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EarlyTamilPoeticsbetween N āṭ yaśāstraandRāgamālā.

HermanTieken

Tothememoryof GodardSchokker,whointroducedmeto

PrākritandApabhraṃśaliteratureandthusgavemethekeyto

Caṅkampoetry

Introduction1

TheearliestśāstrictextinTamilisTolk ā ppiyam.2Itispartof theso-

calledCaṅkamcorpus,whichotherwiseincludeseightanthologiesof

poems.Tolk ā ppiyamdescribes,orprescribes,thegrammarandpoetics

of thisliterarytradition.Theindebtednessof itsgrammaticalpartin

Books1and2totheSanskrittradition,andinparticulartheAindraor

Kātantraschoolof grammar,hasbeenlongrecognized.3Itinvolves

modesof analysisaswellasterminologyandshowsthattheTamil

1IliketothankThomasCruijsenforhisadviceconcerningtheuseof terminologyof musictheory.2Theearliestevidenceof aśāstrictradition(asagainstśāstrictexts)inTamilisformedbytheso-calledTamil-Brāhm īinscriptions, whichdatefrombetweenthesecondcenturyBCandthethirdADapproximately.Evenif thisdatehasbeenbasedonweakevidence,asacorpustheTamil-Brāhm īinscriptionsareindeedprobablymucholderthananyof theothersources,literaryaswellasinscriptional, availableforTamil.Theinfluenceof aśāstrictraditionintheTamil-Brāhm īinscriptionsisevidentintheorthography, whichismarkedbyastrikingeconomywhichisachievedbyaccountingforallophones.Inputtingtogethertheinventoryof theTamil-Brāhm īgraphemes,whichpresentsaselectionand,wherenecessary,anadaptationof theNorthIndianBrāhm īscript,certainvoicedplosivesof thelatterwereignoredasinTamiltheseweremerelypositionallyconditionedallophonesof thecorresponding voicelessones.Therecognitionof thisfeatureof theTamilsound

systemtestifiestoanadvancedknowledgeof,andexperiencein,linguisticsanalysisonthepartof thescribesresponsibleforthesefirstattemptsatwritingTamil.However,asindicated,theanalysisof Tamilphonologydidnottakeplaceinavacuum.ThestartingpointwastheNorthIndianBrāhm īalphabet,which,wemayassume,wasaccompaniedbyalinguistictraditionof itsown.Thismeansthatstudyof thegrammarof Tamil,of whichtheTamil-Brāhm īinscriptionsarethefirstproducts,didnotstartindependentlyof theNorthIndiangrammaticaltradition.Thispictureisconfirmedinthelaterperiod,forwhichwehavepropergrammarsof Tamil,theearliestof whichis,assaid,Tolk ā ppiyam.3SeeBurnell1875:8-20andScharfe1973.



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traditiondidnotstartfromscratchbutwasinitsorigininspiredby

earlierNorthIndianexamples.

FromthepoeticpartinBook3,knownasPorul atik āram,a

similarpictureemerges.4Sometopicshavebeenborroweddirectly

fromtheSanskritliterarytradition.Thisapplies,forinstance,tothe

treatmentof similes(uvamai,Sktupamā)andmoods(meyppāṭṭ u,Skt

bhāva)inChapters7and8respectively.Itmayalsoinvolvedetails,

suchasthedistinctionbetweennāṭ aka va ḻakkuandulakiyal va ḻakku

introducedin1.56/1003,whichcorrespondstotheonebetweenthe

pairnāṭ yadharmī andlokadharmī of the N āṭ yaśāstra(13.70ff.);or

partsof chapters,suchastheenumerationof the32uttikal in

9.112/1614,whichcorrespondtothe32tantrayuktismentionedin,

amongothertexts,the Arthaśāstra(Chapter15).

Inthisprocessof undressingTolk ā ppiyamoneusuallystops

shortattheclassificationof poetryinsevenso-calledtiṇai,ortypes,

laiddowninPorul atik āram,Chapters1-5.Thispartof theliterary

theoryisclaimedtobeapurelyindigenousinventionindependentof

anyinfluencefromtheNorth.Inwhatfollows,however,Iwilltryto

showthatitisbasedoncategoriesderivedfromatheoryof musicof

NorthIndian,Sanskrit,origin.Theearliesttextualsourceforitisthe

N āṭ yaśāstra(beforethefifthcenturyAD).However,themusical

theoryunderlyingTamilpoetics,if indeedrelatedtotheoneoutlined

inthe N āṭ yaśāstra,isalreadyfarremovedfromit.Itappearstohave

followedthesametrajectoryasthelaterNorthIndianRāgaand

Rāgamālāsystems.Theaimof thisarticleis,amongotherthings,totry

tosituatetheTamilliterarytheorymoreexactlybetweenthesevarious

NorthIndianmusictheories.

TheTamilliterarytheory

4SeeMarr1985:52-68.



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OldTamilCaṅkampoetryisdividedintotwogenres.5Ontheonehand

wehavepoemsdepictinglifeinsmallvillagesinthecountryside,on

theotherpoemsevokingaso-calledheroicsociety.Thelatterheroic

poemsfeaturekingsdoingbattleandbardstryingtomakealivingby

praisingthesekings’heroicdeeds.Inthevillagepoemsfarmers

againstalloddstryingtomakethebestof theirlovelives.Forthelove

poemsPorul atik āramhascoinedthetermakam,or“interior”andfor

theheroicpoemstheterm pu ṟ am,or“exterior”.InPorul atik āramthe

scenesof thepoems,whicharetheoreticallyinfiniteinnumber,have

beenbroughtdowntosevendistinct“types”,ortiṇais,thatis,seven

forthevillagepoemsand(twotimes)sevenfortheheroicpoems.In

whatfollowsIwouldliketodrawattentiontothenamesgiventothe

differenttypesof Akam,whichbesidebeingnamesof typesof poetic

scenesappeartobenamesof specificmelodictypesaswell.Inthe

caseof thenamesforthePuṟamtypes,thoughsimilarinnature,this

othersetof meaningsisabsent.Mostlikelytheyweremerelyinvented

tocreateasystemidenticaltotheoneof Akam.However,thisrequires

aseparatestudy,whichfallsoutsidethescopeof thepresentone.

Of thesevenAkamtypes,themiddlefiveareassignedto

specifickindsof landscapeandarenamedafterplantsorflowers

typicalof thoselandscapes.Thus,scenesinvolvingsecretmeetingsof

lovers( puṇartal)aresetinhillsandmountains(maivarai),andare

referredtobythemountainflowerku ṟ iñci.Thosedescribingasulking

wife(ūṭ al)arefoundinavillageamidstricefields(t ī mpuṉal).This

typeof sceneisnamedafterthemarutamtree.Awomanwaiting

(iruttal)forherlovertoshowupisportrayedagainstabackgroundof

aforest(k āṭ u)inSpring,theseasonof love,whenthemullai-jasmine

blooms.Situationsinvolvingwomenanxiouslywaitingfortheirlovers

5Foranoverviewof theTamilliterarytheory,see,forinstance,Zvelebil1973:85-110andMarr1985:14-68.



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aresetontheseafront( perumaṇal)amongthefishermencommunity

andarecalledneytal,afterthewhiteIndianwater-lily.Allpoemsdeal

onewayortheotherwiththeimpossibilityof eitherloversormanand

wifetobetogetherandmakeloveundisturbedly.Aspecificvariation

of thethemeof separationisthatof themantravelling( pirital)in

summerduringmiddaythroughadesiccated jungleandlongingforhis

wife.Thesepoemsarenamedafterthe pālaiflowertypicalof such

dried-uptracts.Apartfromtheabovementionedlovesituations(uri)

likethesecretmeetingandsulking,eachlandscapeisalso

characterizedbyitsownseasonandtimeof theday( peru- and

ci ṟ upo ḻuturespectively).Forinstance,theku ṟ iñciscenestakeplacein

winterinthemiddleof thenight,andthoseof pālaiinsummerat

midday.Inaddition,eachlandscapehasitsownnativematter(karu),

whichincludesgods,localfood,animals,plants,birds,musical

instruments(ormelodies)andoccupations.Thus,atypicaloccupation

of themountainpeopleishuntingandslashandburnagriculture,and

theirstaplefoodismilletandthegodappearingamongthemis

Murukaṉ.Typicalanimalsaremonkey,tigerandpeacock.

Besidethesefivetypestherearetwomore,thefirstandthe

seventh,whichare,however,notassociatedwithaparticular

landscapeornamedafteraplantorflower.Theyarecalledkaikkil ai

and peruntiṇairespectively,tothemeaningsof whichtermsIwill

comebacklater.Thedefinitionof kaikkil aiin53/1000consistsof a

descriptionof asceneinvolvingayounggirlandamantaking

advantageof hershynessbyinterpretinghersilenceasasignof

agreement:

kaikkil aiinvolvesscenesinwhichaman,frustratedand

unhappyinthecompanyof ayounggirlwhoisnot(yet)ready

forlove,afterhavingtriedtoremovetheobstacleswhichkeep



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themapartbykindwordsaswellasbythreats,ashegetsno

responsegoesaheadandenjoyshimself makinglovewithher.6

Whileinkaikkil aithethwartedloveriskeepingaclearhead,in

peruntiṇai(54/1001)heismakingmoredesperatemoves.Oneof these

isridingtheruggedtrunkof thepalmyrapalm(ēṟ iya maṭ al)infrontof

thehouseof thegirlwhohasrejectedhim.Inanotherhehas

completelylosthismindfromanexcessof desire(t ēṟ utal o ḻinta

k āmattu mikuti ṟ am)andinthethirdhetakesrecoursetobrutalforce

(mikka k āmattu miṭ al).Inthisrespectthefourthsituation(actuallythe

secondintheenumeration,comingafterridingthepalmyra)falls

somewhatoutof tune:itpresentsaloverwhoistooold

(il amait ī rti ṟ am).7Whileinkaikkil aiitisthegirlwhoishelpless,in

peruntiṇaiitisthemanwhoisandasaresultof thatresortsto

desperatemeans.AsIwillarguebelowtheseaspectsareindeed

somehowexpressedintherespectiveterms.Thepositionof thesetwo

types“outside”thegroupof fivemayimplythatthesituationsorthe

meansresortedtowerenotconsideredproper,notsomuchfroma

poeticpointof view,forinthepoemsmendoridepalmyratreesand

dotrytowinveryyounggirls,asfromapurelymoralpointof view.8

Whatisstrange,though,isthatonlyfor peruntiṇaiallowancesare

made:in55/1002,asakindof afterthought,itisstatedthatthefour6 k āmañ cālāv il amaiyōl vayiṉ

ē mañ cālāv iṭ umpai yeytinaṉmaiyun t ī maiyum eṉṟ iru ti ṟ att āṟ ṟ aṉṉotum aval oṭ un tarukkiya puṇarttic

col etir pe ṟāaṉ colli yiṉ pu ṟ al pullit t ōṉṟ uṅ kaikkil aik ku ṟ ippē .7

ēṟ iya maṭ a ṟ ṟ i ṟ am il amait ī rti ṟ ant ēṟ utal o ḻinta k āmattu mikuti ṟ aṉ mikka k āmattu miṭ aloṭ u tokaiicceppiya nāṉkum peruntiṇaik ku ṟ ippē .

8Forreferencesto“ridingthepalmyra”,see,eg,Ku ṟ untokai17and32;formentryingtoseduceveryyounggirlsplayinginthesand,makingsandcastles,andplayingwithdolls,see,forinstance, Akanāṉūṟ u60,andHart1975:249.



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scenesof peruntiṇaimayalsobefoundinthetype(s)mentioned

before.9

ItshouldbenotedthatIamnotconcernedherewiththe

questionof whetherthereisoverlapbetweenthevarioustypes

distinguishedinPorul atik āramorwhatistheexactrelationship

betweenthisclassificationandthepoems.Interestingly,thetheory

itself,byintroducingtheconceptof tiṇaimayakkam,orconfusionof

type(14/961),allowsforaconsiderabledegreeof overlap.Atypical

caseof tiṇaimayakkamiswhenanimalsof onetypearefoundinpoems

of anothertype.InsteadIamconcernedwiththeoriginof theliterary

theory.InthisconnectionIwouldliketodrawattentiontothefactthat

thenamesof thesevenAkamtypesarealsoinuseastechnicalterms

frommusic.Whilekaikkil aiandtiṇaiin peruntiṇaiseemtobeoriginal

musicalterms,theuseof theplantnamesastechnicaltermsinmusic

theoryhas,asweshallsee,amorecomplicatedhistory.Unfortunately,

thecontextsinwhichthemusicaltermsarefoundinCaṅkampoetry

itself areoftennotveryhelpfulfordeterminingtheirmeanings.Before

turningtotheinstancesintheCaṅkampoemsIwillthereforefirsthave

alookattheplantnamesasmusicaltermsintheCilappatik āram.This

textaboundsindescriptionsof performancesof music,songanddance

andthetermsinquestionareoftenfoundincontextwhichspeakfor

themselves.

Theplantnamesastechnicaltermsfrommusic

TheCilappatik āramcontainsseveralinstancesshowingtheuseof the

plantnamesku ṟ iñci, pālai,mullaiandmarutamasmusicalterms.(In

theCilappatik āramthewordneytalisnotfoundassuch.)Thus,in

Cilappatik āram3.149wereadabouta pāṟ paṭ a niṉṟ a pālaippaṇ.The

word paṇin pālaippaṇsuggeststhat pālaiisamelodytypewitha

9 muṉṉaiya nāṉku muṉaiyata ṟ keṉ pa.



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musicalscaleof itsown.Inthisrespect28.33containsmorespecific

information.Thepassagereferstoatraditionaltype(varumu ṟ ai)of

pālaiplayedontheluteinwhichthekuralnoteistakenasthekural,or

tonic.10Thefollowingtwolines(34-35)speakof asweetku ṟ iñci,

whichisproducedbyplayingthetuttamnoteasthekural.11

Furthermore,intheso-calledcevva ḻippālaithekuralis joinedwith

(cē r )thekaikkil ai,orthethirdnote,toformachord(7.47),12andinthe

vil arippālaiforthatsamepurposethefirstnote(kural)is joinedtothe

fifth(il i)(7.48.).13

Bothluteandflutecanbetunedaccordingtotheseparticular

scales.Cilappatik āram3.70-94givesadescriptionof thisprocessof

tuningforthe pālaimode.IquotethetranslationbyDikshitar:

Thentherewasthemasterof theluteof thefourteenstrings.

Inordertoproducetheseven pālainoteshewouldconjointly

soundtherespectivestringsinthelute,knownasthet āram,and

10 kural kuralāka varumu ṟ aip pālaiyil.InDikshitar’stranslation:“[Theyplayed]a pālai-paṇwhichwasthenaturalresultof takingthekural(basicnote)itself asthetonic(kural)”.11 tuttaṅ kuralākat toṉmu ṟ aiy iya ṟ kaiyiṉ

ant īṅ ku ṟ iñci.InDikshitar’stranslation:“[Thentheyplayed]thebeautifulku ṟ iñji-paṇinthetraditionalmodewhichwastheresultof takingtuttam(thesecondnoteof thescale)askural”.12 āṅkaṉam pāṭ iyav ā yi ḻai piṉṉarum

k āntaṇ melvira ṟ kaikkil ai cē rkuralt ī ntoṭ aic cevva ḻippālaiy icaiy e ḻī ip

pāṅkiṉi ṟ pāṭ iyōr paṇṇup peyartt āl .Or,inDikshitar’stranslation: “SingingthusinthemodeinwhichKōvalaṉhadsung,thebeautifuldamsel(Mādavi)againexhibitedwithherrosyfingersthecharmof the

ś evva ḻippālaiinwhichthekaikkil aiwas joinedwithkural.Shesanginsuitablestrainsanewmelody-type( paṇ).”13 nul aiyar vil ari noṭ itarunt ī mpālai

il ikil aiyi ṟ kol l av i ṟ utt ā yāṉ mālaiil ikil aiyi ṟ kol l av i ṟ utt ā yā y maṉṉī yēṟ kol aivallā y eṉṉāvi kol vāḻi mālai.

InDikshitar’stranslation:“Oevening,duringthatcharmingv[l ]arippālaipeculiartotheresidentsof themaritimetract,youmadeil iblendedwithkil ai(kaikkil ai).Oevening,evenasyoumadeil i joinwithkil ai,youareabletotakeawaymylife.Pleaseyourself.Mayyoulivelong”.



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thekural,andbringingthemtothecentralpartof thelutehe

wouldtunethekaikkil aipartof theinstrument.Similarly,

touchingtheotherstoutstringonthet āramsideandtheother

twoslenderstringsonthekuralsideandbringingthemtothe

centralpartof thelute,hewouldtunethevil aripartof the

instrument.

Thenproceedingfromu ḻai,themostslenderstring,uptothe

kaikkil ai,hewouldplayuponallthefourteenstringsandthus

producethecempālainote.Inadefiniteorderthenoteswould

arise,e.g. paṭ umalaippālaifromkaikkil ai,cevva ḻippālaifrom

tuttam,k ōṭ ippālaifromt āram,vil arippālaifromvil ari,

mēṟ cempālaifromil i – thusarethecombinationseffected.In

thelute,thenotesbecomelowerandlowerastheypassoverto

theleft(sideof theinstrument).Itis justtheoppositeinthe

flute.Theexpertinthelutecanmixthelowandhighandthe

middlingnoteswithapleasingeffect.14

14Dikshitar1939:101.TheTamiltextsreads:

ī r ēḻ toṭ utta cemmu ṟ aik k ē l viyiṉ ōr ēḻ pālai ni ṟ uttal vēṇṭ ivaṉmaiyi ṟ kiṭ anta t āra pākamummeṉmaiyi ṟ kiṭ anta kuraliṉ pākamummeykkil ai narampi ṟ kaikkil ai kol l ak kaikkil aiy o ḻinta pākamum po ṟ puṭ ait tal ar āt t āram vil arikk ī ttuk kil aiva ḻip paṭṭ aṉal āṅk ē kil aiyumtaṉkil aiy a ḻivu kaṇṭ aval vayi ṟ cē raēṉai makal iruṅ kil aiva ḻic cē ramē letu ḻaiyil i k īḻatu kaikkil aivampu ṟ u marapi ṟ cempālaiy ā yati ṟ utiy ātiy ākav āṅkavai

pe ṟ umu ṟ ai vanta pe ṟṟ iyiṉīṇk ātu paṭ umalai cevvāḻi pakarum pālaiy eṉak kural kuralākat ta ṟ ki ḻamai tirintapiṉ maṉṉataṉ vakaiyē mu ṟ aimaiyi ṟ ṟ irint āṅ kil imutalākiyav etirpaṭ u ki ḻamaiyumk ōṭ i vil ari mēṟ cempālaiyṉanīṭ ik kiṭ anta k ē l vik kiṭ akkaiyiṉ ṇainarampuṭ aiyaṉav aṇaivu ṟ ak koṇṭāṅ kiyāḻmēṟ pālaiy iṭ amu ṟ ai meliyak ku ḻaṉmēṟ k ōṭ i valamu ṟ ai meliya



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Theexpressionmullaiyant īṅku ḻalinCilappatik āram17.21.3may

accordinglybetakentorefertoaflutetunedinthemullaimode.

Itistemptingtoconnectthese paṇs,ormelodictypes,withthe

NorthIndianr āgas.TheCilappatik āram,however,usestheterm jāti,

which,if nottothedirectprecursorof ther āga,referstoanearlier,

closelyrelatedconcept.15SeeinthisconnectionCilappatik āram8.39-

41,inwhichthemarutamcāti(Skt jāti)issaidtoconsistof fourtypes,

calledakanilaimarutam, pu ṟ anilaimarutam,arukiyaṉmarutamand

perukiyaṉmarutamrespectively.16Asistobenoticed,thefirsttwo

varietieshavenames,akamand pu ṟ am,whicharealsofoundinthe

literarytheory.

If thewordsku ṟ iñci,mullai, pālaiandmarutam(asindicatedin

theCilappatikaramnoinstancesof neytalasatermfrommusicare

found)referallfourtomelodictypes,kaikkil aifallsoutof tune.Aswe

haveseenaboveinegCilappatik āram7.47,itisthetermforan

individualnote.Thetermtiṇaiasin peruntiṇaiisextremelyrareinthe

Cilappatik āramandisnotusedinthattextastermformmusic.

If wenowturntotheCaṅkampoemsproper,inthemtheword

kaikkil aiisfoundonlyonce,namelyinParipāṭ al 11.136inthe

expressionkaikkil aikk āmam.kaikkil aiclearlydoesnotdenoteanote

herebutisusedinitstechnical,literarymeaningof “mismatchedlove”

here.Tothisinstanceof kaikkil aiinthismeaninginaCaṅkamtextI

willcomebackbelow.Thewordtiṇaiasamusicaltermisnotfoundin

Caṅkamtexts.Inthefewknowninstancesof theworditseemsto

valivu melivuñ camaṉum ellām

poliyak k ōtta pulamaiyōṉuṭ aṉ.

15 N āṭ yaśāstra28.36hasthecompound jātir āga.16 akanilaimarutamum pu ṟ anilaimarutamum

arukiyaṉmarutamum perukiyaṉmarutamumnālvakaic cātiyu nalampe ṟ a nōkki.

InDikshitar’stranslation:“Shetestedherskillinthefourmodes[cāti]of ahanilai-marudam, pu ṟ anilai-marudam,[m]aruhiyal-marudam,and perukiyal-marudam”.



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mean“family,clan”,asinPu ṟ anāṉūṟ u373:18,vil aṅkutiṇai vē ntar

“kingsbelongingtoanillustriousfamilyorclan”.Inthemajorityof

instancesthewordsku ṟ iñci,mullai,neytal,marutamand pālaireferto

therespectiveplants.Inafewinstances,however,theyrefertopieces

of music.Casesinpointare Akanāṉūṟ u 102:6(ku ṟ iñci pāṭ a,“while

theysinga/theku ṟ iñci”), Na ṟṟ iṇai255:2(ku ṟ iñci pāṭ i ... k āṉavar ,“the

forestpeople,singa/theku ṟ iñci”), Aiṅku ṟ unūṟ u408:1( pāṇar mullai

pāṭ a“whilesingerssinga/themullai”)andPu ṟ anāṉūṟ u389:17

(makal ir neytal k ē l aṉmār ,“mayyourwomenneverheara/theneytal”).

Thefirstimpressionfromthesecasesisthatwearedealingwithsongs

typicalof therespectiveregions,forinstance,ku ṟ iñcibeingasong

typicalof themountains.17However,theinstanceof mullaiinthe

phrasemullai nal yāḻ pāṇain Aiṅku ṟ unūṟ u478.5,whichmaybe

comparedwithmullaiyant īṅku ḻalinCilappatik āram17.21.3,seemsto

suggeststhatthesesongsarealsocharacterizedbytheirownmelodic

modeormusicalscale:“Osingerwiththegoodlute(tuned)inmullai”.

Assuchtheyseemtobecapableof expressingcertainmoods.

Takeneytal inPu ṟ anāṉūṟ u194,whichisasongorapieceof music

expressingsadness,incasethesadnessof widows:18

Fromonehousethesoundof aneytalemerges,

fromtheotheramelody( pāṇi)onadrum(smeared)withcool

mud.

Womenwhohavetheirmenwiththem( puṇarnt ōr )

donornamentsof flowers!

Womenwhosemenhavegoneoff ( pirint ōr )

pourdowntearsfromgrieving,kohl-rimmedeyes.

Surely,theonewhocreatedthiswordhasnovirtues.17Seeku ṟ iñci,marutamandmullaiinPorunar āṟṟ uppaṭ ai218-221,quotedbelow.18SeealsoPu ṟ anāṉūṟ u389:17,quotedabove:makal ir neytal k ē l aṉmār ,“mayyourwomenneverheara/theneytal”.



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Thisworldisanunhappyplace,

Onlythosewhoknowitsrealnature

willknowhappiness.19

InPu ṟ anāṉūṟ u149marutamreferstoamelodyparticularlysuitedfor

themorning.Assuchitismentionedheresidebysidetoone

particularlysuitedfortheevening:

Nal l i!Mayyoulivelong!Nal l i!

Intheeveningmymenperforma/themarutam

ontheirlutes

andinthemorningacevva ḻi.

Theyhaveforgottenthepropertimeforeach

becauseof yourlargesseinthegivingof gifts.20

jāti,r āgaandRāgamālā

InthesetwoPu ṟ anāṉūṟ upoemsthemelodictypesof neytaland

marutamareassociatedwithaparticularmoodandaparticulartimeof

thedayrespectively.21Thesesameassociationsarealsofoundinthe

19 ōriṉeytal ka ṟ aṅkav ōril

ī rntaṇ mu ḻaviṉ pāṇi tatumpap puṇarnt ōr pūvaṇiy aṇiya pirint ōr paitaluṇkaṇ paṉivārpu ṟ aippap paṭ aitt ōṉ maṉṟ av appaṇ pilāl aṉ iṉṉātammav ivvulakamiṉiya k āṇkitaṉ iyalpuṇarnt ōr ē .

20 nal l i vāḻiyō nalli nal l eṉ

mālai marutam paṇṇik k ālaik kaiva ḻi maruṅki ṟ cevva ḻi paṇṇivaravemar ma ṟ antaṉar atu nī

puravukkaṭ aṉ pūṇṭ a vaṇmaiyāṉē . 21SeealsoCilappatik āram7.48,quotedabove(n.12),foraparticular pālaiperformedintheevening(mālai).InPati ṟṟ uppattu65 pālaiisassociatedwith,orbringingabout,amelancholymood( paiyul ).Lines14-15:t ī ntoṭ ai narampiṉ pālaivallōṉ / paiyul u ṟ uppi ṟ paṇṇup peyartt āṅku,“justasaskilledluteplayeronsweet-tunedstrings playsthevarious pālaiwhicharefullof melancholicsentiments”.Theword pālaiinthispassagemightwellbestandingforalutetunedin pālai.



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poeticaltheoryof Porul atik āramundertheheadingsof uriand

ci ṟ upo ḻuturespectively.However,theyarealsofoundinNorthIndian

r āga system(andtheso-calledRāgamālāpaintings),andsomething

likeitisalsofoundinthe jātisystemasoutlinedinthe N āṭ yaśāstra.

Indianmusictheory,fromthe N āṭ yaśāstraonwards,hasbeen

concernedwithnotesandscalesandtheireffectson,andpowerto

produce,moodsandsentiments.Inthetraditionthenotesandscales

haveservedasfocalpointsaroundwhichhavebeenbroughttogether

allkindsof situationswhichcontributedtotheproductionof the

differentmoods.Thus,inthe N āṭ yaśāstrathe jātiswereconnected

withtherasas.Afterhavingdealtwiththeproductionandcomposition

of thevarious jātisin28.37-141, N ātyaśāstra29.1-13continueswith

assigningrasastothevarious jātiswithreferencetotheirdominant

notes.Forinstance,29.1:

Theś aḍ jod ī cyavat ī andṣaḍ jamadhyamā jātiscanbeusedfor

theś r ṅgāra(erotic)andhāsya(comic)moodsasthemadhyama

and pañcamanotesabound(areamplified)inthem.22

Itispossibletodrawupaschemelikethefollowing(thenumbersafter

the jātisrefertotheś lokasin N āṭ yaśāstra,Chapter29):23

jāti rasa

ṣaḍ jod ī cyavat ī ,ṣaḍ jamadhyā (1) ś r ṅgāra, hāsya

22 ṣaḍ jod ī cyavat ī caica ṣaḍ jamadhyā tathaiva ca

madhyapañcamabāhulyāt k āryā ś r ṅgārahāsyayoḥ.23Foramorecompletetable,seeNijenhuis1992:32.



13

ṣāḍ jī ,ār ṣabhī (2) vī ra,raudra,adbhuta

naiṣād ī ,ṣaḍ jakaiś ik ī (3) karuṇa

dhaivat ī (4) bī bhatsa,bhayānaka

gāndhār ī ,raktagāndhār ī (5) karuṇa

madhyamā , pañcamī ,nandayant ī , ś r ṅgāra,hāsya

gāndhārapañcamī ,madhyamod ī cyavā(6)

k ārmāravī ,āndhr ī ,gāndhārod ī cyavā(7) vī ra,raudra,adbhuta

kaiś ik ī (7) bī bhatsa,bhayānaka

ṣaḍ jamadhyā(12) allrasas

The jātishavegraduallylosttheirimportanceandcametobe

subsumedunderther āgas.Nārada’sSaṅgī tamakaranda(between700

and1100)introducedaclassificationintomale,femaleandneutral

r āgas.Thisclassificationisbasedontheattributionof ther āgastothe

rasas.Thoseproducingthevī ra,adbhutaandraudrarasasaremale,

thoseproducingtheś r ṇgāra,hāsyaandkaruṇārasasarefemale,and

thoseproducingthebī bhatsa,bhayānakaandśāntarasasareneutral.24

Inthesametextther āgaswerealsoassignedtodifferentseasonsand

timesof theday.25Amoreelaboratesystemhasbeenattestedin

Śārṅgadeva’sSaṅgī taratnākara(firsthalf of thethirteenthcentury).

Thesevennotesareconnectedwiththerasas,withanimalcries(ṣaḍ ja

withthecryof thepeacock),colours,gods,ancestors,seers,demons,

thefourcastesandregions.Inthesametreatisether āgaswere

subjectedtoasimilarcategorizationaswell.Asinthe

Saṅgī tamakarandather āgaswerealsolinkedtotheseasons,thetimes

of thedayandtherasas.26Thiswholeedificehasculminatedinthe

Rāgamālāminiaturepaintinginwhichthemaler āgas,thefemale

r āgiṇī sandtheirsons,orr āgaputras,weredepictedasgodsor24Koch1995:30-31.25Koch1995:32,n.15.26Koch1995:31-33.



14

goddessesinsettingsappropriatetothemoodsof ther āga.The

paintingsweremeantasobjectsof meditation(dhyāna).Oneof the

earliestexamplesisthe RāgamālābyKṣemakarṇafromthesixteenth

century.InRāgamālāthegreatvarietyof r āgasisgroupedaroundsix

main,maler āgas.27

Poetryandsinging

ThedevelopmentsseenintheSaṅgī taratnākaraandRāgamālāseemto

reflectthemeetingof music,(song)textandimage.AsIwilltryto

showtheTamilliterarytheoryistheproductof suchacombinationas

well.InordertomakethisclearIliketoturntothefirstthreenūṟ pās

(nūṟ pāisaloantranslationof Sanskritsūtra)of thePorul atik āram.

Whileenumeratingtheseventiṇais,thefirstnūṟ pāappearstoreferan

earlierwork,whichonthebasisof thethirdnūṟ pāmaybeidentifiedas

atreatiseonsingingandsongtexts.

Intheveryfirstnūṟ pāthenumberof tiṇais,beginningwith

kaikkil aiandendingwith peruntiṇai,issaidtobeseven.Thesesame

seventiṇaisarealsosaidtohavebeentreatedbefore(mu ṟ paṭ a kil anta

e ḻutiṇai).Thisphrasepresentsaproblem,forthisisthefirsttimethe

seventiṇaisarementionedintheTolk ā ppiyam.Thereisnoevidenceof

alostpartof thePorul atik āramprecedingthepresentfirstchapter

either.Forapossibleanswertowhatsourcethetextisreferringhere

wemayturntothethirdnūṟ pā.First,however,inthesecond,the

middlefivetiṇaiaretakenapart.Of thesefive,four,thatis,excluding

pālai,standfordifferenteco-types(mountains,forests,ricefieldsand

dunesandbeach). pālaiisthewild junglelyingaroundorinbetween

theseareas.Thethirdnūṟ pā,then,turnstothecategoriesof landscape

(nilam)andtime( po ḻutu)(mutal,or“thefirstorbasicelements”),

27Bautze2001.



15

thingsnativetothelandscapes(karu)andlovesituations(uri)peculiar

tothemiddlefivetiṇais.Thetextreads

mutalkaru uripporul eṉṟ a mūṉṟē

nuvaluṅ k ālai mu ṟ aici ṟ antaṉavē

pāṭ aluṭ payiṉṟ avai nāṭ uṅ k ālai.

Theabsenceof anymarkerof coordinationinthetwoparallel

subordinateclauses(...nuvaluṅ k ālaiand... nāṭ uṅ k ālairespectively)

suggeststhatthetwoclauseshavedifferentrelationshipstothemain

sentence.Itmaybeassumedthatthesecondone,foundafterthemain

verbof thesentence,suppliesakindof afterthought.Thiswouldgivea

translationlikethefollowing:

Thebasicelements,thethingsnativetothetractandthelove

situations,whenthesethreethingsareexplained,(together)

theyappeartoformabeautifulsystem,(inparticular)whenone

(also)takesintoconsiderationtheiruseinsong.

Itshouldbenotedthattheword pāṭ al inthethirdlinereferstosongs,

nottopoemslikethoseof,forinstance,Ku ṟ untokai.Inthisconnection

Iliketorefertonūṟ pā55,inwhichtheword pāṭ al referstothesongs

embeddedintheKalittokaiandParipāṭ alpoems.28Itseemsthatin

presentingthetiṇaisystemtheauthorof Porul atik āramlookedfrom

thecornerof oneof hiseyesatsongsorsingingandapparentlythat

songtraditionwascharacterizedbyseventiṇaisaswell.

Inthisconnectionitisimportanttonotethatthekeywordof

theliterarytheory,namelytiṇai,“class,type”,isaloantranslationof

28SeeTieken2001:163andTakahashi1989:21.



16

thetermforthemelodytypes, jāti.29Itmaythereforebeassumedthat

theauthorof theTamilliterarytheorywasinspiredbyatheoryonthe

musicandsongs,if notbyanactualtreatiseonthesetopics,which,

theoryortreatise,maywellhavebeenthe“earlier”sourcereferredto

inthefirstnūṟ pā.Apartfromallthisitmaybenotedthatthoughthe

compound peruntiṇaiisotherwiseunknown,alsotheseventhtiṇai,like

theothersix,nowappearstohavebeennamedbyatermfrommusic,

orrathertoincludeatermfrommusic.

Thenumberssevenandfive

Thetermtiṇaisuggeststhatthemusictheoryconcernedwas

formulatedinSanskritorgoesbacktooneformulatedinthatlanguage.

Thistheorymusthaveresembledmorecloselythesystemswefindin

theSaṅgī tamakarandaorSaṅgī taratnākarathantheoneinthe

N āṭ yaśāstra.However,astotherelatively“meager”musictheory

foundinthe N āṭ yaśāstra,thistextwasmostprobablyonlyinterestedin

thoseaspectsof thecontemporarymusictheorywhichcouldcontribute

totherealizationof therasas.Furthermore,the N āṭ yaśāstraisonlyin

averygeneralwayconcernedwithpoeticconventions.Ontheother

hand,mostTamilscholarswillconsidertheSaṅgī tamakarandaand

Saṅgī taratnākara toolateforcomparisonwiththeTamilliterary

theory.Bothtexts,however,maywellrefertoaspectsof musicwhich

atthetimealreadyhadlongtraditions.Apartfromthat,howoldis

Caṅkampoetryanyway?ThedatesassignedtoTamilCaṅkampoetry

differwidely,rangingfromthethirdcenturyBCtotheeighthof ninth

AD.AsIhavetriedtoshowelsewhere,however,theearlydatehas

neverbeenbackedupwithverifiableevidence.30Theevidenceis

mostlycircular,thatistosay,onceitsisacceptedthattheearlydateis29Like jāti,tiṇaialsomeans“family,clan”,asinPu ṟ anāṉūṟ u373:18,vil aṅkutiṇaivē ntar “kingsbelongingtoanillustriousfamilyorclan”,alreadyquotedabove.30SeemostrecentlyTieken2008a.



17

notestablishedasfirmlyasonewantstobelieve,mostof theevidence

putforwardinitssupportcollapses.Inadditiontothat,if theTamil

literarytheoryhasindeedbeenbased,directlyorindirectly,onamusic

theoryformulatedinSanskrit,wehavehereanotherpieceof evidence

suggestingthatthetraditionisnotasearlyandasindependentasitis

oftenclaimedtobe.Assuggestedalreadyelsewhereweshouldstart

fromapost-PallavadateforCaṅkampoetry.31

Withthisrelativelylatedatethedistanceintimebetweenthe

TamilliterarytheoryandthetwoSanskrittreatisesonmusic

mentionedabovehasbecomeconsiderablysmaller.Inwhatfollows,

however,Idonotintendtoundertakeadetailedcomparisonbetween

thetwosystems.InsteadIwanttodrawattentiontotheexistenceside

bysideintheTamilliterarytheoryof sevenandfivetiṇais,which

raisesseveralquestionsregardingthewayandmeansbywhichthe

literarytheorywasputtogether.

Aswehaveseen,thenumberof tiṇaiintheTamilliterary

theoryisseven.Sevenisalsothenumberof thescalesformedbythe

jātis,mentionedintheKuḍimiyamalaiinscriptionof theSouthIndian

PallavakingMahendravarmanI(seventhcentury).32Itshouldbenoted

thatinthe N āṭ yaśāstrathenumberof the jātiscales(gr āmas)isnot

clear.TwohavebeenexplicitlymentionedinChapter28onthe jātis,

namelytheṣaḍ jagr āmaandmadhyamagr āma,socalledaftertheirfirst

notes,ṣaḍ jaandmadhyamarespectively.Besidethesetwo,thetext

mentionsfourmore.Thus,inChapter32,428-429itspeaksof

altogethersixdifferentscalestobeusedinthesixphases,orsandhis,

inaplay:besidetheearliermentionedṣaḍ jagr āma(inthe pratimukha)

andmadhyamagr āma(inthemukha)arementionedtheṣāḍ ava(inthe

pūrvaraṅga), sādhārita(inthegarbha), pañcama(intheavamar ś a)

31Tieken2001.32Nijenhuis1992:38.



18

andkaiś ika(inthenirvahaṇa).InTamilpoetics,however,thenumber

sevenisreachedonlybyhalfwaychangingthecriteriaaswellasthe

terminologyusedintheclassification.Thus,onlythemiddlefive,the

so-calledaintiṇai,areassociatedwitheco-types,seasons,timesof the

day,andthingsnativetotheeco-types,andarenamedafterflowersor

plants.Theothertwotypesbycontrastarenotconnectedwithsuch

thingsaslandscapes(andthereforecouldnotbegivenplantnames).

Theyare justheadingsforanumberof (moreorlessreprehensible)

lovescenes,forwhichappropriatenameswereselected,orcoined,

drawingfrommusicterminologyproper:kaikkil ai,whichwithkai

couldservetoexpresstheyounggirl’shelplessnessand peruntiṇai,

whichwith perusuggestedthewoman’sprideandstrength.

Giventhissituationitistemptingtoconcludethattheplant

nameswerenotpartof theoriginalmusictheory.Thatistosay,the

seventiṇais(or jātis)of themusictheorywerenot(yet)namedafter

plants.Inanycase,if theywereit,isdifficulttoseewhythesenames

werenotusedforthefirstandtheseventhpoetictiṇaisaswell.Itmay

beassumedthattheplantnameswereintroducedonlyatthemoment

whenmusicandpoetrycametobeconsideredtogether;theywere

suggestedbythepoeticscenes.Thisassumptionraisesseveral

questions.Foronething,itisdifficulttodecideif atthatmoment

scholarswereworkingonthebasisof anexistingclassificationof

poetrywithfivelandscapesornot,orif thefivelandscapespresented

anearlierpoeticconventionoracategorycreatedonlyonthat

moment.TothispointIwillcomebackbelow.Whateverhadbeenthe

case,ineitherscenarioastrangelightiscastontheuseinthepoemsof

theplantnamesformelodictypesexpressiveof specificmoods.It

suggestseitherthatthesupposedearlierpoeticconventionswiththe

fivetiṇaishadbeenbasedonamusictheoryaswell,whichalready

hadbecomepartof thepoetictraditionitself,orthatthepoetrywhich



19

wenowhavewasascholarlyaffairdependentontheliterarytheory.In

connectionwiththelatterpointIliketorefertothepossibilitythatthe

Caṅkamcorpusaswenowhaveitmaywellbeafairlylateversion

producedunderthepatronageof theCēraswhothroughthisliterature

triedtoreviveanearlierliterarycultureof thePāṇṭiyasof theeast

coast.33Sucha“revival”subsumestheavailabilityof ascholarly

traditionregardingthepoetryinquestion.

If theuseinthepoemsof thewordsku ṟ iñci,neytal,mullai,

marutamand pālaiasnamesformelodictypesdoesindeedrepresenta

caseof borrowingfromtheliterarytheory,thereseemstobelittle

evidenceof othersuchborrowingsinthepoems.Theinstancewhich,

however,immediatelycomestomindistheexpression

kaikkil aikk āmam,“mismatchedlove”,inParipāṭ al11,136(seeabove).

TheotherinstancesarefoundinthePorunar āṟṟ uppaṭ aiand

Maturaikk āñci,bothfromthePatuuppāṭṭ u.Thus,in

Porunar āṟṟ uppaṭ ai218-221wefindbothtiṇai,meaning“melodic

type”andmullaiinthemeaningof forest(themeaning“forest”is

vouchsafedbytheprecedingexpressionnīṉi ṟ a,whichcannotpossibly

refertothe jasmine):

ku ṟ iñci paratavar pāṭ a neytal

na ṟ umpūṅ kaṇṇi ku ṟ avar cūṭ ak

k āṉavar marutam pāṭ av akavar

nīṉi ṟ a mullaip paẖṟ iṇai nuvala,

Whilethefisherfolksfromtheseacoastsingmountainsongs

(ku ṟ iñci),whilethemountainpeopleweargarlandsmadeof

fragrantflowersfromtheseacoast(neytal),whilethepeople

fromtheforestssingsongsfromthericefields,andwhilethe

33Tieken2001:230-234.



20

cultivators(akavar )34fromthericefieldssing(the)various

melodies( paẖṟ iṇai)fromthedark(nīṉi ṟ a)forest.

Maturaikk āñci238-326providesstereotypeddescriptionsof thefive

typesof landscapes(marutamin238-270,mullaiin271-285,ku ṟ iñciin

286-301, pālaiin302-314andneytalin315-325),whichdescriptions

areconcludedinline326withthephraseaimpāl tiṇai,“sofarthefive

tiṇais”.Hereweseethewordsmarutametc.andtiṇaiintheirtechnical

meaningsof landscapesandlandscapetypesrespectively.Ileaveout

of considerationtheoccurrencesof thissetof wordsin

Cilappatik āram.

However,astothepositionof preciselythesetwotext,

Paripāṭ alandPattuppāṭṭ u,vis-à-vis“Caṅkam”poetrythereexists

someconfusion.Thus,whiletheParipāṭ alismentionedinthe

traditionallistof Caṅkamworksmodernscholarstendtoplaceitapart

asalatetext.Thecaseof thePattuppāṭṭ uistheopposite:itisnot

foundinthelistbutscholarsneverthelessliketoincludeitinthe

Caṅkamcorpus.AsIhavearguedelsewhere,boththeParipāṭ aland

Pattuppāṭṭ urepresent“merely”genresdifferentfromthatof theso-

calledshortCaṅkampoems,butareassuchnotnecessarilylaterthan

these.Or,toputitdifferently,theshortCaṅkampoemsarenot

demonstrablyearlierthattheParipāṭ alandPattuppāṭṭ u.35Mostlikely

thelattertwotextshadtheiroriginintheverysamemilieuastheother

Caṅkampoems.ThePattuppāṭṭ uistheresultof theattempttoadapt

thestyleandconventionsof stanzaicCaṅkampoetrytotheMahākāvya

genre.36Inthelattergenreshowingoff one’slearningisacommon

poeticdeceit.Inadditiontothatitsimplyoffersmorespaceforliterary34akavar meansliterally“singers”(fromakavu)or“inhabitants”(fromaka[m]).Thepresentcontextsuggeststhattheyaretheinhabitantsof themarutam,orricefield,area.35Tieken2001:170-182and196-200.36Tieken2001:196-200.



21

gamesof thissortthandotherelativelyshortpoemsof Caṅkam

proper.Therarenessof technicaltermsborrowedfromtheliterary

theoryintheCaṅkampoemscouldafterallwellbeamatterof genre.

Above,itisassumedthatthenumbersevenhasitsoriginin

music,withitsseven jātis(anditssevennotes).Asfaraspoetryis

concerned,however,sevenmusthaveprovedproblematicfromthe

verybeginning.Thenumberof seasonsdistinguishedissixandin

whateverwaydayandnightaredivided,adivisioninsevenisnot

found.37Of coursealmosteverythingcan,if needbe,beforcedintoa

divisionof seven,butinthecaseof,forinstance,theseasonsandthe

dayandnight,inordertobeconvincingonehadtosticktothe

traditionaldivisions.Furthermore,thedivisionof thelandscapeshas

resultedinfivedistincttypes,notseven.AboveIhavealreadynoted

thatitisunclearif thisdivisionintofiverepresentedanearlierliterary

traditionorwasonenewlyintroduced.Inthisconnectionitmightbe

noted,though,thatfivehasresultedinastrikinglyneatsystem,neater

thanwouldhavebeenpossiblewith,forinstance,fourorsix,witha

middlegroupof fiveandoneplacedateitherside.Anentirely

differentquestioniswhylandscapewithitsnativeplantsorflowers

wasmadetheprimarycategoryintheclassification,ratherthan,for

instance,season.Apossiblereasonisthatpreciselyinthiscasethe

numberhadnotbeenfixedyetincontradistinctiontothatof seasonor

timeof day,sothatitcouldbeadaptedtothecircumstances.In

additiontothatitis,however,alsopossibletoreadnationalistic

motivesinit.TheTamilspeakingworldisdefinedasaworldinitself.

Everytypeof landscapeisrepresentedinit.“Tamilnadu”maybe

smallerthanIndiabutitis justasvariedandcomplete.38Takeninthis

waytheTamilpracticeof distinguishinglandscapesmightbe37Ontheseasons,seeZvelebil1973:95andmorerecentlyFeller1995,andonadivisionof dayandnight(in,forinstance,sixteenparts),see Arthaśāstra1.19.38Forthecosmopolitanambitionsinvernacularliteratures,seeTieken2008b.



22

comparedwiththeidentificationsof theindividualr āgaswithdifferent

regionsof India(Jaunpur ī ,Multān ī ,etc.)in,forinstance,the

Saṅgī taratnākara.39

Conclusion

Above,IhavetriedtoshowthattheTamilliterarytheorywasinspired

byatheoryof musicwhichoriginallymusthavebeenformulatedin

Sanskrit.Itdistinguishedseven jātiswhichwemeetagainintheseven

tiṇais.Theliterarytheoryitself seemstoexpresslyacknowledgeits

indebtednesstoasongtradition.Thesefindingsraisemorequestions

thancanbeansweredatthismoment.Thequestionsconcerntheway

themusictheorywasactuallyimplementedandtherelationship

betweentheliterarytheoryandthepoemsthatwenowhave.Thelatter

pointsneedafresh,thoroughinvestigationof Tamilliterature,in

whichalloptionsareleftopen.Thisappliesinparticularthequestion

of thedatingof Caṅkamliterature,whichhasunfortunatelydeveloped

intoatrenchwar.InthisconnectionIshould,however,noteoncemore

thatthefactthatthekeytermof theTamilliterarytheory,tiṇai,isa

loantranslationof aSanskrittheoryof musicseemsonemorepieceof

evidenceforalatedateof theTamiltheory.

39Koch1995:32.Seealsotheschemeinibidem,p.43.



23

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