NESt 312 9000bc Wdesert Tourism

8/3/2019 NESt 312 9000bc Wdesert Tourism

1/18

Preface Sahara 9000BC


2/18

Pleistocene vacations and Neolithic desert tours present the concise WesternDesert guide. This guide comprises a large area between 21-29oN and 27-31oE1 and

is meant to achieve three main aims in marketing the Egyptian Western Desert

Region;

First,to highlight the long occupation of the western desert from pre-historictimes to the present. Document and attest to the long phases of human occupation

contained there and the importance of the human adaptability. Over the long dure,

environmental opportunism prevailed under vacillating conditions from severe

aridity to greater conductivity for habitation.

Second, considering the limitations of technology, modes of livelihood andexternal factors, and the western desert illustrates the human propensity to seek

out the good life. Our tourism guide reflects this capacity.

Lastly, to elaborate and expand on the Ancient Egyptian concept of necessarystructure and stabilityin a changing world. The interplay between geographically

distinct eco zones of the Nile valley, Green Sahara Western desert savannah (and

associated fluviolacustrine systems) and mobile Ancient Egyptian populations is

cornerstone. We argue that in addition to basic human needs, landscape is

harnessed to satisfy metaphysical and philosophical dilemmas of human existence.

Elevation model of the

Western desert lake system

hydrologic regime.

cf.MAXWELL, T et al., 2010, 1137.

1 MAXWELL, T et al., 2010. Evidence for Pleistocene lakes in the Tushka region, south Egypt.

Geology, 38(12):1135-1138.


3/18

Nite life in the Eastern Sahara is always exciting (as long as we have water todouse the fire2) with buskers, fire dances and vivid imaginative storytelling. On

occasion, bands of family units congregate for a particularly rousing ghost story or

shadow puppetry to entertain the children. Sadly, these large group events are few

and far between owing to the low population densities we keep and the longdistances we travel to procure raw material that we use for daily activities3.

Body paint and piercing are great ways for us to accentuate the two musicalinstruments that we have developed: namely the mouth and hands.

Fire dancing is aparticular favorite for

buskers

However we all have to rely on our own skills as generalists rather than specializeinto full time entertainers or dancers. This means that among us mobile foragers,

the people you really would rather party with are the ones who can successfully

fish, hunt, forage, make and use tools and trade. We therefore have a jack of all

trades mentality severely limiting commercial Nite Life entertaining.

Since Beer has not been invented, we content ourselves on hearty swigs of fishsoup or any wild berries that happen to have gotten squashed into a fermented

paste. But since we dont wait around for wild food sources to ferment (it can be

quite dangerous) feasting is usually comprised of whatever we can get our hands on

at the time. Cuisine is 100% local unaccompanied by room service, in house dining,

drive-thrus or long term food preservation (spices and preservatives are of limited

utility for mobile foragers).

For some companionship, be assured that out population is friendly andcooperative. We have a definite problem of attrition due to accidents and intra-

group conflict so the pool of available mates is always in flux. Children are valued as

long as there are not too many around to overburden their parents and caregivers

mobility patterns. It is often the case to find one small child per woman at a time

2 Use of Fire, haematite and ochre. GAUTIER, A., 1993. The Middle Paleolithic Archaeofaunas

from Bir Tarfawi (Western Desert, Egypt) in: WENDORF, F. et al. Egypt during the last

Interglacial: The Middle Paleolithic of Bir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara East. New York: Plenum,

141.

3 WARFE, A. R., 2003. Cultural origins of the Egyptian Neolithic and Predynastic: An

evaluation of the Evidence from the Dakhleh Oasis.African Archeological review, 20:(4) 183-

185.

Nite Life Sahara 9000BC


4/18

and vertically staggered birth years. Experience romance under the stars and

contribute to our high birth rate!

As previously mentioned, body paint is a favorite activity preoccupying all ourband members, probably owing to the amount of time we spend stalking animals

and devising ways to camouflage ourselves when snaring marsh bird and

amphibians. It also helps to be very still and patient. Since we spend a lot of time

working our hand axes and stone tools, we like to grease our hands with animal fats

(they get very rough otherwise) and this adapted into a creative activity4.

On the subject of stone tools, some of our band members range out fartherthan others but we generally like to range no further than 40km away from a

central point daily. These band members have developed the habit of

painting and sometimes etching shapes and figures into rocks as a form of

expression.

5

Culturally, our favorite muses are animals because they are unmistakable whendrawn out and convey the power and necessity that they carry in our lives. A close

second is people, because what better way to spend our otherwise free time than to

develop out amateur Picasso.

Besides static art and visual adornment, we enjoy fashioning portableaccoutrements and other forms of jewellery as long as it is not too heavy to carry or

impairs our subsistence foraging strategy. 6 After all, who wants to get a necklace

caught on a branch while gathering wild tree fruits or having body paint wash off

while wading into the lake reeling in a fish on a bone hook? Our art scene is

rudimentary and based on pragmatic concerns such as decorating hooks and

making ergonomic stone scrapers and aerodynamic points from the stone bits we

have at our disposal.

4 Snares and deadfalls. GAUTIER, A., 1993. The Middle Paleolithic Archaeofaunas from Bir

Tarfawi (Western Desert, Egypt) in: WENDORF, F. et al. Egypt during the last Interglacial:

The Middle Paleolithic of Bir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara East. New York: Plenum, 141-142.

5 KRZYZANIAK, l et al., 1989. Late Prehistory of the Nile basin and the Sahara. Poznan:

Poznan archaeological museum.

6 WARFE, A. R., 2003. Cultural origins of the Egyptian Neolithic and Predynastic: An

evaluation of the Evidence from the Dakhleh Oasis.African Archeological review, 20:(4) 189.

Art Scene Sahara9000BC


5/18

Here in the Eastern Sahara, touring the beautiful lake systems is an unforgettable,enchanting experience. The Lakes form in between gebels (highland mountains:inselbergs) that naturally contain depressions. The series of depressions hold

precipitation that blows in with late summer monsoons from the western Atlantic

ocean heading east over our home territory according to climactic periodicity.7

Year round lake systems shelter abundant plant and animal life. Theperiodicity of 500mm+ annual rainfall vacillates based on mid timescale

(measured in 2.5-5 k [years] increments) geoclimactic events known as

stadials.8 The technical term for our rain fed lacustrine ecosystem formation

is late Pleistocene/Early Holocene Saharan pluvial accumulation events.9

In fact, the basis for our subsistence is the plants and animals that are

attracted to these productive biodiversity hot spots in an otherwise widely

dispersed resource base.

Even though we place high cultural value on our mobility, we cannot ignore thetremendous incentive to exploit these wild resource abundant areas. Somemembers of our band use the lake environs as a home base for their mobile

foraging life way, a seasonal, semi seasonal or diurnal adaptation. Be aware that

this does not make them sedentary residents of the lake edges, but more like

frequently returning visitors. Archeological examination has revealed seasonal and

sometimes year round inhabitations but not agglomerations of large groups at the

Tarfawi site. This leads us to believe that similar sites were used as stopping off

points by multiple groups in a circuit between lakes in the region perhaps following

7

DE DAPPER, M., 2008. Geoarchaeology and environmental sciences.In

: MIDANT-REYNES, B.and TRISTANT, Y. eds. OLA 172. Egypt at its Origins 2: Toulouse 2005 conference

proceedings. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters, 389.

8 WENDORF, F. SCHILD, R. and CLOSE, A., 1993. Summary and Conclusions in: WENDORF, F.

et al. Egypt during the last Interglacial: The Middle Paleolithic of Bir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara

East, New York: Plenum, 552-573.

9 EL-BAZ, et al., 2007. Radar images and Geoarchaeology of the Eastern Sahara. Geology

23:61-65. and HILL, C. 2009. Stratigraphy and sedimentology at Bir Sahara, Egypt:

environments, climate change and the Middle Paleolithic. Catena, 78:257-258.

Lake Tours Sahara 9000BC


6/18

a transhumance circuit or seasonal round following herds of hunted animals.10 This

creates a continuous stratigraphic record of material cultures. Mid Pleistocene

occupations are characterized by relatively related technology and similar life ways,

seeming to stay in one place although in reality ranging over a large area. The

markers of frequently returning to the same home base sites are attested in

deposition assemblages.11

Little processed food, storage technology and lowdebitage material indicates partially or wholly transient habitation meaning both

high residential and logistic mobility.

Fluctuating water levels from as little as 1m to as deep as 15m (as evidenced invarve stratigraphy) interspersed episodes of Aeolian deposition at Bir Tarfawi.

Although not ephemeral, lakes systems were a concentration of permanent

resources in a dispersed open land ecosystem. We consider the ancient Pleistocene

desert to be an open land productive environment as opposed to the open sand

biologically unproductive erosion environment it presents today. The life ways most

likely to have been lived at the sites of Bir Sahara East and Bir Tarfawi are adaptedmobile foraging. The mobility is particularly useful when hunting in, around, and

near the lake systems. We might see some sacrifice of residential mobility but not

logistical mobility.12 Lake tours recreate the mobile experience and enjoyment

factor of roughing it on the lake systems as mobile bands may have done.

Perhaps venturing into actual water bodies by fashioning a crude raft or wading in a

deep section with wood to enable floating. It is certain however, that five episodes

of deep lake accumulation occurred over a mid timescale period in the Pleistocene

and Holocene and humans were there each time.13 Although there is no evidence of

actual boats, it may have been a possibility that later settlers who inherited the

same ecological niche in the ensuing early Holocene period utilized suchtechnology. Egyptian boatbuilding and ingenuity for navigating surface water has

been observed in later period inscriptions.14

10 BAKER, P and GAUTIER, A., 1997. Site E71k12 and the late Paleolithic annual round along

the Nile in upper Egypt in: WENDORF, F et al.A Late Paleolithic Kill-Butchery-Camp in Upper

Egypt. Dallas: Southern Methodist University, 51-36.

11 Especially in the mid Paleolithic. WENDORF, F. and SCHILD, R., 1993. E-87-1 A locality

Associated with the Sand Pan Delta in: WENDORF, F. et al. Egypt during the last Interglacial:

The Middle Paleolithic of Bir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara East, New York: Plenum, 396-398.

12

BARICH, B. E, 2004. Archaeological research in the Farafra Oasis (Egypt): Contributing tothe study of the early cultivation in the Eastern Sahara in: OESTIGAARD, T., ed. Combining

the past and the present: archaeological perspectives on society. Oxford:BAR int ser, (1210)

143-147.

13 WENDORF, F et al. 1984. Cattle Keepers of the Eastern Sahara: The Neolithic of Bir

Kiseiba. In: MAXWELL, T et al., 2010. Evidence for Pleistocene lakes in the Tushka region,

south Egypt. Geology, 38(12):1135-1138.

14Van NEER, W., 1989. Fishing along the prehistoric Nile In: KRZYZANIAK, L et al., eds. 1996Interregional contacts in the Later prehistory of northeastern Africa. Poznan: Poznan


7/18

we must stress that the lake systems are unique in many regards owing tothe factors governing to their formation, populations and colonization(s). At

Bir Sahara East and Bir Tarfawi, human site remains are between 243 and

249m above sea level and presumably the paleogeography corresponds

highly with the lake bed now at the surface. The supported ecosystem haslittle clastic sedimentary deposition due to the rain fed origins over the

Pleistocene. All deposition is assumed to be windblown or biogenic.15 From

Western desert lake systems, geoenvironmental conditions vastly divergent

from the early Nile valley may have resulted in early independent

domestications and agro-pastoral subsistence from wild antecedents.16

Contesting river flood plain origins of agro-pastoralism in Ancient Egypt

further challenges the interpretation of social conditions leading to an

incubation of complexity moving from the desert into the valley not the other

way around. We prefer the explaining that potential for complexity, social

and technological development would undoubtedly have manifested in very

different forms regardless of place. It is very interesting to consider the

impact of new evidence pointing to the independent development of

domestic plants and animals earlier in the temporal sequence in the western

desert than the Nile Valley.17

There is much that is still unaccounted for in the sequence of time and events

leading up to the adoption of agriculture in three distinct regions of Ancient Egypt;

Middle Egypt at the Faiyum, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt.18

A key distinction between perception of the paleo-desert habitation and reality isthat no simple rules apply to the general increases in complexity that occurredthere. Archeological evidence supports a fuller complicated version of events

including repeated variegated conditions of use, disuse and reintroduction of people

in the Western Desert. Human impacts on the environment overlapped in culture

complexes that couldnt be more different. Some settlement patterns included food

processing, while other later arrivals were practicing a completely mobile life way

Archeological Museum, 52-55.15 Recently challenged by geomorphological evidence, discussion in. MAXWELL, T et al.,

2010. Evidence for Pleistocene lakes in the Tushka region, south Egypt. Geology,

38(12):1135-1138.

16 WENDORF, F. et al., 1997.A Late Paleolithic Kill-Butchery-Camp in Upper Egypt. Dallas:

Southern Methodist University, 58-60.

17 WENGROW, D., 1997. On desert origins of the ancient Egyptians.Antiquity, 77:597-601.

18 WENGROW, D. 2006. The Archaeology of Early Egypt. Social Transformations in North-East Africa10,000 to 2650 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 46-49.


8/18

depending on wild foods. Thoroughly examined western deserts sites such as

Dakhleh and Khargah display a remarkable record that defies conventional models

of linear progression from simple to complex cultural forms.19 Relative stability in

cultural practices in the later Holocene western desert raises the question whether

environment sustains or devastates human livelihoods and the level of

anthropogenic change that we are capable of causing; an example of which is theFaiyum oasis in recent times.

We lack credible celebrity hosts, so we have amalgamated our generalized

occupational strategies into Three predominant modes:

The Fisher forager > Oasis Joe Spends countless hours devoted to catching the prize Nile perch

When ranging away from the local waterhole, he follows a route along

marshlands and reed fields to get wild roots plants and waterfowl.

Sometimes termed aqualithic people because of their propensity to

recolonize the oases after some part time, resource expansion, hunting or

seasonal herding20

susceptible to water borne parasites in still murky water.

21

The Opportunistic mixed mode gatherer > Regular Jane Gathers eggs, small animals, wild plants and uses very heavy tools

sparingly

Food Processing and herd management is not her specialty

19 McDONALD, MARY M. A., 2009. Increased Sedentism in the Central Oases of the Egyptian

Western Desert in the Early Mid-Holocene: Evidence from the Peripheries.African

Archeological Review, 26(3): 18-22.

20 STOJANOWSKI, C., and KNUDSON, K., 2011. Biogeochemical inferences of mobility of Early

Holocene Fisher foragers From the Southern Sahara Desert.American journal of physical

anthropology, 146:49-61.

21 KEITA, S. O. Y., 2003. A study of vault porosities in early Upper Egypt from the badarian

through Dynasty I. World Archaeology35:(2)212.

Making a Living Sahara9000BC


9/18

She makes best use of mud at the lakes edge to pick up stranded fish,

snails or driving larger animals in to drown22

No problem with scavenging carcasses from predators

Ambush-Stalker hunter > G I Joe Makes use of makeshift hunting blinds

Carefully follows herd behavior to pick off vulnerable individuals such as

pregnant or infant animals

Very fond of composite tools and high quality sharpened stone

implements

fields extended cooperative hunts to kill large animals by attrition:

inflicting repeated minor injuries

We have a full suite of wildlife to offer! At the archeological site of Bir Tarfawialone, five distinct lake episodes could be distinguished, separated by intervals

of hyperaridity.23 Wildlife proliferation during these episodes seeded the lakes

with over 50 taxa of amphibians, reptiles, birds and small mammals A large

percentage of the fish recovered at the site were Tilapia, Nile perch and catfish

(bagrus and clariids) some of which reached +20cm in length. 24

More importantly, the healthy ecosystem is grounded by a solid supply ofmicroorganisms and photosynthetic plants that form the basis for the food chain.We human inhabitants have to compete with other apex predators such as the

Crocodylidae (crocodiles) and fish predation from feeding cormorants, herons and

ducks25. These complicated predator and prey relationships and lifecycle phases

allow us to opportunistically gather eggs, fish, juvenile gastropods and plants at the

easiest times of access. Small reptiles, rodents and turtles also provide easily

22 Possible methods are discussed. WENDORF, F. et al., 1993. General conclusion In:

WENDORF, F. et al., Egypt during the last Interglacial: The Middle Paleolithic of Bir Tarfawi

and Bir Sahara East, New York: Plenum, 570-573.

23

Van NEER, W., 1993. Fish Remains from the Last Interglacial at Bir Tarfawi (EasternSahara, Egypt) In: WENDORF, F. et al., Egypt during the last Interglacial: The Middle

Paleolithic of Bir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara East. New York: Plenum, 144.

24 Van NEER, W., 1993. Fish Remains from the Last Interglacial at Bir Tarfawi (Eastern

Sahara, Egypt) In: WENDORF, F. et al., Egypt during the last Interglacial: The Middle

Paleolithic of Bir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara East. New York: Plenum, 144.

25BOCHENSKI, Z., 1993. Bird fauna from Bir Tarfawi In: WENDORF, F. et al., 1993. Egypt

during the last Interglacial: The Middle Paleolithic of Bir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara East. New

York: Plenum, 159.

Wild Life Sahara 9000BC


10/18

obtainable calories without expending large scale cooperative hunting expeditions.

Our sites contain trace evidence contrasting the traditional interpretation of

domestication diffusing out of the Levant and directly into the Nile river valley.26

The freshwater fish species temporaldistribution and concentration in the ancient lakes

evidences atypical conditions of plentiful oxygen,

low turbidity, low salinity and low temperatures

providing an aquatic nursery.

Big game is not a favorite quarry aroundthe lake, because we make us of smaller and more

plentiful antelope and dorcas gazelles. Other

occasional large animal prey are ostriches and eryx

(snakes), giraffe (as apparent from teeth), landturtles, bovids, rhinoceros and wild caprids. But our

main efforts are directed at gastropods, fish, and

gazelle. Venison and escargots anyone?

Our religious practice is loosely associated with our seasonal lifestyle. Theconstants in our life are the alternation of the day and night. We have developed a

superstition of fear of the dark and instinctual fear of cold and dark places. Although

we make best use of the lakes, bands are still afraid of water and swimming openly

since it is a risky behavior. We venerate elders and experienced members of our

band for their experience and navigation skills. Stars and calendric cycles areimportant to us and we hold feasts according to celestial phases that predict egg

laying and migratory cycles that we can benefit from.

Aside for the informal, we do not have a health insurance policy, but we have apart time medicine man who is the resident expert on who may be taking ill. The

doc practices batraquomancy27 but no one really pays him much attention.

There is not a lot of use in sartorialrequirements, dietary restrictions or

anything else that takes time away from full

time mobile foraging. The bands work as

best as they can within basic parameters of

avoiding poisonous substances, spending

26WENGROW, D., 2006. The Archaeology of Early Egypt. Social Transformations in North-East Africa10,000 to 2650 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 47-48

27 Divination using frogs

Religion & Festivals Sahar9000BC


11/18

time alone and vulnerable without band

sanction or being excessively violent.

Walking to natural quarry sites resources is a major problem, since we carry allour belongings with us. Along the way bands devise impromptu cadences, walking

songs or rhymes. Religion is not so much a way of life as it is a diversion from the

mundane. Quantifiable laws and taboos are cumbersome and not generally

universally accepted. Hunters and other people who individually want spiritual

intervention do so on their own. There is no wide adoption of standardized beliefs so

we are an open, welcoming band.

Rain storms are the highlight of the annual cycle because of the light show fromlightning. We have every reason to believe that it is what it is: an enjoyable

distraction to preoccupy us from the mundane. It is open to debate whether natural

phenomena are associated with men or women or neither, and one expects to findmuch complex heterogeneity on the individual level. A standard female fertility cult

or male patriarchic control system has yet to develop.

Acheulian technology bifacial axe in use for 500 000years, The Continuous retouch hand axe is the perennial

favorite, but because of the large amount of rock needed,

it is gradually falling out of use and into the realm ofobsolescence

Pros easy manufacture, continuous retouches for long

time use

Cons larger raw material requirement, large heavy toolA

Flaked blades and microblade flakes

Handy, jack of all trades tool, can be worked with one hand,

used as is or knapped in Mousterian and Levellois technique

to produce multiple flakes from a common core

Pros Fewer raw materials needed

Cons more skill required for manufacture, special search for

elastic stone

Latest Gadgets Sahara9000BC


12/18

Mousterian/Levellois

Alternate form of lower Pleistocene/middle Paleolithic stonetechnology

Characteristic retouches and pressure flakingPros ideal stone tool type, prolific worldwideB

Cons still relatively large tool, cumbersome to affix into

composite materials

Aterian

Newest technology and regional adoption of flake/blade

systemHas a distinct tang base presumably for integratinginto composite wood or bone implements. Wideadoption in some localities, unknown in othersC

Pros good adaptation to hunting and durable composite

tool types

Cons never widely adopted, hard to find a good Aterian

knapper

Think Green: microblades, same tools, and half the material.

The Western desert is a special case Ancient Egyptian chronology. Definitely someenvironmental determinism can be read into the abandonments and reoccupations

during particularly severe climactic events. Understanding the prehistory of the

region fills in gaps in the social and cultural locations and advantageous life ways

that underpinned later cultural and technological complexity. A flexible past in the

Western desert implies a flexible future, as has been demonstrated in Ancient

Egyptian history. Returning to desert subsistence and demonstrating semi

sedentarism and even a return to complete mobility must be considered as an

adaptive feature throughout the temporal sequence.28

Bir Sahara and the Oasis sites have had human occupations over the long dure.Evidence is still being gathered to support or disprove as early as a 1000 year head

start for agriculture and animal domestication in comparison to the rest of territorial

28 McDONALD, MARY M. A., 2009. Increased Sedentism in the Central Oases of the Egyptian

Western Desert in the Early Mid-Holocene: Evidence from the Peripheries.African

Archeological Review, 26(3): 38-39.

Historic Bir Sahara &prospects for the future Sahara 9000BC


13/18

Ancient Egypt.29 Certainly peaks in usage coincide with favourable ecological and

climactic conditions in all areas of human prehistoric occupation. The oldest phase

of lake transgressions was from the late Acheulean period.30 From such antiquity

through abandonments in the middle and late Pleistocene, to the middle and

terminal Holocene phase ending about 4500 years ago, structure and stability was

not an easy task to achieve.31

Approximate temporal ranges of the Western desert lake systems

Age estimate

( 1000 years ago)

Projected lake

surface area (km2)

Projected average

lake depth(m)

Old wet Phase >230 34000-68200 Up to 47m

Middle wet Phase >60-4032 unknown


14/18


15/18

AHENDRICKX, S., and VERMEERSCH, P., 2000. Prehistory. From the Paleolithic to the BadarianCulture. In: SHAW, I., ed., The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University, 18.

B MIDANT-REYNES, B., 2000. The Prehistory of Egypt. From the First Egyptians to the First

Pharaohs, Translated from French by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Blackwell, 38-40 (Originally published in

1992).

C

MIDANT-REYNES, B., 2000. The Prehistory of Egypt. From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs,Translated from French by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Blackwell, 38-40 (Originally published in 1992).

Bibliography

BAKER, P and GAUTIER, A.,

1997. Site E71k12 and the late Paleolithic annual round along the Nile in upper Egyptin: WENDORF, F et al.A Late Paleolithic Kill-Butchery-Camp in Upper Egypt. Dallas:

Southern Methodist University, 51-36.

BARICH, B. E,2004. Archaeological research in the Farafra Oasis (Egypt): Contributing to the study

of the early cultivation in the Eastern Sahara in: OESTIGAARD, T., ed. Combiningthe past and the present: archaeological perspectives on society. Oxford:BAR intser, (1210) 143-147.

BOCHENSKI, Z.,1993. Bird fauna from Bir Tarfawi In: WENDORF, F. et al., 1993. Egypt during the last

Interglacial: The Middle Paleolithic of Bir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara East. New York:Plenum, 159.

DE DAPPER, M.,2008. Geoarchaeology and environmental sciences. In: MIDANT-REYNES, B. and

TRISTANT, Y. eds. OLA 172. Egypt at its Origins 2: Toulouse 2005 conferenceproceedings. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters, 389.

EL-BAZ, et al.,2007. Radar images and Geoarchaeology of the Eastern Sahara. Geology23:61-65.

and HILL, C. 2009. Stratigraphy and sedimentology at Bir Sahara, Egypt:environments, climate change and the Middle Paleolithic. Catena, 78:257-258.

GAUTIER, A.,

1993. The Middle Paleolithic Archaeofaunas from Bir Tarfawi (Western Desert, Egypt)in: WENDORF, F. et al., Egypt during the last Interglacial: The Middle Paleolithic ofBir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara East, New York: Plenum. pp. 141-142.

GAUTIER, A.,1993. The Middle Paleolithic Archaeofaunas from Bir Tarfawi (Western Desert, Egypt)

in: WENDORF, F. et al. Egypt during the last Interglacial: The Middle Paleolithic ofBir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara East. New York: Plenum, 141.

GAUTIER, A.,


16/18

1987. Prehistoric men and cattle in North Africa: A Dearth of Data and a surfeit ofmodels.In: CLOSE, A. E., ed., Prehistory of arid North Africa: Essays in Honor ofFredWendorf. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 163-188.

HENDRICKX, S., and VERMEERSCH, P.,2000. Prehistory. From the Paleolithic to the Badarian Culture. In: SHAW, I., ed., The

Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University, 36.

KEITA, S. O. Y.,2003. A study of vault porosities in early Upper Egypt from the badarian through

Dynasty I. World Archaeology35:(2)212.

KRZYZANIAK, l et al.,1989. Late Prehistory of the Nile basin and the Sahara. Poznan: Poznan

archaeological museum.

MIDANT-REYNES, B.,

2000. The Prehistory of Egypt. From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs,Translated from French by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Blackwell, 41. (Originally published in1992).

McDONALD, MARY M. A.,2009. Increased Sedentism in the Central Oases of the Egyptian Western Desert in

the Early Mid-Holocene: Evidence from the Peripheries.African ArcheologicalReview, 26(3): 18-22.

MAXWELL, T et al.,2010. Evidence for Pleistocene lakes in the Tushka region, south Egypt. Geology,

38(12):1135-1138.

Van NEER, W.,1993. Fish Remains from the Last Interglacial at Bir Tarfawi (Eastern Sahara, Egypt)

In: WENDORF, F. et al., Egypt during the last Interglacial: The Middle Paleolithic ofBir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara East. New York: Plenum, 144.

Van NEER, W.,1989. Fishing along the prehistoric Nile In: KRZYZANIAK, L et al., eds. 1996

Interregional contacts in the Later prehistory of northeastern Africa. Poznan:Poznan Archeological Museum, 52-55.

STOJANOWSKI, C., and KNUDSON, K.,

2011. Biogeochemical inferences of mobility of Early Holocene Fisher foragers Fromthe Southern Sahara Desert.American journal of physical anthropology, 146:49-61.

WARFE, A. R.,2003. Cultural origins of the Egyptian Neolithic and Predynastic: An evaluation of the

Evidence from the Dakhleh Oasis.African Archeological review, 20:(4) 183-185.

WENDORF, F. et al.,1997.A Late Paleolithic Kill-Butchery-Camp in Upper Egypt. Dallas: Southern

Methodist University, 58-60.


17/18

WENDORF, F. SCHILD, R. and CLOSE, A.,1993. Summary and Conclusions in: WENDORF, F. et al. Egypt during the last

Interglacial: The Middle Paleolithic of Bir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara East, New York:Plenum, 552-573.

WENDORF, F. et al.

1993, Egypt during the last Interglacial: The Middle Paleolithic of Bir Tarfawi and BirSahara East, New York: Plenum.

WENDORF, F., and SCHILD, R.,1993. Middle Paleolithic Lakes in the Southwestern Desert of Egypt In: WENDORF, F.

et al., Egypt during the last Interglacial: The Middle Paleolithic of Bir Tarfawi andBir Sahara East. New York: Plenum, 22.

WENDORF, F. et al.1993. General conclusionIn: WENDORF, F. et al., Egypt during the last Interglacial:

The Middle Paleolithic of Bir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara East, New York: Plenum.

WENDORF, F. and SCHILD, R.,1993. E-87-1 A locality Associated with the Sand Pan Delta in: WENDORF, F. et al.

Egypt during the last Interglacial: The Middle Paleolithic of Bir Tarfawi and BirSahara East, New York: Plenum, 396-398.

WENDORF, F et al.1984. Cattle Keepers of the Eastern Sahara: The Neolithic of Bir Kiseiba. In:

MAXWELL, T et al., 2010. Evidence for Pleistocene lakes in the Tushka region,south Egypt. Geology, 38(12):1135-1138.

WENGROW, D.

2006. The Archaeology of Early Egypt. Social Transformations in North-East Africa10,000 to 2650 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

WENGROW, D.,1997. On desert origins of the ancient Egyptians.Antiquity, 77:597-601.

Image creditsBerries: http://www.graphicshunt.com/images/wild_berries-13923.htm

Fish: http://thinkafricapress.com/guinea-bissau/new-deal-african-fishing-rights

Beads: www.saudiaramco.world.com

Cave art: www.mason.gmu.edu

Giraffe: www.theanimalfiles.com/giraffe

Lightning: National Ocean And Atmospheric Administration www.noaa.org
http://www.graphicshunt.com/images/wild_berries-13923.htmhttp://thinkafricapress.com/guinea-bissau/new-deal-african-fishing-rightshttp://www.mason.gmu.edu/http://www.noaa.org/http://www.graphicshunt.com/images/wild_berries-13923.htmhttp://thinkafricapress.com/guinea-bissau/new-deal-african-fishing-rightshttp://www.mason.gmu.edu/http://www.noaa.org/


18/18

Stone tools: www.paleodirect.com

NESt 312 9000bc Wdesert Tourism

Documents

Transcript of NESt 312 9000bc Wdesert Tourism