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Road Project Appraisal Process in India

Background

1.1 Road Planning Process

In India, road development is an integral part of planning. The highest level ofplanning is at the national level, known as Five Year Economic DevelopmentPlans. The plans are formulated at national level by focusing sector wisepolicies, issues and estimation of resources and their allocation for developmentof the sector. Under road sector, the policies are mainly to guide and identify theroad network improvements based on the needs and demands estimated byvarious implementing agencies. The required estimation of resources are workedout based on the standards/norms/guidelines which are normally proposed fornew road projects and existing roads, emphasizing on capacity augmentation in

terms of increasing lanes, geometric improvements, or providing a by-pass to acongested urban area and creating accessibility / connectivity to the villages byproviding all-weather road. Based on the policies and the targets proposed in theFive Year Plans, the funds are allocated annually through budgetary allocation tothe road development agencies.

1.2 Road Development Plans:

Twenty Year Road Development Plans were prepared to guide the National levelpolicies and programmes for development of roads in India. So far, three suchplans have been formulated viz., (i) First 20 Year Road Development Plan (1940-

60), (ii) Second 20 Year Road Development Plan (1961-80) and (iii) Third 20year Road Development Plan (1981-2000). Currently, Road Development Plan-Vision 2020 has been prepared with a broad objective to guide the Central andState government agencies for development of roads under the changingeconomic policy of liberalization and globalization.

1.3 Classification of Roads:

Roads are classified into two broad categories viz. Urban Roads and Non-urbanroads. In India, urban roads are further classified as:

Expressways

Arterial Roads Sub-Arterial Roads

Collector streets and

Local streets

Non-urban roads too are classified into five categories from the administrativeand functional considerations. The classification was suggested in the Nagpur

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Plan (Second 20 year Road Development Plan). The classes of road and theirdescriptions are given in Table 1.

Table 1 Classification of Non-Urban Roads in India

S.No Class Description1 National Highways These roads traverse the length and breadth of thecountry and are of national importance forstrategic, administrative and other purposes. Theyconnect capitals of states, ports, foreign highways,large towns and industrial centres. They can bedeemed to be the primary road network of thecountry.

2 State Highways These roads are the main arterials of traffic within aState, serving important cities, and connected tothe National highways system and important

highways of adjacent states.3 District Roads The branch roads of the State and NationalHighways is to serve as the main roads for intra-district movements. They traverse the length andbreadth of a district to connect the areas ofproduction and marketing in the district to oneanother and to the national Highways. Further theyare divided in to Major district roads and otherdistrict roads.

4 Rural Roads(Village roads)

These roads connect villages and groups ofvillages with one another to market places and

district roads.

In the Third Road Development Plan (1981-2001), a slight modification to theclassification system was suggested by Indian Roads Congress (IRC) in 1984.The reclassification of roads, as suggested by IRC, is:

(A) Primary system(1) Expressways(2) National Highways

(B) Secondary system(1) State Highways

(2) Major District Roads(C) Tertiary system(1) Other District Roads(2) Village Roads

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1.4 Current Road Development Programmes

During the year 1990, Government of India identified certain sections of NationalHighway for improvement/upgradation by carrying out field studies. Afterdeliberations at various forums, Government of India launched a Major highway

development improvement programme known as National HighwaysDevelopment Programme (NHDP) with the aim to upgrade existing NationalHighways to International Standards. Under NHDP, two major programmes wereidentified (i) North-South Corridor (between Srinagar to Kanyakumari) and East-West Corridor (between Silchar to Porbandar) covering around 7,300 km of roadlength and (ii) Golden QuadrilateralHigh Density Traffic Corridors linking metrocities like Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai & Kolkata which is covering around 5846 kmand has been taken up for development in first phase. In the second phase ofNHDP, about 650 km of port road connectivity has also been proposed forimprovement. In the final phase, 10,000 km length of National Highwaysconnecting the State Capitals will be taken up for upgradation/improvement .

Apart from the National Highways Development programme (NHDP), theGovernment has launched Rural Connectivity Programme popularly known asPradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (Prime Ministers Rural Road Programme)during the year 2000-01. The Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)aims to provide connectivity to rural habitations for population above 500 with all-weather road, by the year 2007. However, for Hill states, Desert Areas andTribal areas, connectivity will be provided for habitations with population of 250persons and above. Nearly 50 per cent of the 6,00,000 habitations would beprovided connectivity with all-weather road through this programme. Thisprogramme also emphasizes to upgrade the existing rural roads to theprescribed standards (bituminous surfacing).

1.5 Institutional and Administrative Framework

National Highways fall directly under the control of Central Government withcomplete financial liability for the development and maintenance of highways.The Central Government is vested with the authority to declare any othercategory of road to be a National Highway, if it satisfies the requirement ofNational Highway. Policy matters are handled by the Ministry of Road Transportand Highways with major functional responsibilities such as administering fundsas well as to formulate plans for development and maintenance of NationalHighways in consultation with the executing agencies like State Public WorksDepartment / Highways Department.

Improvement of priority National Highways network is assigned to the NationalHighways Authority of India (NHAI), which is an autonomous body with executiveresponsibility for construction operation and maintenance of National Highways.Its work is under the administrative control of the Ministry of Road Transport andHighways (MORTH), Government of India. The remaining National Highways

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are looked after by the MORTH. The concerned State Governments have theresponsibility of development and maintenance of State Highways, District Roadsand Rural Roads. The State Public Works Department/Highway departmentsgenerally look after these categories of roads.

Rural roads development is also the responsibility of the State Governments.They are planned and developed under the aegis of State Rural DevelopmentDepartment and are executed by the Public works Department or RuralEngineering Department. Under the PMGSY programme, funds are beingallocated by the Central Government to the State Governments for execution ofthe programme. Each State Government agencies formed a separate rural roadProject-implementation unit (PIU) for effective implementation of this programme.The National Rural Road Development Authority, an agency under the Ministry ofRural Development, Government of India, has been formed to guide technicallyand monitor the execution of the programme at national level.

1.6 The Indian Roads Congress

Indian Roads Congress (IRC) is a governing body of professional highwayengineers in India. The major objective is to promote and encourage the scienceand practice of road building and maintenance and development and use ofstandard specifications and practices for India on planning, design, construction,operation and maintenance of roads. Its technical publications serve the purposeof disseminating technical knowledge and stimulate the science of roadengineering. The Highway Research Board of the IRC identifies the variousresearch needs and monitors the progress on scheme, which are taken up forexecution. Dissemination of research results is given due importance.

2.0 Project Appraisal Process

2.1 Detailed Project Report

The detailed project report is normally prepared for new roads and forupgradation and rehabilitation of the existing roads. The Indian Roads Congresshas come out with a manual for preparation of detailed projects reports. Thevarious stages involved in project preparation are given in Figure 1. Thepracticing engineers follow the guidelines provided in the manual while preparingthe project report.

The project preparation is carried out in the following stages:

i. Pre-feasibility studyii. Feasibility studyiii. Detailed engineering studiesiv. Preparation of detailed report, drawings and tender documents

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2.2 Procedure for Economic Analysis

The Indian Roads Congress has come out with manual for economic analysis ofhighway projects. The economic analysis procedure for road projects involvesnormally the following steps (IRC, 1993):

Figure 1: Stages Involved in Project Preparation

Identification and definition of the project, project area and other relateddetails.

Collection of basic data on economy.

Selection of policy variables for analysis and decision criteria.

Inventory of existing roads.

Traffic projection and assignment.

Engineering design alternatives by using standard techniques.

Estimation of cost for the proposed facilities as per the proposed

alternatives including maintenance cost etc. Performing economic analysis.

The manual also provides the data related to road user costs and vehicleoperating costs for individual vehicles based on the Road User Cost Studies(RUCS) conducted for India. Recently, the Ministry of Road Transport andHighways and CRRI has updated the above database by including the newtechnology vehicles.

PRE-FEASIBILITYSTUDY

FEASIBILITYSTUDY

DETAILEDENGINEERING

Reconnaissance andTraffic Estimation

Preliminary Design

Approximate CostEstimation

Pre-feasibility Report

Economic ProfileSurvey

Traffic Survey

Preliminary Topo-graphical Survey

Limited Soil Survey

Limited PavementDesign Studies

Limited DrainageStudies

Land AcquisitionEstimate

R &R Action Plan &Environment Screening

Traffic Analysis andProjection

Project CostEstimation

Economic Analysis

AdministrativeApproval

Feasibility Report

Detailed TopographicalSurvey

Final Location Survey

Detailed Soil Survey

Detailed PavementDesign

Detailed DrainageStudies

Environment Manage-ment Action Plan

DPRDesign ReportDrawingsEstimation

Technical Approval

and Financial Sanction

Tendering Stage

STAGES IN PROJECT PREPARATION

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3.0 Pavement Design

Pavement is designed to support the wheel loads imposed on it as a result oftraffic moving over it. Additional stresses are also imposed by changes in the

environment. The pavement structure should be strong and thick enough to resistthe stresses and to distribute the external loads on the sub-grade, so that thesub-grade can safely bear it.

3.1 Pavement Courses

Pavement structure consists of one or more layers as given in Figure 2. The topmost layer is surfacing/wearing course, the purpose of which is to providesmooth, abrasion resistant, dust free, reasonably water proof and strong layer.The base, which comes immediately next to surfacing, is the medium throughwhich the stresses imposed are distributed evenly. Additional help in distributing

the loads is provided by the sub-base layer. The sub-grade is the compactednatural earth immediately below the sub-base layer.

Figure 2: Pavement Courses

3.2 Pavement Types

From the structural performance point of view, pavement can be classified as:

1. Flexible2. Rigid3. Semi-rigid4. Composite

A flexible pavement is essentially a layered system, which has low flexuralstrength. However, the external load is largely transmitted to the sub-grade bythe lateral distribution with increasing depth. Because of the low flexural strength,the pavement deflects momentarily under load and rebound to its original levelon removal of load. If the pavement itself is strong and constructed on poor sub-grade, it will fail.

Surfacing/Wearing Course

Base Course

Sub-base Course

Formation Level/Sub-grade

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A rigid pavement derives its capacity to withstand loads from flexural strength orbeam strength (modulus of elasticity), permitting the slab to bridge over minorirregularities in the sub-grade, sub-base or base upon which it rests. The slabitself plays a major role in resisting the wheel load.

A semi-rigid pavement has become popular during recent times. It represents anintermediate state between the flexible and the rigid pavement. Flexural strengthis lower compare to the concrete slab, but it also derives support by the lateraldistribution of loads through the pavement depth as in a flexible pavement.

A composite pavement is the one, which comprises of multiple, structurallysignificant layers of different and sometimes heterogeneous composition.

3.3 Factors Affecting Pavement Design

Pavement design is governed by a number of factors and these are:

Design Life

Traffic factors

Environmental Factors

Sub-grade Strength and Drainage

Availability of good materials locally

3.3.1 Design Life

The design life is defined in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles

that can be carried before strengthening of the pavement is necessary. It issuggested in IRC that National Highways and State Highway should be designedfor a life of 15 years and Expressways and Urban roads may be designed for alonger life of 20 years. For other categories of roads, a design life of 10 to 15years may be adopted.

3.3.2 Traffic Factors

Wheel Load: Pavement wheel load causes stresses and strains in pavementlayers and sub-grade and tyre pressure determines the area of application.

Impact: Imperfections in surface and at joints causes additional load due toimpact.

Repetition of Wheel Loads: Apart from single wheel load design criterion, thecumulative load applications during the design life cause plastic and elasticdeformations.

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Position of Wheel Load Across Pavement: the concentration of wheel load ata localized width of pavement can cause extra distress.

Iron-tyred Vehicle: Bullock carts with iron tyres can cause sever stresses inpavement.

3.3.3 Environmental Factors

Rainfall: Rainfall affects pavement drainage and can be a significant factor.Frost: Frost heave can disrupt pavement structure.Temperature: Variation in temperature can cause stresses in the pavement.

3.3.4 Sub-grade Strength and Drainage

Sub-grade soil type and compacted density significantly affect pavement design.Surface and subsurface drainage of pavement and from adjoining land also

affect sub-grade strength significantly and hence the pavement design.

3.3.5 Availability of good materials locally

The strength of sub-grade soil and granular material in the sub-base layer isgenerally determined in terms of CBR on samples compacted to the specifieddensities at optimum moisture contents and often these samples are soaked for96 hours before testing.

3.4 Design of Rigid Pavement

The early approach to the design of rigid pavements was based onWestergaards analysis. Recent advances in knowledge have led to vastchanges in the design methodology. In the earlier version of IRC:58-1988, thecalculation of load stresses was done as per Westergaards equations modifiedby Teller and Sutherland. The use of these equations has its own limitationbecause they do not take into account the configuration of the wheels. Picket &Rays chart is used for stress computation in the interior portion as well as at theedge of concrete slabs. Using the fundamental concept of Westergaard andPicket & Rays pioneering work, a Computer programme IITRIGID developed atIIT Kharagpur is used for computation of stresses for the edge load condition inthe revised guideline IRC 58-2002 Guidelines for the design of plain jointed rigidpavements for highways. The stress charts for single as well as tandem axlesfor different magnitudes of single and tandem axle loads are given in the revisedIRC guideline. Thus the salient features of the revised guideline are computationof flexural stress due to the placement of single and tandem axle loads along theedge and the introduction of the cumulative fatigue damage approach in thedesign. Most of the work till recently is aimed at modifications and adaptations ofWestergaards work for matching better and actual performance and forsimplifying the analysis of design. The present philosophy in design is based on

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warping stresses developed in the slabs due to temperature variations andbending of the slabs due to axle load. The stress ratio concept is used to accountfor axle load repetitions by which actual repetitions of axle load and allowablerepetitions of axle load are compared as per the recommended designprocedures given in IRC: 58-2002 and IRC: 15-2002.

3.5 Design of Flexible Pavement

The IRC guideline for flexible pavement, published in 1970 was the basis fordesign of flexible pavements in India till recent past. Design procedure wasbased on CBR value and traffic in terms of Commercial vehicles per day (CVPD),the laden weight of a commercial vehicle exceeding 3 tonnes. The requiredthickness is given by design curve.

IRC guidelines were revised in 1984. The features of the new practices were:

1. A set of curves for determining pavement thickness relating the cumulativestandard axles and CBR value to the thickness.2. Revised design thickness curves/blocks relating the traffic in terms of

cumulative standard axles and the CBR value.3. Recommendations on types of pavement material suitable for various

structural layers.

The IRC have recently brought out a second revised version, IRC: 37-2001. Thefeatures of this document are:

a) The design catalogue is based on the results of MORTH study entitledAnalytical Design Approach for Flexible Pavement.b) The flexible pavement has been designed as a four-layer structure.c) The catalogue covers soils having CBR values in the range of 2-10.d) Traffic loading upto 150 million standard axles (msa) have beenconsidered.e) Damaging effect of axle loads has been considered.f) Two different design thickness charts were developed (i) for 1 to 10msa and (ii) for 10 to 150 msa

3.6 Overlay Design

Pavements, which have been in service, deteriorate due to variety of factors. Apart of such deterioration can be maintained by patching and periodic renewals.When the extent of deterioration is beyond maintenance solutions, the pavementneeds an additional overlay. Strengthening will overcome the structuralinadequacy caused by the traffic that has used the pavement so far and willenable the strengthened pavement to withstand the expected traffic in thesubsequent design period.

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3.6.1 Overlay Design for Flexible Pavement

IRC formulated guidelines (IRC: 81-1981) for design of overlay on flexiblepavements. The method is based on measurement of pavement surfacedeflections by the Benkelman beam using CGRA method. Deflection

measurements are very sensitive to temperature and seasonal variation andaccordingly correction measures were suggested. Set of equations wasdeveloped to calculate the required overlay thickness.

The latest version of these guidelines (IRC: 81-1997), has suggested a set ofcurves for determining the overlay thickness. The thickness is in terms ofbituminous macadam (BM) construction (considering conversion factor as 1cmBM is equal to 0.7 cm of DBM or BC/AC).

4.0 Highway Geometric Design of Highways

Geometric design is an important aspect of highway design that deals with visibledimensions of roadway. It is the process where by the layout of the road in theterrain is designed to meet the needs of the road user. The primary geometricdesign elements of a road are the horizontal alignment, vertical alignment andthe cross section. The geometric design standards in India generally are adoptedas per Indian Roads Congress (IRC) guidelines. The optimal design for a giventraffic flow will depend on terrain and other characteristics. Appropriate standardsand combinations of these elements should be defined in relation to the followingcontrols and criteria:

Topography, land use and physical features

Road function and control of access Traffic volume and capacity Design vehicle and vehicle characteristics Design speed and other speed controls Road safety considerations Environmental considerations Economic and financial considerations

The above controls and criteria should be considered not only for new roadconstruction, but also for upgradation and rehabilitation of existing roads. Theprincipal objective of a feasibility or detailed study should be to suggest

recommendations about the geometric design standards for a project, such thatthe optimum balance between road construction cost and road user cost isobtained over the project analysis period. The aim shall be to arrive at a finaldesign, which will meet future traffic requirements and encourage consistencyand uniformity of operation.

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4.1 Elements of Geometric Design

The main elements of geometric design include horizontal alignment, verticalalignment and road cross section. Further, these design elements will alsodepend on terrain classification and design speed. The design elements havebeen explained briefly in subsequent paragraphs.

4.1.1 Terrain Classification

The method of classifying the terrain is given in IRC: 73-1980. IRC: SP 30 hasalso classified the terrain on the basis of quantification of curvature and gradient.

4.1.2 Design Speed

Alignment design is made in compliance with the design speeds for ruralhighways as per IRC 73-1980. IRC 86-1983 also suggests design speedrecommendations for urban roads, but it has recommended using minimum radiiif greater radius is not feasible for economic, technical or environmental reasons.

4.1.3 Horizontal Alignment Standards

a) Minimum radius

When vehicles negotiate a curve, a sideways frictional force is developedbetween tyres and road surface and this friction must be less than the maximumavailable friction. If the bend is to be traversed safely, super elevation will beintroduced to reduce the friction The general relationship for this effect isrecommended in IRC 38:1989.

b) Transition CurvesTransition curves are introduced for comfort, safety and aesthetic reasons,besides permitting gradual application of the super-elevation and possiblewidening of the carriageway in smaller horizontal curves. Clothoids/spirals will beused as transition curves. The minimum spiral lengths required for thecorresponding design speeds and the type of terrain has been recommended inIRC 38: 1989.

c) Sight Distance

Design speed is basically a control on sight distance. The highway facility must

provide users with adequate sight distance to see far enough to safely executeany required movements. Sufficient sight distance should be provided on curvesand gradients. Formulae to calculate the minimum space free of obstructions likehouses, walls, trees etc., is given in IRC 38: 1989.

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d) Setback Distance

The distance from centerline of road, from which the obstruction should becleared to ensure the needed visibility, is called set-back distance. Theminimum requirement of setback distance for various categories of roads hasbeen specified in IRC 38-1989.

e) Extra Widening at Curves

It is common to widen the pavement slightly more than the normal width onhorizontal curves. Widening of pavement is needed on curves due to off tracking.IRC recommends that widening is not required for horizontal curves with radiigreater than 300 m. The extra width of carriageway should be provided onhorizontal curves for radii less than 300m as per IRC 38: 1988.

4.1.4 Vertical Alignment Standards

The vertical alignment of a road has a strong influence upon the constructioncost and operating cost of vehicle. Vertical alignment should be designedaccording to IRC: 73 for rural highways and IRC: 86 for urban highways.

4.1.5 Cross Sectional Standards

a) Right of Way

Right of way requirements for different classes of roads in India is specified inIRC SP 15-1974.

b) Width of Road way and Carriageway

Minimum width requirement for roadway and carriageway for various categoriesof roads have been specified in IRC 86: -1983. The IRC code has also giv-en guidelines and specifications for median and shoulder requirements.

c) Camber

The percentage of camber to be provided will depend on the surface type andthe intensity of rainfall. The standards for various types of surface course in Indiaare specified in IRC 73-1980.

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Environmental protection and ecologically sustainable development has acquiredan important dimension in the present national context. While this situation hasevolved over the last three decades in developed nations, it is only more recentlythat environmental issues are being addressed in developing countries like India.

Pace of developmental activities involving road infrastructure has been showingunprecedented growth in the recent past, Development of highway or roadinfrastructure is not only a catalytic agent, but also a pre-requisite for theeconomic growth of the nation. The basic objective of highway projects isefficiency, equity, environment and energy. By this, it is meant that the highwayprojects are to achieve maximum efficiency in movement at minimumconsumption of energy and distribute benefits equally to the community whilehaving minimum adverse effects on environment and to achieve sustainabledevelopment. Emphasis on the development of infrastructure, including roadsand highways, by taking up important road projects like North-South and East-West highway corridors and Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, is evident,

necessitating the need that environmental concerns are explicitly addressed andincorporated into the project decision making process. General awareness ofenvironmental impacts of road/highway project has been growing in the past.The Government of India has enacted several laws in the last decade, to ensureenvironment against degradation. A systematic environmental assessment canensure environmentally sustainable development through timely incorporation ofenvironmental issues. It is especially relevant for projects involving constructionof a new highway through non-urban or urban areas. Environmental impactassessment (EIA) of such projects can ensure that the development option underconstruction is environmentally sound and sustainable and that anyenvironmental consequences are recognized early in the project cycle andconsidered while preparing project design, and costs of implementing the project.

Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF), Government of India, has beenassigned the responsibility for the appraisal of projects with regard to theirenvironmental implications. Based on the EIA report and issues arising therefrom, decisions are taken by competent authority in respect of projects, includingselection of sites. EIA is a part of environmental clearance procedure, as it is apre-requisite for consideration of development projects for funding byinternational funding agencies like World Bank, United Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP), and Asian Development Bank (ADB) etc. Earlier,Environmental Protection Act (EPA), 1986, in conjunction with Environmental(Protection) Rule, 1986, empowered the Central Government to introducerequirement of formal EIA procedure prior to clearance of the projects likely tohave significant environmental impacts. Subsequently, a list of projects/sectorswas prepared which were expected to carry out EIA studies before MOEF canclear those projects. Road & Highway projects were not included in EIApreview. As a result, till 1994 no comprehensive and authentic EIA was carriedout and submitted to MOEF for environmental clearance, and projects like EastCost Road Project have been in limelight due to their serious environmental

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consequences. However, EIA notification, first issued in January, 1994 (lateramended in May, 1994) (MOEF, 1994) included roads and highway projectsalong with other 28 types of projects and sectors. A total of 29 types of projectsare included in the EIA preview, specifying certain conditions. Another notablefeature of the notification was to treat EIA process as statutory requirement

rather than an administrative requirement. It specified that any road and/orhighway project costing more than Rs. 500 million (US $ 11 million) necessarilyhas to have EIA. It was further specified that in Himalayan region, Tarred roadconstruction, irrespective of cost would require EIA for Environmental Clearance.The above EIA notification of January 1994 has been amended several timessince then. Although, the basic features and sprit of EIA notification has notchanged but some of the provisions have direct implications on the Roads andHighway Projects. As per the existing guidelines (MOEF notification datedOctober 15, 1999) environmental clearance is required for highway projectsexcept projects relating to improvement work including widening andstrengthening of roads with marginal land acquisition (not exceeding 20 m on

either side put together) along the existing alignment provided they do not passthrough ecologically sensitive areas such as national parks, reserve forests etc.Further, vide MOEF notification dated November 21, 2001, bypass (highways bypassing an urban area) would be treated as stand above project and wouldrequire environmental clearance, if project exceeds Rs. 1000 million (US $ 22million). Earlier, vide MOEF notification dated December 13, 2000, defencerelated road construction projects in border areas have been exempted from thepurview of the EIA notification. Further, MOEF notification dated June 13, 2002made public hearing mandatory in all the districts through which the highway(project) is passing.

EIA guidelines for roads and highway projects were prepared by Indian RoadsCongress (IRC), in 1988 (IRC, 1989) and Ministry of Environment & Forest(MOEF) in 1989. (Environmental Guidelines for Rail/ Road /Highway Projects,1989). These guidelines are unsuitable due to their qualitative and generalizedapproach, besides they are inherently incomparable for casting long-termchanges and cumulative impacts.

These guidelines also fail in addressing the issues especially when roads passthrough environmentally sensitive areas like forest, waste lands, hilly regions,areas with tribal population etc. The cumulative environmental consequences ofsuch projects need to be brought to fore on scientific basis. It is apparent that, ason date, the planning and designing of highways is normally done, almost purely,on the basis of economic and traffic flow considerations. However, theenvironmental impacts of the road construction activities and the implications ofair and noise pollution caused by the vehicular movement on the roads and theneed of evolving an efficient approach to deal with such effects are now receivingfocussed attention. In India, EIA for road and highway projects is carried out onlyafter the route alignment has been finalized. Therefore, EIA is limited to identify,

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predict and evaluate various impacts along the route alignment or along theroads if upgradation is being carried out.

6.0 Social Impacts Studies

Socio-Economic impacts are also very much important in any road/highwayproject and should be given due weightage. The National Highway Developmentproject (NHDP) under the auspices of National Highways Authority of India(NHAI), Govt. of India, has also brought in the concept of Social Impact

Assessment (SIA) along with environmental considerations into decision-making/project implementation process in India. Social Impact Assessment of anyinfrastructure project (including Highway projects) is a prerequisite for theprojects funded by multi-lateral funding agencies. These agencies have made itmandatory to conduct SIA during the design stage to avoid, reduce or mitigatepotential negative impacts of project action and enhance positive impacts,sustainability and developmental benefits. Various SIA studies carried out for

NHDP has revealed that the approach and methodology for such studies vary fordifferent projects depending upon whether the project is WB/ADB funded orfunded by NHAI or by same Government agency (Sharma 2004). These projectshave also highlighted the need of formulating comprehensive Resettlement andRehabilitation (R&R) policy/guidelines in India and role of NGOs in implementingthem for the benefit of Project Affected Persons (PAPs) or Project AffectedFamilies (PAFs).

Though India has a strong environmental policy framework, but itsimplementation is inadequate and much remains to be done to meet theenvironmental challenges of rapid urban growth and infrastructure development.The key reason for continued environmental degradation in India is due toinadequate implementation and enforcement of environmental policies, poorunderstanding of cumulative effect of development and economic policies thatprovide disincentives for environmental consideration.

6.1 Social Issues in Rural Road Projects

Under the PMGSY programme, while preparing the DPR, the PIU will hold aconsultations with the local community through the mechanism of the GramPanchayat (Lowest level of rural local self Government) in order to determine themost suitable alignment, sort out issues of land availability (including forest land),moderate and adverse social and environmental impact and elicit necessarycommunity participation in the programme. For this it is proposed that the PIU willorganize an informal Transect Walk along the proposed alignment. It shouldconsider the following points and incorporate it with the DPR report.

The transect walk shall be done by the Assistant Engineer or JuniorEngineer of PIU accompanied by the Patwari (village land recordkeeper)/village Development Officer and the Pradhan/Panch of the

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Based on Vehicle Registration Data:Vehicle registration data is obtained fromMotor Transport Statistics of India. Based on this data it is possible to predict thegrowth rate of vehicle registration of each individual vehicle through regressionanalysis. This technique too is adopted at feasibility stage/ level.

Elasticity of Transport Demand:Long term forecasting of the projected traffic,during the time horizon of the study, is required for designing highway andassessing the economic viability of the proposed investment for improving thefacility. In view of this, the projected future traffic incorporates analysis of some ofthe key socio-economic characteristics and rate of change expected during thestudy period in the project influence area. In India, the computed elasticities arecomparable to the World Banks recommended elasticities. This method isadopted at detailed project preparation stage.

The Transport consultants and research organizations are using SPSS, MS

Excel and Excel STAT software models to find out the future traffic growth.

7.1 Appraisal Tools (including HDM-4 Models)

There are many appraisal tools like Road Investment Decision Model (RIDM)based on the Road User Cost Study (RUCS), which are used in India foreconomic analysis of different project options. Updation of the road user coststudy was, later on, taken up by Central Road Research Institute to incorporatethe advancements in the automobile industry in the light of the introduction ofnew technology vehicles. A window-based software was developed based on theUpdated Road User Cost Study, which is used in India for ascertaining theeconomic viability of projects at pre-feasibility stage and feasibility stage.

HDM -4 model is widely used for Strategic Option Studies (SOS), Pre-feasibilitystudies and Feasibility studies for economic analysis of a network of roads. It iscommon that many World Bank / Asian Development Bank funded projects useHDM -4 Strategy Analysis, Programme Analysis and Project Analysis tools toprioritize various investment decisions on a network level. HDM tool were used insome of the projects in India, which include Kerala State Transport Project(KSTP), Andhra Pradesh State Highways Project (APSHP) and HaryanaHighway Upgrading Project (HHUP). HDM-4 was also used for the first time inIndia for a four lanning project of a National Highway in the state of Orissa. Keyeconomic indicators like internal rate of return, net present value, incrementalbenefit/ cost ratio etc are used to prioritize the investment decisions for differentnetwork of roads. The road deterioration models are used to predict theroughness and life cycle cost analysis of different project options. PavementOption Studies, which is mandatory in major highway projects is done by the lifecycle cost analysis as outlined by HDM-4. Road user effects models and roadwork effects are used for finalizing the maintenance programmes in some of the

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states in India. Exhaustive studies like Expenditure Budgeting Modeling (EBM)are not generally used by Public work Departments and its use are largelyconfined to the research fraternity in India. CRRI has been identified as nodalagency for training and dissemination of HDM-4 in Asia. In this regard, severaltraining programmes have been organized in India and abroad in recent past.

Attempts are also being made to use Roads Economic Decision (RED) Model foreconomic analysis of rural roads.

Currently, the efforts are being made to assess the impacts in terms of post-construction evaluation of roads projects especially for the NHDP and PMGSY-rural roads on the economy, environment and society in general.

******References

Central Road Research Institute [CRRI], (1963), History of Road Development in

India. New Delhi.

Central Road Research Institute [CRRI], (1982), Road user cost studies in India,Final Report, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi.

Central Road Research Institute [CRRI], (2001), Updatation of Road User CostData, prepared for Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, New Delhi.

IRC, (1984), Twenty Year Road Development Plan 1981-2001, prepared byIndian Roads Congress for Ministry of Surface Transport, Government of India.

IRC, (1988), Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines for Highway Projects,Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.

IRC:SP:30 (1993), Manual on Economic Evaluation of Highway Projects in India(First Revision), Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.

IRC, (2001), Road Development Plan Vision: 2021, Government of India, Ministryof Road Transport and Highways.

IRC:SP: 20 (2002), Rural Roads Manual, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.

Ministry of Rural Development [MORD], (2001), Manual for Preparation of DistrictRural Roads Plan for PMGSY, Government of India.

MORD (2004), Guidelines for Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY),Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India.

Planning Commission, Fifth Five Year Plan, Government of India, New Delhi.

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Planning Commission, Sixth Five Year Plan, Government of India, New Delhi.Planning Commission, Seventh Five Year Plan , Government of India, NewDelhi.

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Ninth Five Year Plan Document (1997-2002), Vol. I & II, A Nabhi Publication,Februrary 2000.

Manual for Construction and Supervision of Bituminous Works, Indian RoadsCongress, New Delhi, 2001

IRC (2001) Design of Flexible Pavement by CBR Method, (IRC: 37-2001),IndianRoads Congress, New Delhi.

IRC (1999) Overlay Design of Flexible Pavement by Benkelman Beam Method,(IRC: 81-1999),Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.

IRC (1968) Route Marker Signs For National Highways, (IRC:2-1968), IndianRoads Congress, New Delhi.

IRC (1980) Type Designs for Kilometer Stones, (IRC: 8-1980), Indian RoadsCongress, New Delhi.

IRC (1967) Type Designs for Boundary Stones, (IRC: 25-1967), Indian RoadsCongress, New Delhi.

IRC (1967) Type Designs for 200- Meter Stones, (IRC: 25-1967),Indian RoadsCongress, New Delhi.

IRC (1969) Route Marker Signs for State Routes, (IRC: 31-1969),Indian RoadsCongress, New Delhi.

IRC (1969) Standard for Vertical and Horizontal Clearances of Overhead ElectricPower and Telecommunication Lines Related to Roads, (IRC: 32-1969), IndianRoads Congress, New Delhi.

IRC (1988) Guide Lines for Design of Horizontal Curves For Highways AndDesign Tables, (IRC: 38-1988),Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.

IRC (1976) Recommendation about the Alignment Survey and Geometric Designof Hill Roads, (IRC: 65-1976),Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.

IRC (2001) Recommendation Practice for Traffic Rotaries, (IRC: 52-2001),IndianRoads Congress, New Delhi.

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