experiment has to be at least


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resulted in a set of four pictures, each depicting the same person, against the

and wearing the same clothing and hairstyle. The model also wore no head

covering of any kind. The only main difference in each picture was the facia

whether the person was smiling or not and how.

Pre-test of the photos

Three different people were photographed, resulting in three sets of four ph

see appendix for the three sets). Next, a pre-test (N=5) was conducted in ord

set of photos was the most suitable for use in the questionnaire. An odd num

respondents were chosen in order to be able to apply a majority rule, so pote

disagreements could be resolved. The results of the pre-test indicated that th

use in the questionnaire was set 3 (see figure 3.1)

Figure 3.1.Photo set 3

Some of respondents reactions during the pre-test read:

In set 1, there is no easily notable difference between not smiling and smil

The laughing pictures in set 1 and 2 seem a little extreme/grotesque and

laughing picture in set 3 seems more natural and candid.

Set 3 shows the most differences of all between the ways of smiling and th


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3.7 The questionnaire

The research was conducted using an online questionnaire method. The adv

method are that it takes respondents only a short moment to fill out, they ca

and whenever is convenient for them. It is also easy to distribute an online q

among the target group. Disadvantages include the fact that a questionnaire

insight in underlying causes and thinking processes, and the possibility of a

people do not understand a question, but where there is no interviewer they

Moreover, an online tool provides additional risks because of possible prob

compatibility with different devices, problems such as failing Internet conne

servers, or problems with the chosen platform for the questionnaire.

Since the target group included Dutch-speaking people, the questionnaire w

Dutch. This means the BIAF questions were also translated, which again cr

risks. If the chosen translation does not match the original questions well, it

validity of the question. However, if the questionnaire was designed in Eng

lower comprehension of English might misinterpret the question, causing th

different answer. To try and prevent these risks, the questions were first tran

help of an expert in the English language.

The final questionnaire included the following questions (translated here fro

English). The original questions in Dutch are included in the appendix of th

1. What is your gender? (Choices: Male, Female)

2. What is your age? [Textbox]

3. What level of education do you currently follow or what is your hig

level of education? (Choices: VMBO, HAVO, VWO, MBO, HBO,

[textbox])

4. Please indicate to what extend you agree with the following stateme

point Likert scale where 1 = completely disagree and 7 = completel


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Next, after the questionnaire design was complete, another pre-test was con

people understood the questions as they were meant to be and if there were

interpretation. This pre-test was conducted with an N=10, among people wi

of education and on different devices (both desktop and mobile devices in

with different operating systems). While the pre-test revealed no problems w

operating systems, in reality some mobile phones with a specific Android o

would not load the picture during the questionnaire, causing people to end t

prematurely. This resulted in a higher number of incomplete questionnaire rexpected beforehand.

On the chosen platform(www.thesistools.com), four different questionnaire

All questionnaires included the same questions, but each depicted a differen

the four ways of smiling). Next, the questionnaires were all linked to the sam

which was set according to a randomization algorithm. Every time somebodURL, the algorithm would randomly present one of the four questionnaires.

3.8 Respondents

The URL to the questionnaire (with randomization setting) was circulated a

social network accounts of the researcher: Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn.

description, a call for respondents aged 18 to 30 was included. In addition,

gift certificates with a value of !10, - were mentioned, which respondents c

entered their e-mail address after filling out the questionnaire. People were a

share the URL, creating a snowballing effect.

In addition, respondents were gathered on location by asking students on th

Communication and Journalism of the University of Applied Sciences Utrec

questionnaire. Although it is to be expected that most respondents gathered

age requirements, it also influences the average level of education in an unb

is reflected in the results and therefore it must be noted that the average leve


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Netherlands, 49.4% is female and 50.6% is male (CBS, 2015a). The mean a

old, with a standard deviation of 2.5 years. 85.3% of all respondents were b

years old. The level of education reflected the methods that were used to ga

50.32% of respondents is currently studying on an HBO level or has compe

level of education on an HBO level. This uneven distribution was to be expe

large part of respondents was gathered at a University of Applied Sciences,

level education. Apart from the high level of HBO education, respondents s

relatively highly educated overall, since another quarter of respondents (25studies or has completed education on a WO (academic) level. This again d

from the population, of which only 29% is higher educated meaning they

education on a HBO or WO level (CBS, 2015b). However, this discrepancy

the fact that the questionnaire also includes current (unfinished) level of edu

the population statistic only includes finished level of education.

Please see the appendix for more detailed data and SPSS output regarding

respondents and for a presentation of the full questionnaire.


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4. Results

This chapter will discuss the results of the experiment that was conducted a

research. Firstly, the sample sizes are discussed and assumptions of normali

Next, the mean scores for each of the four photos are explored and any diffe

by men or women are discussed. An exploratory factor analysis was conduc

the four questions of the Brands as Intentional Agents Framework (BIAF) a

different dimensions of warmth and competence. The results of this analysidepth. The results for each photo are then plotted against the two axes of the

see how they score on warmth (intentions) and competence (ability). Lastly

variance (ANOVA) was conducted to see how well the photos influence res

answers on the BIAF questions, which was then further explored using post

to further analyse how the photos affected the resulting image and which ph

each dimension.

All SPSS tables and graphs depicting the results described in this chapter ca

appendix of this document.

4.1 Sample sizes

As discussed in chapter 3, the total sample size of the experiment is N=155

Since the experimental groups could not be influenced beforehand, but rath

by means of randomisation, it can be expected that the four experimental gr

do not contain the exact number of respondents. Table 4.1 presents the exac

respondents for each of the four samples. We see that photo A: No smile ha

number of respondents; n=43, whereas photo D: Laughing had the least wit

Overall, the sample means do not differ greatly; the largest difference is 9 r

Count Percent

Photo A: No smile 43 27.7


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4.2 Normality distribution

A Kolmogorov-Smirnov test of normality was conducted to find if the distri

significantly different from a normal distribution. The five questions that re

answered with regards to the photo that was presented to them were include

For the rest of this chapter, these questions will be coded as follows:

Question

1. The person in the photo has good intentions toward ordinary people

2. The person in the photo consistently acts with other peoples best interes

in mind

3. The person in the photo has the ability to implement her intentions

4. The person in the photo is skilled and effective at achieving her goals

5. For the person in the photo, finding a job is

Table 4.2. Coding of questions

All five questions,D(154) = 0.00,p< .05, were significantly non-normal on

Smirnov test of normality. This means the assumption of normal distributio

However, since a discrete scale (i.e. a 7-point Liker-scale) and not a continu

used to answer the questions in the questionnaire, a maximum of 14 points

each dimension, a non-normal distribution becomes very likely. Q-Q plots w

the degree of skewness of the distribution for each question; the distribution

is somewhat skewed, but not overly divergent. Moreover, the analysis of va

that was conducted to further analyse the questionnaire results is considered

violations of normality if group sizes are equal (Field, 2011). In addition, th


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Photo B depicting a smile without visible teeth scored the highest on both q

warmth (warmth 1 and warmth 2) as well as the highest on the competence

C depicting a smile with visible teeth scored the highest on the competence

addition, respondents thought the person on this photo would find a job mo

When we look at the mean score per photo for the dimensions of warmth an

find that photo B has the highest overall score on warmth and photo C has t

score on competence.

Table 4.3.Mean scores per photo

A T-test was conducted to see whether men and women answered the quest

The results were non-significant, meaning that there was no significant diffe

between answers by men or women.

4.4 Exploratory factor analysis

The BIAF was designed to measure two dimensions of warmth and comp

explore if the four questions really measured two dimensions, an explorat

was conducted. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure verified the sampling

analysis, KMO = .606 which is a mediocre value (according to Field, 201

thus above the acceptable limit. Bartletts test of sphericity X2(6) = 293.19

Photo Warmth 1 Warmth 2 Competence 1 Competence 2 Job

Photo A: No smile 3.84 3.74 4.74 4.63 4.00

Photo B: Smile w

/o

teeth5.28 4.74 4.74 4.95 4.87

Photo C: Smile with

teeth4.86 4.70 4.92 4.86 5.03

Photo D: Laughing 4.97 4.72 4.75 4.92 4.74


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1 had high loadings on both questions measuring warmth and factor 2 ha

both questions measuring competence (scores are highlighted in green)

factor 1 probably represents the dimension of warmth and factor 2 proba

dimensions of competence, so the factors are labelled as such in the tab

concluded that the four questions accurately measured the intended dimensi

Raw component

Item Warmth Competence

Heeft het beste met mensen voor 1.23 .50

Handelt consequent met de belangen van anderen in haar achterhoofd 1.17 .44

Is vaardig en effectief in het bereiken van haar doelen .48 1.19

Is in staat haar voornemens uit te voeren .44 1.17

Eigenvalues 3.94 1.72

% of variance 61.47 26.82

Cronbachs! .79 .79

Table 4.4.Summary of exploratory factor analysis results

4.5 Photo scores on the Brands as Intentional Agents Frame

The BIAF places brands on two axes, resulting in four different quadrants in

can fall. The horizontal axis (X) indicates competence and the vertical axis

warmth. The means of the Likert-scale score for each photo on the dimensio

factor analysis were plotted against the two axes (figure 4.5). Photo A depic

photo B smiling without visible teeth, photo C smiling with visible teethlaughing. According to the BIAF, each quadrant solicits specific emotion

2012). The lower left quadrant solicits contempt and it is very undesirable to

quadrant. Photo A scored slightly below average on both warmth and comp


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Figure 4.5.Photo scores on BIAF

Since the graph using the Likert-scale does not show the differences betwee

smiling photos very well, the means for each photo were converted to a fr

distribution using Z-scores (where the mean is 0 and the standard deviation

resulting scores fall between -1 and 1. When this graph is zoomed in further

between photos B, C and D become clearer (figure 4.6). It should be noted t

difference are clearer, zooming in on the axes also presents a more distorted

reality. To see in what quadrant each picture falls, figure 4.6 gives a more a

representation. Further examination of figure 4.6 reveals that photo B (depi

without visible teeth) scored higher on the warmth dimension, whereas phot

smile with visible teeth) scored slighly higher on the competence dimension

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Photo A

Photo B

Photo C

Photo D

-0,8

-0,6

-0,4

-0,2

0

0,2

0,4

0,6

-0,15 -0,1 -0,05 0 0,05 0,1

Photo A

Photo B

Photo C

Photo D


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Please note that, since a 7-point Likert-scale was used, scores can range from

Indeed, the three photos depicting different ways of smiling are higher rated

where the person was not smiling. Additionally, smiling with visible teeth s

higher than smiling without teeth. The different scores per photo seem to m

scores, with photo A (no smile) scoring around a mean of 4, and the other th

photos scoring closer to 5.

4.6 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

To further explore differences between the photos, an analysis of variance (

conducted. An ANOVA calculates the ratio of systematic variance to unsys

in an experimental study. This ratio, called the F-ratio, indicates if the indep

successfully manipulated the dependent variable. In this study, the independ

the four photographs, and the dependent variables are the four BIAF questio

Firstly, the assumption of homogeneity was explored using the Levenes sta

and competence, the variances were non significant,Levene F (1, 151) = 1.3

151) = 1.35, ns. However, for the job question, the variances were significa

Levene F(3, 151) = 2.83,p < 0.5. This means that for the further exploration

the F-ratio cannot be used. Instead, Welchs F was used, since it is more rel

way ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis H test when data are not homogenous (Mc

The ANOVA revealed a significant effect of the photos on the warmth dime

10.58,p = < .01 but not on the competence dimension, F(3) = 0.70, ns. The

calculated effect size for the warmth dimension is "= .40. This is a relative

Table 4.7.Mean score per photo for job question

Photo Mean score

No smile 4.00

Smile without teeth 4.87

Smile with teeth 5.03

Laughing 4.74


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perceived the level of competence of the person in the photo. This means no

for the population may be made.

Post hoc tested were executed to further explore which ways of smiling wer

on how people perceive the persons warmth and competence and their abili

easily. To control both type I errors (#) and type II errors ($), and since ther

sample sizes, the Tukey test was selected. Additionally, since the job questi

on Levenes test, the Games-Howell test was used for this question. Tukey

for the warmth dimension, photo A depicting no smile is significant. Not sm

significantly negative effect on perceived warmth, compared to smiling in a

three smiling photos showed now significant effect on warmth. The comp

shows no significant effects overall, which is to be expected since the dimen

significant on the ANOVA, indicating that the manipulation of the depende

independent variable has failed. Finally, the Games-Howell test indicates th

results in significantly lower scores on the job question compared to both sm

visible teeth and smiling with visible teeth, but yields no significant differen

compared to laughing. In addition, smiling with your teeth visible resulted i

but not significantly different scores than smiling without visible teeth. Both

smiling resulted in slightly higher scores than laughing, but again not signif

4.7 Conclusions

The statistical analysis shows that the four BIAF questions successfully me

and competence dimensions. Photo A (not smiling) falls in the lower-right q

BIAF, indicating that it might elicit contempt. All three forms of smiling fal

right golden quadrant, suggesting that they could elicit admiration. The w

and the job question were significant on the ANOVA, indicating that the m

dependent variables (the BIAF and job questions) by the independent variab

was successful. The competence dimension was not significant, preventing

generalisation for the population based on this experiment


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5. Discussion

This chapter offers a discussion about the answers to the main question andthesis. First, answers to each of the five sub-questions are provided. Next, th

will then be answered based on the literature and experimental study. These

be presented in paragraph 5.1. The following paragraph, 5.2, offers recomm

people looking to use profile photos to influence their online image as part o

branding strategies. Additionally, it offers recommendations for further aca

based on the present study. Finally, paragraph 5.3 discusses the limitations

study conducted in this thesis.

5.1 Conclusions

This paragraph will present the conclusions for each of the five sub question

chapter 1 of this thesis, followed by the final answer to the main question.

How do people create online images using personal branding?

Personal branding is the process of applying traditional marketing technique

market products and corporations, to brand people. The goal of personal bra

a desired image; to influence the way others see a person. This can be done

personal purposes. Online media lend themselves very well for personal bra

allowing people to use different tactics and techniques to successfully brand

These tactics include the creation of personal websites, blogs and profiles o

administering SEO or SEA techniques. When individuals try to influence th

have of them, they may do so through a technique called impression manag

impression management is presented in the form of a dramaturgy metaphor

a stage. People present idealized versions of themselves through performan

bound in space and time and that take place on a stage in front of a partic

unintended) audience. The specific image people aim to create is influen


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In order to apply the theory of impression managed to online media, an add

can be proposed. The original impression management theory speaks of per

take place in a situation; a situational approach. But, online, performances a

because they are recorded and can be replayed in a different situation and c

the information and visual cues people post online can also be seen as arte

placed in an exhibition site. This exhibition approach further states that c

specific algorithms on a web site) then control what artefacts are presented

Furthermore, it can be noted that online media do not function as a tradition

Different audiences (e.g. friends, family and colleagues) come together on s

sites, which may create conflicts between the different roles or identities pe

to each audience.

Visual elements, and profile pictures in particular, form an important part o

impression management and personal branding techniques. By choosing ap

users communicate to each other that they understand the rules of conduct o

that they are a part of the in-group and what position they take in that group

profile pictures provide visual characteristics of a person, which adds to the

their personal brand. In addition, a profile with a profile pictures is viewed m

without one and will probably be more popular as well.

How do profile pictures differ in content?

Many SNSs encourage their users to upload a profile image. LinkedIn displ

image on someones personal profile, next to his or her name and job title. T

is also presented alongside updates and comments made by a person, and is

search results. Having a profile picture positively influences the popularity

views of a profile. The elements that profile images depict can be distinguis

categories. To begin with, we can identify if the profile image even is a pict

or perhaps a drawing or cartoon or something else. If it is a picture, it may d

multiple persons. The picture can include someones head only, their head a


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What are social network sites and how are they used?

Social Network Sites, or SNSs, are websites with three distinctive functions

create a personal profile, they let them connect with others users, and they l

present their network (by showing a list of someones contacts and links be

SNSs provide their users with different functions such as creating profiles, p

and communicating with others through wall posts, personal messages or gr

SNSs for different purposes: to represent themselves online (e.g. for person

purposes), to keep in touch with people in their network, and to find out mo

people they may have met.

LinkedIn is a SNS aimed at professionals. It is the fourth most popular socia

Netherlands, with 3.8 million Dutch users. On LinkedIn, personal profiles t

resume, providing information on someones current or past positions, their

and experience. Users can also recommend other users or endorse their skil

aspect of LinkedIn is that it shows users the connections of their connection

their 2nd

or 3rd

degree networks. Users may ask their connections to introduc

from their 2nd

or 3rd

degree circles. As with other SNSs, LinkedIn is used by

different ways. These include growing their network, joining interest group

introduced to their extended network, keeping track of people they know an

themselves online by means of an online, updated resume. Employers also u

post job listings, find appropriate candidates and to find out more about pro

employees. Research shows that the way people use LinkedIn is related to th

at in their career and the position they take on the job market. Well-establish

and older employees use LinkedIn to grow their network so that they can ke

activities of their connections, or to discuss things with or ask questions to o

through the interest groups. Younger users and people who are entering the

recently entered it, use LinkedIn more as a professional personal website an

and to grow their network by connecting to people they know, or should or


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dimensions that were used include the Interpersonal Attraction Scale and th

Intentional Agents Framework. The Interpersonal Attraction Scale measure

of attraction: social, physical and task attraction. The Brands as Intentional

Framework, of BIAF, measures two dimensions: perceptions of warmth and

BIAF is based on the Stereotype Content Model, but applies the idea on the

between consumers and brands instead of relationships between people. Wh

advantages and disadvantages of each method into account, the BIAF seems

useful model for measuring how smiling in profile pictures influences onlin

images of LinkedIn users.

What is the influence of different ways of smiling in profile pictu

perceived image of users on social network sites?

Earlier academic research has not intensively studied the effect of smiling i

yet. The research that is available suggests that smiling may be a way to inf

peoples impression of us, in a way that we can easily control. Furthermore

position and expression of someones mouth is linked to how others judge

approachability. It is suggested that smiling has positive effects compared t

all. Smiling with visible teeth may also be slightly more positive than smilin

teeth (a closed mouth).

To further study the effect of different ways of smiling, an experimental stu

This research measured the effects of four ways of smiling (not smiling, sm

visible teeth, smiling with visible teeth and laughing) on the warmth and co

dimensions of the BIAF.

The results indicate that the four BIAF questions successfully measure warm

competence dimensions. When comparing the scores of the photos on the B

5.1), photo A (depicting a person not smiling) scores visibly worse than pho

(depicting different ways of smiling). Photo A fallsjust slightly on the quad


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The warmth dimension has a significant score on the ANOVA that was perf

the question measuring how easy the person in the photo could find a job in

respondents. These results indicate that the manipulation of the independent

four photos) were successful in influencing the dependent variables (the BIA

warmth and the job question). However, the BIAF questions on competence

significant outcome, meaning that the four presented photos did not signific

respondents image of the competence level of the person in the photo. This

generalisation for the population of the competence dimension based on the

experiment.

Further results reveal that not smiling has significantly negative effects on t

dimension compared to smiling in any of the three ways tested in this exper

affect was found on respondents judgement of whether the person in the ph

job easily. Smiling with visible teeth performs slightly (but not significantly

smiling without visible teeth, but both have a positive effect on respondents

how easy that person would find a job.


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Conclusion to the main question:

In what ways can different ways of smiling in profile pictures be used to enh

branding to create a desired online image on LinkedIn?

Social Network Sites, and specifically LinkedIn, lend themselves very well

branding purposes. LinkedIns interface also provides functions that can eas

enhance personal branding. In order to enhance personal branding efforts, it

upload a profile picture, as this adds to the distinctiveness of a personal bran

influences profile views. It also helps in providing the right visual cues thatunderstanding of the rules of conduct of the medium, which is important i

management techniques that can be used in personal branding.

Uploading a profile picture is strongly recommended. For the context of Lin

common to choose an otherwise unedited, portrait style photograph, depicti

head and shoulders. Additionally, many users wear formal attire in their pro

Different ways of smiling in profile pictures affect someones perceived lev

dimension of warmth measures someones intentions towards others, such a

sincerity, friendliness and trustworthiness. It is also linked to likability. In a

seems to affect someones perceived approachability as well. These are all p

people may want to highlight for personal branding purposes, and may do sright profile picture.

Displaying a picture in which the person is not smiling has a significantly n

perceived warmth. Smiling (with open or closed mouth) or laughing in your

positiveeffect, helping to create an image of warmth and displaying genera

towards other people.

Smiling without visible teeth also positively affects others perception of ho

would find a job. Smiling withvisible teeth even has a slightly (but not sign

ff d ili i h i ibl h


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5.2 Limitations

The choices made about the strategy and design of this research provide limresults, generalisations and recommendations. First of all, its quantitative re

provides no further insight into motivations for the judgements that respond

how these impressions were created. Secondly, the chosen research method

focuses on the consumers role in what can be seen as a two-way relationsh

and consumers. It does not take the brands role into account. Additionally,

experiment design may have provided more natural and accurate responses

experimental design.

In the current experiment, the chosen independent variables (the four photo

different ways of smiling) failed to significantly influence the dependent va

BIAFs competence dimension. Therefore, the results of the experiment pro

with regard to this dimension, and no generalisations about the population m

on this study with regard to competence. In addition, the assumption of Nor

violated. Although the results chapter argues that this does not harm the out

experiment severely (based on the central limit theorem and on the fact that

considered robust against these violations of normality), the results of the ex

be read with this information in mind.

Only four pictures - of the same person - were used to measure effects of wa

Outcomes may differ if another person or multiple models are used. The cu

not take different effects of elements such as age, sex, or attractiveness of th

candidness of the picture into account.

The last limitations regard the respondents of this study. For practical purpo

homogenous sample groups, the age group for the target group was restricte

old, which means the results may not be indicative for other age groups in th

Additionally the male/female division and level of education of respondent


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5.3 Recommendations

Professionals who want to use their profile picture on LinkedIn to enhance

branding strategies online, are recommended to do the following:

Always upload a profile picture; this will help your profile get more

popularity

Choose a portrait style profile picture of yourself, depicting your he

On a professional networking site as LinkedIn, you want to brand y

professional. Choose a picture of yourself that reflects this (e.g. not

on vacation) or perhaps wear professional attire in your photo.

Always smile in your profile picture! Regardless of whether if you

or open mouth (showing your teeth or not), this will positively affec

image of warmth. It also gives others the idea that you have good in

them and improves your likability and approachability.

If you feel comfortable and authentic in a smile without visible teeth

improve your perceived image of warmth further.

Remember that different (intended or non-intended) audiences may

LinkedIn profile. Choose your pictures wisely and do not post conte

offensive to possible target groups.

Recommendations for further research

This thesis tries to fill a gap in academic research and give practical recomm

effect of online profile pictures on perceived images of people. Off course, t

many more elements within this subject to be further explored. For example

only focuses how different ways of smiling affect the perceived online imag

research may explore the effect of other elements commonly found in profil

whether the subject makes eye contact with the camera or not, how many pe

picture, the background of the picture, how many people are in the picture,


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Additional research among human resource professionals (who are responsi

employees) can provide more insight in how these professionals judge profi

prospective candidates. This can provide useful information about which ph

choice for personal branding purposes.

In addition, the different photos used in the current study were found to hav

relationship with the dimensions of competence that was tested. Further res

explore which other photos or elements may have more of an influence on t

dimension of the Brands as Intentional Agents Framework.

Lastly, the specific age group and number of respondents used in the curren

possibility of making more generalised statements about the rest of the popu

research is needed to make more fundamental statements about whether the

study hold true in regard to larger, more (age) diversified samples, and the r

population.


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Appendices

Reference list

Photos used in the pre-test

SPSS Data and Results

Questionnaire


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