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Faculty of Business Administration

Professionnal Master in Business Administration, 1st year, 1st semester

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

CASE STUDY

Med 2000 Medical Center

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction..........................................................................................................12. General presentation of Med 2000 Medical Center.........................................1

3. Vision, mission, values, objectives .....................................................................2

4. Knowledge metaphors within Med 2000 Medical Center

(knowledge conceptualization)................................................................................2

5. Knowledge transfer process and its limitations within Med 2000...................4

6. Knowledge creation process and its limitations within Med 2000..................6

7. Knowledge representation (mapping) within Med 2000 ................................8

8. Conclusions........................................................................................................19

References..............................................................................................................19

1. Introduction

Knowledge management attempts to build a range ofstrategies to fa - cilitate the definition, identification, capture,organisation and dissemination of knowledge across theorganisational community. It focuses on building a culture ofcollaboration which enriches the firm's knowledge base. Knowledgemanage - ment relies strongly on building a strong social communitywhich sees sharing and support for the organisation's strategic needsas crucial

2. General presentation of Med 2000 Medical Center

Med 2000 Medical Center is a top private clinic in Bucharest which

offers a broad range of medical services for individuals and for companies. Founded in

2001, it has been continously evolved, now operating two clinics and a fully-equipped

medical laboratory

Our Medical Ceter has the ability to cover a full range of medical services

due to its highly specialized medical staff and state of the art equipment. Our offer

includes speciality investigations, lab tests and diagnosis, imagistic explorations,

stomatology and dental radiology, employment screening and periodic medical ckeck-

up, prophylactic programmes.

Personalized medical packages are available depending of each client'spersonal needs in order to benefit of prompt high quality medical services


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Med 2000's medical data processing system offers a safe, confidential and

convenient way to schedule for appointments and to archive the patient's private files for

future reference.

3. Vision, mission, values,

objectivesMission: Health is our profession and passion, and our mission is to meet

your needs, with the best specialists and support of the latest medical technology.

Vision: we aim to become a standard of quality and safety of medical care .

We believe in our specialists as the most important partners and we are confident that

together we will succeed in promoting a new behavior, focusing more on prevention than

on treatment. To this end we dedicate all resources to provide health.

Values: we believe in are respect and responsibility, quality and safety,

integrity and innovation.

We respect our patients and business parteners, we take care of their needs

and treat them individually. Give autonomy and discretion of our employees, developing

team spirit and flexibility in all activities.

We believe that safety and quality of care is an ongoing effort rather than a

destination. For this we are joining forces in a team whose passion for health is not never

exhausted.

In terms of integrity, our faith binds of medical care accuracy. We act in

accordance with the highest professional standards both at the technological level and to

meet your requirements. We embrace innovation and constantly seek better ways to

meet patient needs. And because these needs are constantly changing, we strive to

sustain this pace.

4. Knowledge metaphors within Med 2000Medical Center(knowledge conceptualization)

Knowledge management is the process of identifying, capturing, organising

and disseminating the intellectual assets that are critical to the organization's long-term performance.

Knowledge is the process of translating information(such as data)

and past experience into a meaningful set of relationships which areunderstood and applied by an individual.

Explicit knowledge is knowledge that can be shared withothers: it

can be documented, categorised, transmitted to others asinformation, and illus - trated to others through demonstrations,explanations and other forms of shar - ing. Declarative knowledge,that is, sets of principles and facts which can be ex - plained toothers, and procedural knowledge, which enables the application ofprocesses, are two major forms of explicit knowledge.

Explicit knowledge is a key organisational resource which isincreas - ingly important as the nature of work evolves towards aknowledge focus. Explicit

knowledge is a key, in that it has the capacity to be distributed,shared and adap -ted. Within Med 2000 Medical Centerthere are many work roles based onpro- cessing, producing or disseminating knowledge within or beyondthe workplace.

Tacit knowledge: It can be difficult for people to explain


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how they ap - ply their expertise to resolve new challenges. WithinMed 2000 Medical Center,

expert knowledge is hard to duplicate, replace or interpret, as it isgrounded in a blend of experience, research and induction whichmay have been refined overmany years. A beginning doctor, for example, may take significant

time to analyse


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information about a patient, examine expert resources and perhapsseek advice. A very experienced doctor, on the other hand, will beable to draw inferences and guidance from a range of cues. A quickdiagnosis is likely to be based on more ac - curate sources ofinformation than those explored by the junior doctor, although they

will largely remain hidden from an observer. Knowledge which drawson the accumulated experience and learning of a person and which ishard to reproduce or share with others is called tacit knowledge.Although tacit knowledge is hard to document, categorise and share,organisations depend on it to ensure good-quality choices andjudgements. In a work setting, many staff will have high levels of tacitknowledge which they have developed through their experience,learning and ongoing investigation of sources.

Organisational knowledge: Organisations seek to use a range of

authoritative sources, including knowledge held by individuals and within knowledge

systems maintained by the organisation. Organisational knowledge draws on different

organisational knowledge sources, including data housed in organisational records andsystems, explicit knowledge which is documented and accessible, and tacit knowledge

held by employees, customers, shareholders and other organisational stakeholders. Some

major corporate knowledge systems include information databases, the company web

site, the library and archives.

Med 2000 Medical Center relies on the knowledge held byindividu- als. Expert knowledge sources are key strategic forceswhich should be recog - nised by others and accessible to them.Increasingly, organisations are recognise the importance ofcapitalising on and cultivating those who can guide and en- hancethe strategic priorities of the organisation. Strategic knowledge -expertise and understanding that support the strategic direction of theorganisation - is val - ued as an organisational asset.

Med 2000 Medical Centerhas a clear understanding of desirablestra - tegic knowledge and of the sources of such knowledge in itscommunity. Aimingto develop a knowledge base, first it had to identify the sources ofknowledgeavailable, and then to capture and manage these sourcesappropriately.

An important priority for Med 2000 Medical Center is the

development of mechanisms to both identify and capture knowledgewhich might be po -tentially valuable for others to access and to determinewhich elements ofknowledge are of high strategic value, and which areless crucial

Familiarity with pacients case is extremely important. Aspecialist doctor might learn about a complex case by going throughhis file, talking aboutthe case with coleagues in the team of doctors in differentspecialties who have

examined the pacient, asking for another expert opinion andconsulting . In a very short time, a detailed understanding of theclient's idiosyncra sies can be documented

Within Med 2000 Medical Center, the success of knowledgemanage- ment is influenced by the knowledge culture whichoperates from a number of


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key principles, including recognition of the strategic value ofknowledge. It alsoencourages and rewards the sharing of knowledge and developsinfrastructure and human resource practices to facilitate theseactivities.

A learning organization encourages people to grow and

develop, to share their knowledge and learning with others byestablishing an evolving andflexible learning environment in which the acquisition of newunderstanding and knowledge sharing is valued. Within Med 2000Medical Center, knowledge is


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perceived to be a key resource, but it is also recognised that it needs to be evaluated

and renewed through ongoing learning. This emphasis on growth and evaluation of the

knowledge base through additional experience is an important feature of effective

knowledge management which ensures organisation strategic knowledge grows, learns

and matures alongside its individual members.

Knowledge is a key element in the process oforganisational development, since it is important to ensure thathistory is taken into account when evaluating new directions andprospects. Med 2000 Medical Center knowledge management is thusvery important as organisation seek to become more responsive tothe environment in which it operates.

An asset-based corporate development recognises thatcorporate assets should be identified and encouraged to increasethe organisation's per - formance. From a Med 2000 Medical Centerknowledge management perspective, this means that organisation

would benefit from ensuring they know clearly where their knowledgeassets lie. Thus, there needs to be a mechanism for both identifyingand using the strategic knowledge base effectively. This recognisesthe need to explore the nature of strategic knowledge, to cataloguethe knowledge as - sets within the organisation, and to reward andcultivate their distribution.

5. Knowledge transfer process and its limitationswithin Med 2000

Every organisation needs to be clear about its knowledge requirements, es-

pecially the intellectual capital areas that are essential to the core business. Recognitionof strategic information assets enables an assessment of the risks attached to losing

them. The systems through which knowledge is generated and transmitted within and

throughout the organisation can greatly influence knowledge transferability. These

processes operate in different ways in terms of how they integrate communication and

knowledge sharing across different levels and areas of the organisation. They can be

broadly described as knowledge chains, hubs and webs

Many traditional organisations still rely on knowledge chains, reflect-

ing their concern for controlling and organising knowledge. These rely on one-to-one

exchanges, often between supervisor and subordinate, to generate an understanding of

how knowledge is being used, and the way work is done. Unfortunately, this is a lim-

ited mechanism in that it is linear in nature and tends to direct communication down-

wards. Although it can ensure standardised, reliable and systematic practices, it re-

duces the potential for creative and flexible work responses. The sharing of corporate

knowledge depends on the middle person's skill in drawing others together. The know-

ledge recipient and the knowledge contributor are more passive in the exchange pro-

cess.

More effective coordination of various knowledge sources can operate

through a central knowledge hub. Library and information services, centralised in-

formation technology services and emerging knowledge services act as links between

people, objects and information avenues. These services provide support to knowledge

creators and seekers, and aim to avoid duplication and waste of resources. They alsoact as communication hubs, encouraging the sharing and recording of current initiat -

ives. The effectiveness of the centralised services in effectively diffusing knowledge to

the individual recipients determines knowledge management's overall success. It can

be seen, however, that there is also potential for some restriction of access through


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these avenues. The central agency may act as a gatekeeper, either limiting or encour-

aging access to business-related knowledge. Limited access will hinder knowledge dif-

fusion.

A more dispersed and beneficial knowledge environment operates as a

knowledge web, where many members share their expertise with others. Each person

may have a different network pattern, determined by his or her expertise, knowledge of

others, and particular knowledge needs. This person may be a node for others as an ex -

pert source of knowledge, while also using others as nodes of information. Thus, each

person in the web may act as both recipient and disseminator of knowledge, depending

on the circumstances. This form of knowledge network is based on the development of

effective connections with others, and is open-ended and dynamic. Communication

channels evolve as various sources are tested for value, maintained if useful, and dis-

carded if not. Over time, particular people or units may become key nodes for the

guidance of others, as their reputation and reliability is tested and found to be worth-

while These may not necessarily be formally recognised within the organisation as au-

thoritative sources. This model enables more active and effective use of the variouscapabilities in the business environment. However, a major limitation of this model is

that it relies on people finding out about expertise in order to access it. The identifica-

tion and development of relationships with specific nodes requires sophisticated skills in

identifying potential avenues of guidance, making connections, and maintaining

those networks, thus those who are new or relatively junior in organisation will have

limited access to the knowledge web.

Because knowledge chains, hubs and webs offer different benefits to or-

ganisation, they are considered within Med 2000 Medical center as complementary

strategies. A cohesive system of interconnecting communication channels which sup-

port the identification and sharing of embedded or tacit knowledge. Each employee re-lies on access to all three forms of communication to undertake knowledge work.

The knowledge contributor may be reluctant to share what is known be-

cause of perceived costs in time and effort, and concern that the unique value of the

knowledge may be diminished. Thus, organisation is faced with the challenge of

identifying the potential for knowledge sharing and encouraging it.

Knowledge objects, explicit knowledge artefacts produced, reflecting

the final outcomes of the knowledge creation process are resources which enable exist-

ing knowledge and experience to be shared with others for use or adaptation. Some

typical knowledge objects are interview guidelines, reports, data on organisational

activities, technical specifications, training materials, and other forms of organisationaloutputs and inputs. The management and coordination of these are important to the efficient

operations of the business, because they promote good practice through modelling and

adoption, rather than through reinvention. They also give new employees a more in-

formed perspective on how the business operates.

Knowledge objects are stored electronically on the intranet for employ-

ee access. However, when searching for relevant objects and guidance, employees may

encounter problems such as the unwieldy structure of the repository, out-of-date items,

duplicated or contradictory sources, inaccessible confidential materials, lost or with-

held items, or an inconsistent approach to naming and codifying the objects. Careful

consideration must be given to how these objects are managed and promoted to thecontributors and users.


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A further issue relating to knowledge objects is the question of owner-

ship of intellectual property. This can be defined as the product of creative activities,

which may be in the form of an idea, a publication or some other physical representa-

tion. The original creator may claim ownership of that intellectual property, because it

was drawn from his or her intellectual activity and is a rightful possession of the indi-

vidual. The legal system has some very clear rules as to how such property should be

protected.

Communities of practice (CoP) are groups of people with common in-

terests who meet to share their insights in order to develop better solutions to problems or

challenges. People choose to join these groups because they recognise the value of

knowledge sharing. They encourage innovation, collaboration and the sharing of good

practice. Knowledge evolves and grows as the CoP stimulates thinking, sharing and

challenging of concepts by others. CoPs can help reduce the barriers created by organ -

isational structures, distance or employer. Such Med 2000 related groups function

through discussion lists, web-site forums or other forms of virtual networking.

Med 2000 related CoP membership is often dynamic and spontaneous, created tosolve a particular problem or from a desire to tackle an issue using the talent available.

Members may be drawn from those working on similar tasks or products, or through a

more general communal interest.Some CoPs may be quite short-lived (medical teams

created to solve a complex case), whereas others may be significant and long term

(CoP of general practitioners within Med 2000 Medical Center).

CoPs require commitment, generosity and the development of a collect-

ivist mentality. They are self-managed groups which are not organisationally driven or

managed. They succeed or fail based on the perceived value to the individual mem-

bers. CoPs may be significant sources of influence in an organisation, as they can en-

hance organisational strategy and innovation, develop better practice, support andteach members, and instil a philosophy of learning and sharing in the larger business

community.

6. Knowledge creation process and its limitationswithin Med 2000

People develop knowledge as an ongoing process through their work.

Knowledge evolves as it is reshaped through encounters with new events, information or

other people. It may reside within the individual as personalised knowledge, be

accessible through others, or stored as a retrievable artifact, as knowledge sources which

may be reused and redeveloped by others. They are valuable mechanisms for sharing the

outcomes of knowledge creation.Organisational knowledge relies on collective and individual contributions. It

evolves as others review, use and learn from the original knowledge sources. In projects,

meetings and think-tanks, their individual knowledge becomes part of a collective

activity that seeks to build a bank of knowledge for use by the organisation. The five

stages model of organisational knowledge creation: knowledge sourcing, knowledge

abstraction, knowledge conversion, knowledge diffusion, and knowledge development

and-refinement.

The process of knowledge development is dynamic and responsive,

drawing cues and feedback from a range of sources throughout the various stages. This

feedback may influence subsequent knowledge construction as it provides further cues

and information which are considered and evaluated.

A. - Knowledge sourcing: The identification of a knowledge gap between

what is known and what needs to be known is often the stimulus for starting the know -


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ledge creation process. In response to the identification of a knowledge gap, the organ-

isation reviews existing sources of guidance held by individuals or other organisational

resources. This process of drawing together as many informed knowledge sources as

possible is called knowledge sourcing. Sources to be tapped might include specialised

and prior knowledge held by individuals within the organisation, expert guidance from

people such as consultants, organisational records or the firm's intranet. Learning fromprevious experience is a significant source of guidance, particularly where the problem

under investigation has significant resourcing implications. (This may include case

studies of similar projects which outline errors and lessons learnt.).

Knowledge sourcing is an important stage of knowledge (creation. The

richness and accessibility of the available and known sources greatly influence the

outcomes. For example, when Med 2000Medical Center introduced a new customer

marketing scheme, appropriate sources of guidance included: marketing experts,

customer feedback, data relating to previous schemes and their success, published

literature, evidence from schemes undertaken by other competitors, contributions from

staff with experience in developing successful schemes.

B. - Knowledge abstraction: After analysing the knowledge sources, gen-eral principles and concepts are generated to guide the construction of the new know-

ledge, a process that is called knowledge abstraction which helps to frame the insights

gained from knowledge sourcing and to extrapolate new knowledge from the basic

guidelines and issues that have emerged.

Most of Med 2000Medical Center members, as knowledge seekers are

highly expert, they will rely heavily on their own knowledge, with other sources

simply validating or enriching that knowledge. Less experienced seekers will rely

more heavily on external sources.

As regards the customer marketing scheme of Med 2000 Medical

Center, the target population might be clarified, some approaches ruled out, and some

broad principles confirmed. The abstraction of the various sources reduces the

complexity of the factors to be considered, and enables the ideas to be converted into

outcomes using a sound framework.

C. - Knowledge conversion: From abstract foundations, knowledge con-

verts into various forms of useful applications that can be tested and shared with oth -

ers. This process describes the phase during which the various ideas and principles are

refined into a specific outcome. Knowledge can be either codified ( recorded and ac-

cessed by others as required, developed into artefacts, such as models and guidelines) or

embodied (the tacit knowledge of individuals that can be shared through stories,

metaphors or personal advice as required). Embodied knowledge is more difficult to

access without ongoing engagement with the knowledge creators.For instance, modified knowledge relating to the customer marketing scheme

of Med 2010 Medical Center is in the form of a marketing plan and implementation

guidelines, whereas the embodied knowledge is drawn from the guidance and insights of

the departament leaders and experts.

D. - Knowledge diffusion is the spread of knowledge once it is codified or

embodied. In organisational settings, diffusion can occur through communication me-

dia (e.g. newsletters, the intranet, meetings, seminars or videos), modelling of new

practices, and demonstrations or coaching in specialised procedures.

The success of knowledge diffusion depends on the level of previous

knowledge held by the audience and the effectiveness of the channels available to

share the knowledge. Diffusion occurs best when the recipients can understand and in -tegrate the insights into their own mental constructs.


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The promotion of the new marketing scheme of Med 2000Medical

Center is disseminated in various ways via the intranet, published guidelines and

presentations relating to the scheme. The main goal is to share the knowledge with

those who will most benefit. A forum for all staff in an organisation, for example, is of

little value to those who are not directly involved in the new scheme.

E. - Knowledge development and refinement: Knowledge is regularly re-shaped and further tested through additional experience and feedback. This process is

one of the key features of knowledge management, ensuring the knowledge remains

current and useful.

Within Med 2000Medical Center, the created knowledge is constantly

reviewed and updated to reflect any new understanding that has been acquired.

Considering the marketing scheme of Med 2000Medical Center, a pilot

study of the scheme revealed some significant issues relating to the created process.

The pilot study thus generated new knowledge to be converted and diffused.

These five stages of knowledge creation contribute to effective

organisational knowledge, in some situations they may not be completed. Within Med

2000 Medical Center, where expertise is highly specialised, there may be littleconversion or diffusion in some areas of knowledge. Where the knowledge user is

relatively inexperienced, the first stage may be the only level at which knowledge is

created, and it may be highly derivative from the sources which are accessed.

The creation of organisational knowledge relies on many systems and

processes that make up the Med 2000Medical Center knowledge management

infrastructure: managerial (leadership, HRM), technical (library and information

services, records management) and social (knowledge community customers intern-al staff, external clients, shareholders, business networks andpartnerships, the wider business community - in knowledge environment).

7. Knowledge representation (mapping) withinMed 2000

Med 2000 Medical Center relies heavily on its knowledge repository.

The repository offers a significant knowledge hub which links the user to bulletin

boards; documents; workflow links to permit the execution of certain tasks; software; a

data management system which provides access to data, measures and statistics, and

tools for use in activity; a pacient files archive, where knowledge of other projects is

available.

The system also provides a keyword expertise search, so that enquirers can

find experts, profiles of networks and individuals, and documents.

Other features of the repository include best practices and lessons learned;news of groups and activities; and FAQs, to answer questions which are forwarded to

the help desk. The repository is very much the focal point for seeking information and

collaboration.

Med 2000Medical Center benefits greatly from linking its knowledge

management strategy to their business plans to ensure effective knowledge flows. The

KMS can bring individual knowledge, distributed localised knowledge and

documented sources into a cohesive and easily retrieved organisational strategy

through the content management system (CMS) - a vital element of knowledge

management.

A key purpose of the CMS is to link knowledge sources to all relevant

knowledge users, regardless of their level of appointment, location or role. This is anessential principle if the knowledge strategy is to be successfully adopted by Med

2000Medical Center's members. The development of a successful CMS requires two


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levels of activity: (1) the valued knowledge needs to be identified and categorised so that

it may be managed - identifying and promoting the development of important

knowledge sources., and (2) the knowledge needs to be managed and maintained

effectively - the categorisation and management ofcontent.

Core knowledge: A goal of knowledge management is to develop a

knowledge strategy which facilitates easy access to valuable knowledge. It is necessaryto clarify what is important knowledge so that employees are aware of the need to

manage it appropriately as both distributors and users. The CMS offers the capacity to

identify, structure and manage knowledge which is important to organisational out-

comes, so that it may be linked to the business strategy and ensure valued knowledge is

accessed by appropriate users at the right time to suit their needs.

Core knowledge is strategic or operational knowledge that contributes

to essential organisational processes or outcomes. It is distinguished from other forms of

organisational knowledge in that it:

supports the essential focus and activities of the business has long-term value to organisational activities

enables higher performance in core activities for the organisationjustifies the cost of capture and management of that knowledge minimises duplicated, misinformed or redundant effort on the part of knowledgeworkers.

The Content Management System offers an effectivemechanism for identifying and unifying the many different expertsources of knowledge held inthe community in a comprehensive, efficient and responsive manner.

The three phases of managing core knowledge: Organisations gain

much from clarifying the core knowledge to be captured in the CMS. A CMS provides

the opportunity to build a comprehensive and responsive system that brings experts,

organisational systems and explicit knowledge together in a cohesive and accessible

repository.

The value of the Med 2000Medical Center core knowledge linked to

the repository justifies the investment costs. Investment in a CMS operates at a num-

ber of levels. Resources are needed to develop and maintain the technical aspects of

the system such as the human-computer interface and the content management activit-

ies.

Substantial costs to individuals occur while registering content (e.g.

through attaching metadata and authorship details; assigning descriptors) or vetting

and authorising source material (e.g. verification of author details; security manage -

ment). The costs associated with the user of the system are olso considerable. Thesecosts may relate to time taken to search, review and select identified sources. Users

and contributors need to be assured of a quality outcome when they interact with the

CMS. The development of a core knowledge framework is an important component of

building an effective repository.


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The three phases of developing a core knowledge framework, each

phase comprising several steps, are:

Phase I

1. Idetify core business and its knowledge requirements

2. Define the knowledge domain

3. Review knowledge capabilitiesPhase II

4. Define core knowledge

5. Develop the core knowledge policy

Phase III

6. Map core knowledge

7. Build the knowledge repository

Phase I. Clarifying the core knowledge scope, explores the types of

core knowledge and the way they are used in the organisation. Three aspects of organ -

isational activity are examined. First, core business (for example specialist services to a

specific sector, such as health services), that is, the organisational activities and pri-

orities that need to be supported by accurate and comprehensive knowledge, is identi-fied. An understanding of the relationship between available knowledge and core busi-

ness is an important basis for any subsequent content management. Second, the know-

ledge domain is identified, that is, knowledge is described in terms of the business

areas which are supported and actively encouraged. Third, using this specification of

the scope of the desired core knowledge, the capacity of staff to share and generate

that knowledge is reviewed. Thus, this first phase reviews the nature and scope of the

core knowledge that should be captured and shared by the knowledge community.

To illustrate, the core business of a general medical practice as Med

2000 Medical Center is to provide patients with appropriate support and guidance on

medical issues. The knowledge domain therefore relate to:

* medical practice and theory

* patient case management

* specialist doctors available for referral customer relations management

* business management and administration.

The parameters identified through phase 1 are described as definitions and

policy in phase II. Defining the core knowledge parameters sets the boundaries of the

core knowledge which should support the business activities. Without this formalisation

of the nature of core knowledge, the management of the CMS will be poor.

Knowledge users benefit from clear and readily accessible guidelines as to which

knowledge should be linked through the CMS. This helps with their contributions to that

process and their use of the system for their own knowledge creation and development.The core knowledge parameters need to be sufficiently flexible to accommodate

changing organisational directions and priorities, while also offering a predictable and

regulated context for content management.

Following phase 2, a variety of core knowledge structures may be de-

signed in phase III. Core knowledge structures are systems and processes that help

with mapping and organising an organisation's core knowledge.

They may include maps of knowledge held in the community and

structured systems which help with categorising, indexing and labelling that know-

ledge. The mapping of core knowledge is a major step towards identifying where im-

portant tacit and explicit knowledge is to be found, and linking these through a unified

system. Similarly, the development of the knowledge repository enables effective


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management of core knowledge by drawing all relevant sources into a single search-

able process.

Knowledge maps describe the core knowledgecategories and focal areas on which the organisation relies. Theyprovide a structural breakdown of the different areas that should be

managed as core knowledge. These can include such aspects astechnologies, research, business processes, services, customer re -lations management, records, and other relevant contributions.

A relational knowledge map groups knowledge under various subject

headings explores the way knowledge can be applied and developed and enables better

capture of the different approaches to similar issues.

For example, a customer complaint litigation might be approached from a

product focus but also through a more legalistic perspective. Similarly, fact sheets might

be developed to provide full product specifications or to support customer education.

The operational knowledge map, on the other hand, documents the

functional activities of the organisation , offerring employees valuable insights into the

units which can provide expert advice and source material on business issues..Both approaches are useful, as they illustrate different-knowledge struc-

tures, they are not mutually exclusive and are incorporated in the CMSof Med

2010Medical Center. Different activities, operational units and functional tasks are re-

flected in Med 200 Medical Centers knowledge system.

Relational Knowledge map of Med 2000 Medical Center.

Medical Care

Medical specialties

Auxiliary Medical Activities

Trainings

Research & Development

Trials

Results

Research teams

Resurse de specialitate

Publicatii

Legislatie

Relementari interne

Medical NewsForum

Resurse pentru pacienti

FAQ

Online education

Medical services,Medical Staff, Schedule, Fees,

Forum

Contributor profiles

Staff

Parteners

Marketing

Costumer relations


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Budget projects

Campains

Operational Knowledge map of Med 2000 MedicalCenter

Medical services

Medical clinic

Laboratory

Home care medical services

Management services

Accounts & Financial Management

Legal Services

Human Resources Management

Customer ServiceKnowledge Management Services

IT&C Services

Quality Management Services

Research Services

Ontologies, taxonomies and thesauruses are the three levels of content

categorisation and classification which provide the structural framework on which the

repository can operate.

The map acts as an ontology, or formal classification, of the organisa-

tional knowledge structure.Mapping requires considerable effort to categorise, classify

and describe core knowledge. The effort is justified by the time that is ultimately saved

by users of the system.

The map also provides guidance to all staff on what constitutes core

knowledge and builds a common terminology throughout the organisation.

Knowledge taxonomy describes the various content areas and their re-

lationships with other aspects of core knowledge. They provide guidance on how

knowledge is structured in the organisation.

Although the development of taxonomies can take considerable effort

and time, they help knowledge users explore the repository and allow better manage -

ment of old and new content.Taxonomies are structured as multilevel hierarchies from general to spe-

cific content. Subjects might also appear elsewhere in the taxonomy. For example, cus-

tomer care training might also appear under the subject 'training and development'.

These cross-references are most important, as they document and clarify how know-

ledge is applied in different ways in the organisation. The multiple associations for any

work activity also raise a further challenge for content management, that is, ensuring

content can be found, no matter what search path is used.


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The various taxonomies reflecting the different types of knowledge (e.g.

relational, operational, functional), can be integrated into a single thesaurus allowing to

be interrogated with a single search process which offers an alphabetical and hier-

archical listing of terms, with an explanation of how they are defined. This authoritat-

ive list may also provide definitions and identify content, feature particularly useful for

knowledge repositories, where the understanding of various knowledge seekers mayrange from expert to novice.

Descriptors are the preferred keywords to describe a concept. They

normally aim to reflect good professional practice and common practice, so that they

will remain relevant over a long period. Thesauruses have an important function in

guiding users towards the most specific and accurate term. F

For example, narrower terms encourage a tighter search of the CMS to

increase the recall and precision. Related terms encourage wider exploration by identi-

fying other sources of knowledge which might also be pertinent, and broader terms

may encourage wider capture of potentially relevant materials. Broader terms are par-

ticularly useful if the source pool is very small, which may often, be the case in spe -

cialised areas.

The main features of Knowledge Thesaurus 1

Descriptor PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Usage note (outlines how manyentries may be found)

Current entries: 123Commenced: 16 May 2003Last contribution: 18 July 2005

Scope note(describes the content which is captured inthis descriptor)

Organisational activities whichrequire co- ordinated contributions

from a range ofpeople and areas to meet an agreedoutcome within a specific budget.

Narrower terms(direct the user to more specific andtargeted keywords which ensure the re-trieval yields higher precision)

NT Contract managementProject methodsProject planningProject templatesProject officersProject evaluationProject management software

Related terms (direct the user to associated

topics)

RT Knowledge management

projects

Project titles

Broader term (directs the user to more gen-eral keywords)

BT Projects

Identifying the structural themes: Knowledge mapping within the

Med 2000 Medical Center focus on some major areas, particularly:

the identification of knowledge held by individualssharing best practices


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recounting past experiences

disseminating knowledge of products, processes

mapping expert networks

generating and mining customer databases

creating opportunities for greater use of intellectual assets.

Representing core knowledge in taxonomy: There are various waysknowledge can be classified. Many repositories rely on a number of different taxonom-

ies which offer different perspectives on how corporate knowledge might be viewed.

No single approach is the most appropriate and, in fact, multiple approaches greatly

enhance the functionality of the repository. There are two major forms of core know-

ledge:

Operational processes are where the taxonomy provides links to the functional rela-tionships and interactions in the firm, organisational services, busiess processes andoperations, management, customer relations knowledge.

Functional knowledge reflects the knowledge people develop and apply throughtheir work roles. Knowledge management permits the sharing of best practices,

strategies, lessons learnt during development.

Pacient database is essential, as it allows careful management of the in-

dividual customer in Med 2000 Medical Center. Pacient medical histories / files can be

generated from a number of sources medical staff in different specialties within

organisation.

'Lessons learnt' is a popular feature of the Med 2000 Medical Center

repository, providing an opportunity to share the failures and successes experienced by

members of staff and managers. These stories are grouped under the various activities,

such as IT development, change management, and market development.

Generating taxonomy headings: Taxonomy and thesaurus terms

were selected with great care. The taxonomy needs to be intuitively appropriate tousers (although this can be enhanced through thesaurus definitions), at the same time

reflecting good professional practice. Jargon is avoided, for example, because new

staff or those outside that area may be unaware of the term or its meaning. This can

prevent access to linked sources.

There are different methods by which descriptors may be identified:

A potential guide to terms and definitions can be drawn from taxonomies used bylibraries to describe and structure their information resources. A range of taxonomies can

be found for medical, legal and other specialist fields. These systems have been refined

over many years into detailed and extensive theoretical knowledge hierarchies which

enable searching at both generalised and very specific levels of knowledge. However,

theoretically driven taxonomies may not reflect the context and the common terminologywhich actually operates in the real organisation, and should be used as a reference only.

Official work records may provide guidance on many key terms and descriptors. Job descriptions which describe the functional knowledge related to workplace roles Causal mapping can help with documenting hard-to-describe processes, such asroutines and expert decision making.

Constructing the knowledge map: Map acts as a unifying device, and a

cue to reflection and documentation. Knowledge maps depict the knowledge interre-

lationships which may operate across various roles and units. They help clarify which

aspects of organisational knowledge are core knowledge, and how these might be de -


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scribed to others. They also help create a common language and conceptual framework

for the knowledge community to explore and apply to the knowledge roles.

The construction of the map took into account the strategy, priorities

and complexities, as the developing group members worked through various perspect-

ives of routines and processes. Experts in the Med 2000 Medical Center had to con-

tribute to the construction of the knowledge map, as the strategic view of core know-ledge needed to be linked with a realistic consideration of what is captured and how

Knowledge contributors played an important role in developing and val-

idating the knowledge taxonomy. Those who hold tacit knowledge or contribute expli-

cit knowledge could confirm and explain underlying knowledge structures, and con-

tributed to the definition of the key terms or areas to be captured. Experts involvement

ensures the taxonomy is context-accurate and relevant, and that they are committed to

its adoption and ongoing use.

Effective knowledge repositories: Repositories act as the link between

users and core knowledge, operating as a single point of entry to help people find rel -

evant information from many different organisational sources. A repository's broad

functions are to codify explicit knowledge in a logical manner and to direct the user to

enabling sources (including people, organisational units, web sites, policies and other

avenues) which may guide and inform the knowledge seeker. The repository also acts as

the vehicle for contributing new knowledge, and for requesting personalised know-

ledge services which keep the user updated on repository additions. In effect, a highly

effective knowledge repository should serve as a single point of contact for all know-

ledge needs.

Knowledge repository content: There are four layers of organisational

knowledge which need to be shared through a repository: factual(terminology, specific

details and elements); conceptual (theories, models, principles and generalisations);

procedural (skills, algorithms, techniques and methods) and meta-cognitive (know-ledge about knowledge, i.e. learning, thinking, problem solving). These forms of

knowledge can be presented in a number of ways to facilitate effective access by users

with different needs. For example, users might seek guidance on:

content, such as topics, projects or reports

methodologies, such as research approaches, templates and data presentation

longitudinal developments to build an historical perspective.Knowledge repository features: The features of the Med 2000 Med-

ical Centers repository reflect users' expectations and priorities, knowledge activities

and core business priorities.The repository looks like any other web-based index. It of-

fers a range of options for users to explore, with the main menu offering access to

identified knowledge sources in the organisation and beyond: links to organisational and external sources

communication forums to facilitate knowledge exchanges and the capture of publicexchanges for subsequent review and discussion

reference materials

discussion topics

frequently asked questions (FAQs) case studies

guidance on the system and indexing processes

a contribution channel to allow easy linkage of new materials

a hot-spot for new solutions and strategies to capture fast-breaking knowledge a direct link to keywords which may help find sources


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an explanation of the system scope and usagePromoting use of the core knowledge repository: Through the

sharing process the repository provides a platform to expand the interaction and

connection which would occur through normal proximity or direct work interactions.

An advant - age of this collective grouping of expertise is that communities of practice

are more readily created, since the likely stakeholders are easily identified through therepository.

For the repository to be fully used, the Med 2000 Medical Center pro -

moted it as a key organisational strategy.

Recognition is sufficient for many knowledge workers. Regular contrib-

utors should be acknowledged, so that they feel that the effort is valued. People who

do not contribute also need to be reminded that their sharing is important. Various ap-

proaches can be used to monitor these inputs, e.g. logging in of new knowledge should

include a record of the contributor.

Rewards have been used with some success based on the feedback of

the knowledge consumers and used for knowledge development purposes (such as

funding conference travel). The use of feedback enables verification of the measure byvarious users, so that quality and value is readily assessed. Managers can be provided

with bonuses based on their promotion of the system.

Staff promotions can be linked to the contributions made to the collect-

ive knowledge.

These strategies need to be carefully monitored, however, as they may

lead to over-contribution of less useful knowledge or expertise.

Knowledge glut and glitz: As well as encouraging contributions, the

organisation needs to control.the quality of the inputs. Enthusiastic contributors may

contribute too much knowledge of minimal value (glut) or knowledge which is too

ephemeral (glitz). The knowledge policy of Med 2000 Medical Center defines the

types and levels of knowledge which should be captured and how they should be con-

trolled.

Contributors must be aware of standards and their responsibilities for

preserving the integrity and usability of the system. Similarly, users need assurance

that accessed expertise, is credible, reliable and authoritative. This was developed by

Med 2000 Medical Center as an authorisation listing, through the construction of

staff profiles which are linked to logged contributions, or through more informal

means, such as an indication in each entry of the contributor's position and experience in

the area

Content authorship: People like to be acknowledged for their expertise

and core knowledge contributions. However, as time goes on and knowledge is shared,reused and added to or amended, it is harder to know who generated or contributed to a

particular knowledge object. This may cause concern for employees who would like

recognition for the intellectual capital they have shared.

One strategy successfully appllyed within Med 2000 Medical Center

is to recognize of all contributors to a knowledge object through file management pro-

cesses where each new contributor is listed, so that recognition is provided without

subverting the knowledge management process.

The degree to which staff share or hoard their core knowledge can be

influenced by relating rewards and recognition to sponsorship of others through shar-

ing expertise. The other strategy applied within Med 2000 Medical Center is to

design recognition systems which encourage groups, rather than individuals, focusing onorganisational outcomes


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Source description: Knowledge users have increasingly high expecta-

tions of any electronic retrieval system, and assume high recall and precision. Many

users lack time and use poor search strategies when looking for information. Time

should be spent on applying the available knowledge, not wasted in fruitless searching.

These expectations place considerable pressure on those developing a repository; the

system needs to be supportive, accurate, and minimally demanding on the user.Although free-text searching is the first choice of retrieval for many

users, it can be an inefficient and inaccurate strategy. Each person tends to adopt dif -

ferent exploration strategies when relying on personal interpretation.

As an alternative, the development of a more formalised, structured

representation greatly improves the retrieval of core knowledge, although it requires a

substantially greater initial investment.

The limitations of free-text searching have been overcome by the devel-

opment of more authoritative strategies to control the ways one describes a knowledge

object. In addition to die use of the taxonomy and thesaurus to describe the content

of the source, the repository can also categorise data using metadata.

Some metadata fields include author, date of contribution, level of ac-cess, contact names, sponsor, originating office, context of the items, and project titles.

Much of this information can be automatically generated when the knowledge is re-

gistered on the system. The advantage of metadata is that a number of systematic ac-

cess fields can be defined, embedded, retrieved and applied in a .regulated manner.

This can greatly help the searcher, as retrieval can take place through a variety of sys -

tematic approaches. The search capabilities can be very precise, with the capacity, for

example, to limit the retrieval to documents constructed in a specific format, by a spe-

cific person or within a designated time frame. The inclusion of metadata in the content

structure greatly increases the likely accuracy and responsiveness of the repository.

When assigning metadata practice-based tacit knowledge, such as soft-

ware codes, can be accessed without reference to the code originator, whereas technical

tacit knowledge requires interaction between users and contributors, and thus the author

should be registered. Knowledge management should focus on 'memory in the small',

that is, small-scale, focused knowledge which is containable, easily identifiable and

retrievable. It is recommendable that such knowledge be categorised according to task,

project and content when assigning meta-tags.

Med 2000 Medical Center developed standardised laboratory notes,

so that all lodged records can be searched using the same fields. It helps in the induc-

tion of new staff and decreases the likelihood of errors. Standard templates managed

through electronic notebooks can record laboratory notes which feed into summary

databases for. all individually authorized staff to share.An effort was made to standardize document templates throughout the

organization, helping the storage and sharing of knowledge from different contributors.

Thus, have been developed standard approaches to pacients files, inventories, work-

sheets, work plans, presentations, communications and reports.

Source identification: Individual knowledge sources are identified

through several different approaches.

First, a system might simply provide links to individuals or groups as-

sociated with particular projects, resulting in a functional list which records only those

who are known to actively contribute knowledge.


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Alternatively, a knowledge audit of staff could be used to identify po-

tential knowledge sources and participants. The knowledge audit can operate from

three different approaches:

The first simply includes staff interests and expertise asdeterm- ined by them. This leads to quite a varied array of expertise which extends well

beyond the scope of the repository, although it encourages ongoing links to new areas. A second approach is to seek more formalised information

on potential sources from experts or-authorities. To illustrate, a manager or a medical

staff member might be asked to cross-reference staff expertise against the defined

knowledge map. This facilitates a robust identification of both tacit and explicit

knowledge on core topics. It has the advantage of building stronger consensus as to who

has expertise, because it allows individual, group and managerial nominations.

A third approach is to interview various members of thework community to identify who they seek advice and guidance from. This analysis of

indi-vidual knowledge webs helps identify the key knowledge sources of the organisation,

at the same time affirming the main knowledge priorities for which help is sought.The repository including profiles of staff can act as a rich node of in-

formation on sources if are also included, particularly valuable to new staff.

User interface analysis: Repository interface should be user-friendly and

user-focused. Navigation is a major factor for users. Users become frustrated if nu-

merous screens must be entered and left or there is no.

Ways in which the repository design facilitates user exploration:

clear guidance on what a section covers headings and labelsthat are easily interpreted, and relevant to all users

easy navigation: low number of screens to enter and leave,limited layers of menus and the capacity to return easily to the main menu

well laid out screens which help users to understand and use therepository?

effective use of colour and design icons which are easily recognisable to users an icon to help users return to the main repository homepage

from anywhere in the system

clear explanations of choices which appear as explanatory textwhen the mouse moves across that area of the screen

a top-level menu on all pages of the repository, to allow for easynavigation at any time (this can include support for searching, returning to the

homepage, requesting help or other forms of assistance) ideally, each page should fit into a single screen view, so that

users do not have to scroll

major documents should allow searching of small subcompon-ents, not just the entire document.

The Med 2000 Medical Center knowledge repository is allied to the

organisational system set in place for registering and managing staff IDs and pass -

words, so that users already registered through their terminal do not need to work

through more security checks. Similarly, if the repository draws on a number of data-

bases for the sources of knowledge, each database should seamlessly allow access, rather

than require further verification of identity.

Screen offers much informative and welcoming entry to the repository. Ithas a comprehensive array of activities and options which are easily selected by the


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user. It also provides a quick way for posting a new contribution to the repository or

searching by either free-text or more formal search options.

Additional tools are also provided through the knowledge repository. A

several user-support processes increase the links between user and system. Users can,

for example, set up knowledge profiles, so that whenever new contributions are made to

the repository, they are notified. Alternatively, a weekly or monthly digest might be setup. Knowledge agents are an efficient mechanism for maintaining currency without

effort, and should be readily accessible from the repository web site.

On the other hand, the number of pages to be entered and the security

clearance sequence in The Med 2000 Medical Center knowledge repository are bar-

riers which may lose users before they have explored the repository.

8. Conclusions

To facilitate succesful knowledge managementas a standard business process

leadership, clarity of kowledge strategy, practicality continuity and adaptability

of processes, encouragement of both reflection and innovation need to be considered.

In large organisations these features may take time to develop, as the

structural and cultural contexts need to be considered. Smal to medium eterprises have

less capacity to develop complex and sophisticated knowledge technologies, but have

the advantage of easier collaboration among their members

The importance of encouraging knowledge sharing, documenting processes

ad facilitating ongoing learning should be emphasised and monitored.

References

Ivona Orzea - Presentations for the Knowledge Management lectures

Bratianu, C. (ed.)(2009) Capitalul intelectual organizational, Bucuresti:

Editura ASE BucurestiDebowscki, S. (2006) Knowledge management, Milton: John Wiley &

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