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Symposium on evel opm en t as F reedom by martya Sen

C ollective C ap ab ili ties , C ulture ,

and A m artya Sen s eve lopmen t

as F r eedom

Peter E vans

h e n A m a r t y a S e n r e c e i v e d t h e N o b e l P r i z e i n 1 9 98 , t h e Wall Street Jour-

nal w e n t b a l li s ti c , s a y in g th a t S e n w a s r e m a r k a b l e . . . o n l y f o r t h e e x t e n t

t o w h i c h h i s r e n o w n o u t s tr i p p e d t h e q u a l i ty o f h i s w o r k . . . a n d th a t h e h a s

d o n e l it tl e b u t g iv e v o i c e t o t h e m u d d l e h e a d e d v i e w s o f t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t le f t-

i st s w h o d o m i n a t e h is w o r l d . . . ( P o l l o c k 1 9 98 ). F o r t h o s e f a m i l i a r w i t h S e n ' s

w o r k o n d e v e l o p m e n t , w i t h i t s g e n u i n e a f f e c t i o n f o r t h e p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s o f

m a r k e t s a n d g e n e r o u s q u o t a t io n s o f A d a m S m i t h , th e v i t ri o li c i n te n s i t y o f th e

a t ta c k m u s t h a v e s e e m e d p u z z l i n g . T o a c c u s e S e n , w h o s e h a l l m a r k i s c l a ri ty

a n d lo g i c a l e l e g a n c e , o f g i v i n g v o i c e t o m u d d l e h e a d e d v i e w s s u g g e s t s h y s -

t er ia . W h a t is i t a b o u t S e n ' s i d e a s t h a t m i g h t p r o v o k e s u c h h y s t e r ia ? U s i n g t h e

s y n t h e t ic a n d a c c e s s i b le p r e s e n t a t i o n o f S e n ' s v i e w s p r o v i d e d i n Development

as Freedom, I w o u l d l i k e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e Wall Street Journal s d e f e n s i v e

i n t u i t i o n s a r e c o r r e c t , t h a t S e n d o e s i n d e e d c h a l l e n g e t h e i r w o r l d v i e w m o r e

p r o f o u n d l y t h a n h is a d m i r i n g i n v o c at io n s o f A d a m S m i t h w o u l d s u g g e s t , a n d

t h a t, t h e r e f o r e , w h a t i s f r ig h t e n i n g a b o u t S e n i s p r e c i s e l y t h e c l a r it y a n d l o g i -

c a l e l e g a n c e o f h is e x p o s i t i o n . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , I w o u l d li k e t o a r g u e t h a t t h e

m o r e c h a l l e n g i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s o f S e n ' s a re l a r g e l y le f t u n e x p l o r e d i n

Develop-

ment as Freedom a n d t h a t e x p l o r i n g t h e m m a k e s t h e c a p a b il it y a p p r o a c h e v e n

m o r e p r o v o c a t i v e a n d p r o m i s i n g .

The Ch allenge of the Capa bility pproach

Development as Freedom s b a s i c p r o p o s i t i o n i s t h a t w e s h o u l d e v a l u a t e d e v e l -

o p m e n t in te r m s o f t h e e x p a n s i o n o f th e ' c a p a b i l it i e s ' o f p e o p l e t o l e a d th e

P e t e r E v a n s i s p r o f e s s o r in t h e S o c i o l o g y D e p a r t m e n t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l if o r n i a B e r k e l ey . H i s c u r r e n t

r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s f o c u s o n g l o b a l i z a t i o n a n d g l o b a l g o v e r n a n c e i n s t it u t i o n s a n d t h e i r e f f e c t s o n o r d i n a r y

c i t i z e n s . H e h a s w r i t t e n n u m e r o u s a r t i c le s a n d b o o k s o n s u b j e c t s r a n g i n g f r o m g t o b a l i z a t i o n t h e r o l e o f t h e

s t a te i n i n d u s t ri a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s s u e s . A c u r r e n t p r o j e c t s u p p o r t e d b y t h e R u s s e l l

S a g e F o u n d a t i o n e x a m i n e s p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g N o r t h - S o u t h l i n k s b e t w e e n l a b o r m o v e m e n t s a s a

s t r a te g y f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e b a r g a i n in g p o w e r o f l a b o r m o v e m e n t s i n t h e g l o b a l S o u t h .

Studies in Comparative International Development S u m m e r 2 0 0 2 V o l. 3 7 N o . 2 p p . 5 4 - 6 0 .



l~vans

k i n d o f li v e s t h e y v a l u e - - a n d h a v e r e a s o n t o v a l u e ( 1 8 ), 1 w h i c h is S e n ' s d e fi -

n i t io n o f f r e e d o m . U n l i k e in c r e a s e s i n i n c o m e , t h e e x p a n s i o n o f p e o p l e ' s c a -

p a b i l it ie s d e p e n d s b o t h o n th e e li m i n a t i o n o f o p p r e s s i o n a n d o n t h e p r o v i s i o n

o f f a c i li ti e s l i k e b a s ic e d u c a t i o n , h e a l t h c a r e , a n d s o c i a l s a f e t y n e t s . B a s i c e d u -

c a t io n , h e a l t h c a r e , a n d w o m e n ' s r i g h ts a r e t h e m s e l v e s c o n s t i tu t i v e o f d e ve l -

o p m e n t . G r o w t h i n re a l o u t p u t p e r h e a d i s a l so l ik e l y t o e x p a n d p e o p l e ' s

c a p a b i l i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y a t l o w e r l e v e l s o f i n c o m e , b u t i t c a n n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d ,

i n i ts e lf , t h e u l t i m a t e y a r d s t i c k o f d e v e l o p m e n t o r w e l l - b e in g .

T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e c a p a b i l it i e s a p p r o a c h l ie s n o t o n l y i n i ts r o l e i n

b r o a d e n i n g t h e c o r e d e f i n i t io n o f e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t a l s o i n it s e f fe c -

t i v e u t i l i z a t i o n o f S e n ' s l i f e l o n g e f f o r t s t o t h e o r i z e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y a n d n e c e s -

s it y o f s o c i a l c h o i c e . '2 D i s c o u r a g e d f r o m f o c u s i n g o n s o c i a l c h o i c e b y K e n n e t h

A r r o w ' s b r i l li a n t a n a l y s i s d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e i m p o s s i b i l i ty o f c o n s i s t e n t s o c i a l

c h o i c e r e s u l ts u n d e r w h a t s e e m e d l ik e a q u i t e r e a s o n a b l e s e t o f c o n d i t i o n s ( A r -

r o w 1 9 51 , 1 9 6 3 ), e c o n o m i s t s h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t a n d a b l y l e e r y o f e m p h a s i z i n g

t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p o l it ic a l d e b a t e a n d d i s c u s s i o n i n s e t ti n g t h e g o a l s o f d e v e l-

o p m e n t .

S e n h a s a t t a c k e d t h i s r e l u c t a n c e w i t h i m p r e s s i v e e f f e c t iv e n e s s . F i r s t, h e h a s

u s e d h i s s k i l ls a t f o r m a l a n a l y s i s t o a r g u e c o n v i n c i n g l y t h a t in c r e a s i n g t h e

a m o u n t o f in f o r m a t i o n t a k e n i n to c o n s i d e r a t i o n in m a k i n g a d e c i s i o n , f o r e x -

a m p l e , a l l o w i n g e v e n r e l a ti v e ly c r u d e i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m p a r i s o n s o f i n d iv i d u a l

u t i li t ie s , r e t u r n s s o c i a l c h o i c e t o t h e r e a l m o f p o s s i b il i ty . H a v i n g s h o w n t h a t

s o c i a l c h o i c e i s p o s s i b l e , h e t h e n g o e s o n t o s u g g e s t th a t i t i s n e c e s s a r y . T h e r e

a r e t w o s u b - p a r t s t o t h i s a r g u m e n t . F i r s t , h e a r g u e s t h a t r e a l i n c o m e s a r e a n

a n a l y t i c a l l y i n a d e q u a t e m e t r i c f o r m a k i n g w e l f a r e c o m p a r i s o n s ( 7 9 - 8 0 ) , a n d

t h a t t h e u t il i ta r i a n e f f o r t s to r e d u c e w e l l - b e i n g ( a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e g o a l s o f d e -

v e l o p m e n t ) t o o n e h o m o g e n e o u s g o o d th i n g ( 77 ) ( re a l i n c o m e s a s a m e a n s

o f s a t i s f y i n g s u b j e c t i v e p r e f e r e n c e s ) a r e e q u a l l y i n a d e q u a t e . 3 H e g o e s o n t o

a r g u e th a t t h e r e is th u s a st r o n g m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c a s e f o r e m p h a s i z i n g th e

n e e d t o a s s i g n e x p l i c i tl y e v a l u a ti v e w e i g h t s t o d i f f e re n t c o m p o n e n t s o f q u a l i ty

o f l if e ( o r o f w e l l - b e i n g ) a n d t h e n t o p la c e t h e c h o s e n w e i g h t s f o r o p e n p u b l i c

d i s c u s s i o n a n d c r i t ic a l s c r u t i n y ( 8 1 ). T h e r e f o r e , w e c a n n o t i n g e n e r a l t a k e

p r e f e r e n c e s a s g i v e n i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f p u b l i c d i s c u s s i o n ( 1 53 ) , a n d a p r o p e r

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h a t e c o n o m i c n e e d s a r e - - t h e i r c o n t e n t a n d t h e ir f o r c e - -

r e q u i re s d i s c u s s i o n a n d e x c h a n g e ( 1 53 ) .

T h e u p s h o t o f S e n ' s a r g u m e n t is a ls o t w o f o l d . F ir s t, d e v e l o p m e n t a s th e

e x p a n s i o n o f c i ti z e n s ' c a p a b i l i t ie s ( i. e ., t h e i r a c c e s s a n d o p p o r t u n i t y to d o t h i n g s

t h a t t h e y h a v e r e a s o n t o v a l u e ) i m p l i e s a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t s e t o f a l l o c a t i o n a l

d e c i s i o n s a n d g r o w t h s t r a t e g i e s t h a n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e a l - i n c o m e f r a m e w o r k

( d e s p i t e t h e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n t h e m ) . S e c o n d , i t i m p l i e s t h a t c h o i c e s a b o u t t h o s e

a l l o ca t io n s an d g r o w t h s t ra t eg ie s m u s t b e d em o cr a t i c , n o t j u s t i n t h e t h i n s en s e

o f h av i n g l ead e r s h i p s u cc es s i o n d e t e r m i n ed b y a r eg u l a r e lec t o r a l p r o ces s , b u t i n

t h e t h i c k s e n s e o f m e s s y a n d c o n t in u o u s in v o l v e m e n t o f t h e c i ti z e n r y i n t h e

s e t ti n g o f eco n o m i c p ri o r it ie s . A n d , t h i s d em o cr a t i c im p e r a t i v e d o es n o t f l o w f r o m

t h e f ac t t h a t d em o cr a cy i s also a g o o d t h i n g . I t f l o w s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t it i s n o t

p o s s i b l e t o e v a l u a t e e c o n o m i c o u t p u t s w i t h o u t s u c h f u l l - f l e d g e d d i s c u s s i o n

a n d e x c h a n g e . S m a l l w o n d e r t h e Wall Street ournal i s u p s e t .



56 Studies in Com parat ive International Deve lopment Summ er 2 2

The Wall Street Journal is not, however, nearly as upset as it might be. De-

spite the radical character of his critique, Sen continues to be a good Manches-

ter liberal. Classic liberal exaltation of the individual and an implicit acceptance

of individual (as opposed to social) preferences as exogenous still characterize

his work. His analysis focuses on individuals and their relation to an overall

social context, not on collectivities as the necessary link between the two. In

practice, my ability to choose the life I have reason to value often hangs on the

possibility of my acting together with others who have reason to value similar

things. Individual capabilities depend on collective capabilities. In fact, as Sen's

own formulations about the importance of public discussion and interchange

imply, the capability of choosing itself may be, in essence, a collective rather

than an individual capability. Sen chooses not to explore these implications.

Conversely, he also refrains from exploring the ways in which the concentra-

tion of economic power over the means of producing and diffusing culture

might compromise my capability to decide what things I have reason to value.

Reflecting on questions of collective capabilities and culture makes the capa-

bility approach much more threatening to elite guardians of tradition (32)

like the

Wall Street Journal

ollect ive apabilit ies

Gaining the freedom to do the things that we have reason to value is rarely

something we can accomplish as individuals. For those already sufficiently

privileged to enjoy a full range of capabilities, collective action may seem

superfluous to capability, but for the less privileged attaining development as

freedom requires collective action. Organized collect ivities--unions, political

parties, village councils, women's groups, etc .-- are fundamental to people's

capabilities to choose the lives they have reason to value. They provide an

arena for formulating shared values and preferences, and instruments for pur-

suing them, even in the face of powerful opposition.

One of Sen's favorite cases, the Indian state of Kerala, offers a useful illus-

tration. Sen highlights Kerala's provision of social services and its ability to

transform reproductive attitudes in a non-coercive way, based on much dis-

cussion and debate. What he does not highlight is the extent to which this

climate of discussion and debate is built on the foundation of a highly devel-

oped set of mobilizing organizations, beginning with political parties and trade

unions, and running through the Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (People's Sci-

ence Organization) (see, for example, Heller 1999). These organizational ve-

hicles make the deliberative processes Sen celebrates possible. Fostering the

expansion of such means of collective action is central to the expansion of

freedom.

As in the case of Sen's other bases for freedom, the opportunity to join peers

in collective action is valuable because of its intrinsic importance as well as

its instrumental effec tiveness...t o promote freedoms of other kinds (xii).

Some of the greatest intrinsic satisfactions in life arguably come from social

interaction with others who share our interests and values- -friends, families,

communities, and other groups. These sorts of interactions are not just sources



Evans 7

o f u t il it y , t h e y a re a l so c e n t r a l t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f o u r i d e n t i ti e s , v a l u e s ,

a n d g o a ls . T h e y a r e f u n d a m e n t a l in o u r ef f o rt s to f ig u r e o u t w h a t w e h a v e

r e a s o n to v a lu e . A t th e s a m e t i m e , o p p o r t u n i t ie s f o r c o l l e c ti v e a c ti o n ar e

c l e a rl y o f i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e i n s e c u r i n g t h e o t h e r k i n d s o f f r e e d o m s t h a t S e n

e n u m e r a t e s - - f r o m t r a n s p a r e n c y t o s o c i a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o p r o t e c t i v e s e c u r i t y

( s e e p p . 3 8 - 4 0 ) . O f c o u r s e , t h e s e o t h e r f r e e d o m s , in tu r n , e n h a n c e p o s s i b i l it i e s

f o r c o l le c t i v e a c t io n , b u t w i d e s p r e a d o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n c a n n o t

b e t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d e v e n w h e n o t h e r f r e e d o m s a r e p r e se n t .

D e m o c r a t i c e l e c t i o n s a n d c i v i l r i g h t s m a y b e p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r p o l i t i c a l l y

p o t e n t a s s o c i a t io n a l l if e . N a t u r a ll y o c c u r r i n g f o r m s o f a s s o c i a t io n a l l i f e - - a s

i n f a m i l i e s a nd n e i g h b o r h o o d s - - m a y p r o v i d e a b a s is f o r th e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f

m o r e p u r p o s i v e o r g a n i z a ti o n s . N o n e t h e l e s s , f a m i l ie s a n d n e i g h b o r h o o d s , e l ec -

t io n s a n d c iv i l r i g h t s - - e v e n i n so c i e ti e s w h e r e b a s i c l it e ra c y i s w i d e s p r e a d - -

a r e u n l i k e l y t o b e s u f f i c i e n t i n t h e m s e l v e s . D e n s e , d i v e r s e , o r g a n i z e d c o l l e c t iv e

a c t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y t o e x p l o i t t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s c r e a t e d b y e l e c t i o n s a n d c i v i l

r ig h t s, a n d c o m p l e m e n t t h e d i s p e r s e d e f f o rt s o f g r o u p s a n d i n d i v id u a l s . P u b l ic

p o l i c y t h a t e x p l ic i tl y a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c o l l e c t iv e a c t i o n , p u b l ic

m o r e s t h a t a r e o p e n t o c o n t e s t a t i o n a n d c o l l e c t i v e s t r u g g l e s , a n d f o c u s e d e f -

f o r t s t o s t i m u l a t e a n d s u s t a i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a t t r a n s c e n d p r i m o r d i a l a n d p a -

r o c h i a l in t e r e st s a r e a ll n e c e s s a r y c o m p o n e n t s i n t he q u e s t f o r d e v e l o p m e n t a s

f r e e d o m .

C u ltur e S o c i a l C h o i c e a n d P r e fe r e n c e F o r m a t i o n

A s l o n g a s re a l i n c o m e s a r e p r e s u m e d t o t r a n sl a te u n p r o b l e m a t i c a l l y in t o w e l l-

b e i n g v i a c o n s u m p t i o n c h o i c e s , a n d th e q u e s t i o n o f w h y p e o p l e p r e f e r s o m e

g o o d s a n d o u t c o m e s o v e r o t h e r s i s f ir m l y d e f i n e d a s e x o g e n o u s t o e c o n o m i c

an a l y s i s , q u es t i o n s o f p r e f e r en ces f o r m a t i o n b e l o n g t o s o m e o t h e r f i e ld o f s t u d y,

c o n n e c t e d o n l y t e n u o u s l y a n d t a n g e n ti a ll y t o e c o n o m i c s . H a v i n g a b a n d o n e d t h e

co mf o r t ab l e s a f e t y o f t h i s p o s i t i o n , t h e cap ab i l i t y ap p r o ach mu s t d ea l w i t h t h e

q u e s t io n o f c u l tu r e . S e n is c le a r th a t i n f o r m e d a n d u n r e g i m e n t e d

form tion

o f

o u r v a l u e s r e q u i r e s o p e n n e s s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d a rg u m e n t s ( 1 52 ) , b u t h e

d o e s n o t p u r s u e t h e q u e s t i o n o f h o w d i st ri b u ti o n o f e c o n o m i c p o w e r o v e r c u l tu r a l

p r o c es s e s i n t h e m o d e r n e c o n o m y m i g h t u n d e r m i n e t h e p r o c e s s e s h e a d v o c a t e s .

I n h is d i s c u s s i o n o f t ra d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e a n d v a l u e s , S e n s a y s t h a t p r e f e r e n c e s

a n d v a l u e s s h o u l d n o t b e a q u e s t i o n f o r t h e e l it e g u a r d i a n s o f tr a d i t i o n to

s e tt le ( 32 ) . S u s p i c i o u s o f t h e p r o n o u n c e m e n t s m a d e b y p e o p l e l ik e L e e K u a n

Y e w r e g a r d i n g t h e f ix e d c o n t e n t o f A s i a n v a l u e s ( 2 3 1 - 2 3 2 ), h e e m p h a s i z e s

t h e m u l t i p l e p o t e n t i a l i ti e s o f a ll g r e a t c u l t u r a l t r a d i t io n s ( 2 3 2 - 2 4 6 ) a n d a r g u e s

f o r p e o p l e b e in g a l l o w e d t o d e c i d e fr e e l y w h a t t ra d i t io n s t h e y w i s h o r d o n o t

w i s h to f o l l o w r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g f o r c e d t o o b e y t h e d e c i s i o n s b y r e l i g i o u s o r

s e c u l a r a u t h o r it ie s w h o e n f o r c e t r a d i t i o n s - - r e a l o r i m a g i n e d ( 32 ). H e i s c o n -

c e r n e d w i t h m o d e r n p o l it ic a l r e s tr i c ti o n s o n f r e e d o m a n d i s t h o r o u g h i n p re -

s e n t i n g t h e n e g a t iv e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f d i c ta t o r ia l p o l it ic s , w h e t h e r t r a d it io n a l

o r m o d e r n . L i k e w i s e , t h e n e g a ti v e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f p r e - m a r k e t f o r m s o f e co -

n o m i c o p p r e s s i o n o n c a p a b i l it ie s a r e c le a r l y s e t o u t. L a b o r e r s w o r k i n g u n d e r

c o n d i t i o n s o f b o n d a g e o r s la v e r y , s m a l l c u l t iv a t o r s d e n i e d a c c e s s t o p r o d u c t



58 Stud ies in Comp arat ive Internat ional Deve lopment Summ er 2 2

m a r k e t s , o r w o m e n p r e v e n t e d f r o m w o r k i n g o u t s id e th e h o m e a r e al l b e i n g

p r e v e n t e d fr o m l e a d in g t h e k i n d o f l iv e s t h e y v a l u e - - a n d h a v e r e a s o n to v a lu e .

W h a t i s m i s s i n g is a n a n a l y s i s o f th e e x t e n t to w h i c h m o d e r n m a r k e t p r o -

c e s s e s m i g h t c o n s t i t u te a n i m p e d i m e n t to t h e k i n d o f d e li b e r a ti v e p r e f e r e n c e

f o r m a t i o n t h a t i s e s s e n t ia l t o t h e e x p a n s i o n o f c a p a b i l i t ie s . W h i l e S e n e x p l i c -

i tl y c r it ic i z e s t h e c h o i c e - b a s e d u t i li t a ri a n i s m o f e c o n o m i c s o n g r o u n d s t h a t it s

r e l a t i o n to i n d i v i d u a l w e l l - b e i n g i s i s n o t v e r y r o b u s t , s i n c e it c a n b e e a s i l y

s w a y e d b y m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n i n g a n d a d a p t i v e a t t it u d e s ( 6 2 ), h e d o e s n o t e x -

p l o r e t h e w a y s in w h i c h i n f lu e n c e s o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n i n g m i g h t s y s t e m a t ic a l ly

r e f l ec t th e i n t e r e s ts o f t h o s e w i t h g r ea t e r e co n o m i c c l o u t an d p o l i t ic a l p o w er . S en

a c k n o w l e d g e s t h at t h e s u n d o e s n o t s e t o n th e e m p i r e o f C o c a - C o l a o r M T V

( 2 40 ) , b u t h e d o e s n ' t e x p l o r e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f th e s e k i n g d o m s f o r t h e a b i li ty

o f p e o p l e to c h o o s e t h e k i n d o f li v e s t h e y h a v e r e a s o n t o v a lu e .

T h e p r o c e s s o f p r e f e r e n c e f o r m a t i o n t h a t f l o w s f r o m m o d e r n d i s t ri b u t io n s

o f e c o n o m i c p o w e r is t h e a n t i th e s i s o f t h e p u b l ic d i s c u s s i o n , a r g u m e n t , a n d

o p e n c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a t S e n c o n s i d e r s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h e n h a n c e d c a p a b il it y .

E v e n i f w e p o s t u l a t e , a s S e n i m p l i c i t l y d o e s , a h i g h l y r a t io n a l c i ti z e n r y , f u ll y

c a p a b l e o f a s s e s s i n g w h a t i t h a s r e a s o n t o v a l u e , s u c h a c i ti z e n r y s ti ll d e p e n d s

o n a c c e s s t o i n f o r m a t i o n i n o r d e r to e v a l u a t e t h e r a n g e o f c h o i c e s a v a i la b l e .

C o n t e m p o r a r y c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t e c h n o l o g y c o n ce n t ra t e s a n d s p re a d s t h e p o w e r

t o d i s s e m i n a t e s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n to a d e g r e e u n i m a g i n a b l e i n p r e v i o u s h i st o ri -

c a l p e r i o d s . O n e d o e s n ' t n e e d a F o u c a u l d i a n v i e w o f c u l t u re i n o r d e r to a p p r e -

c i at e t h e p o w e r o f t h e v a r io u s e m p i r e s o f C o c a - C o l a o r M T V t o p r o m o t e

p r e f e r e n c e s a n d p r i o r i t i e s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e t h a t a r i s e f r o m i n d i v i d u a l s a u -

t o n o m o u s l y d e c i d i n g w h a t t h e y h a v e re a s o n to va l ue .

W h i l e th i s p r o c e s s m a y h a v e l a rg e r q u a n t it a t iv e e f f e ct s o n t h e c o n s u m p t i o n

p a t t e r n s o f c i ti z e n s i n t h e r i c h c o u n t r i e s o f th e N o r t h , i t is p a r t i c u l a r l y d i s e n -

f r a n c h i s i n g fo r t h e c i t iz e n s o f th e p o o r c o u n t r i e s o f th e S o u t h , w h o a r e S e n ' s

p r i n c i p a l c o n c e r n . F r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f g l o b a l p r o d u c e r s , t h e p r o m o t i o n

o f h o m o g e n e o u s ta s te s a n d n e e d s a c r o s s t h e w i d e s t p o s s ib l e r a n g e o f c o u n t r ie s

o b v i o u s l y e n h a n c e s t h e r e t u r n s o n t h e i r p r o d u c t i v e e f f o r t s a n d , m o r e i m p o r -

t an t , t h e ir i n t a n g i b l e a s se t s. W h i l e t h e i r p o w e r t o h o m o g e n i z e i s n o t u n l i m i t e d ,

i t i s im p r e s s i v e l y e f f e c t iv e . F r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f th e c i t i z e n s o f T h i r d

W o r l d c o u n t r ie s , a d o u b l e l o ss i s i n v o lv e d . F ir s t, w h a t e v e r p r e f e r e n c e s m i g h t

e m e r g e o u t o f t h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e s a n d w o r l d v i e w s a r e u n l i k e l y t o b e r e -

f l e c te d i n g l o b a l m e s s a g e s i n d i c a t i n g w h a t g o o d s , s e r v ic e s , a n d p r a c t ic e s a re

v a l u a b l e . S e c o n d , a s S e n p o i n t s o u t , b e i n g r e l a ti v e l y p o o r i n a r i c h c o m m u -

n i ty c a n p r e v e n t a p e r s o n f r o m a c h i e v i n g s o m e r e la t iv e l y e l e m e n t a r y

' f u n c t i o n i n g s ' ( s u c h as ta k i n g p a r t i n t h e li fe o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ) a n d m a y

a f f e c t t h e p e r s o n a l r e s o u r c e s n e e d e d f o r t h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f s e l f - r e s p e c t ( 7 1 ).

T o t h e d e g r e e t h a t g l o b a l p r o d u c e r s s u c c e e d i n d i ff u s i n g w h a t a r e e s s e n t ia l l y

r i c h c o u n t r y c o n s u m p t i o n s t a n d a r d s t h r o u g h o u t t h e g l o b e , a ll b u t th e m o s t a f-

f lu e n t c i ti ze n s o f t he S o u th b e c o m e r e la t i v el y p o o r in a r ic h c o m m u n i t y -

m u c h p o o r e r t h a n t h e y w o u l d n e e d t o b e i f t h e y h a d m o r e a b i l it y t o s h a p e

c o n s u m p t i o n st a n d a r d s b a s e d o n t h e ir o w n e x p e r i e n c e a n d r e s o u r c e s .

T h i s is a m u c h m o r e s u b tl e k i n d o f u n f r e e d o m t h a n t h e g r i n d i n g p o v e r t y

a n d u g l y o p p r e s s i o n o n w h i c h S e n r i g h t ly c o n c e n t r a t e s , b u t it d o e s h a v e r e a l



Evans 9

c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r p e o p l e ' s l i ve s l I n th e a b s e n c e o f e x p l ic i t c o u n t e r v a i li n g e f -

f o r ts , i t i s a f o r m o f u n f r e e d o m l i k e ly t o i n c r e a s e r a t h e r t h a n d e c r e a s e w i t h t h e

p a s s a g e o f ti m e . I f w e s h o u l d b e w o r r i e d t h a t t h e e li te g u a r d i a n s o f t r a d i ti o n

m i g h t s u b v e r t p e o p l e ' s a b i l it y t o c h o o s e t h e l iv e s t h e y h a v e r e a s o n t o v a l u e ,

w e s h o u l d b e e v e n m o r e w o r r i ed a b o u t t he p o w e r o f t h e e m p i r e s o f C o c a - C o l a

a n d M T V t o d o t h e s a m e th i ng .

M a k i n g e x p li c it t h e c o n t r a d ic t io n s b e t w e e n d e v e l o p m e n t a s f r e e d o m a n d

t h e i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p o w e r o v e r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f c u l tu r e , i n f o r m a -

t io n , a n d , t h e r e f o r e , p r e f e r e n c e s b r i n g s u s b a c k a g a i n t o t he q u e s t i o n o f c o l l e c -

t i v e c a p a b i l i t i e s . T h e m o s t o b v i o u s w a y t o e s t a b l i s h a c o u n t e r w e i g h t t o t h e

u n f r e e d o m o f t he e m p i r e s o f C o c a - C o l a a n d M T V is t h ro u g h p r o m o t i o n o f a

v i b r a n t a s s o c i a t i o n a l l if e t h at e n a b l e s t h e l es s p r i v i le g e d t o d e v e l o p t h e i r o w n

d i s t in c t i v e p r e f e r e n c e s a n d p r i o ri ti e s b a s e d o n th e i r s h a re d e c o n o m i c p o s i t i o n s

a n d l if e c ir c u m s t a n c e s , a n d t o d e v e l o p s h a r e d s t r a t e g ie s f o r p u r s u in g t h o s e

p r e f e r e n c e s .

C o n c l u s i o n

S e n s h o w e d h is u s u a l w i s d o m a n d a s tu t e j u d g e m e n t in k e e p i n g h is a r g u m e n t

c a r e f u l l y f o c u s e d a n d , t h e r e f o r e , e le g a n t a n d c o m p e l l i n g . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e

u n d e r s ta n d i n g a n d p u r s u i t o f d e v e l o p m e n t a s f r e e d o m m u s t g o b e y o n d t he

a r g u m e n t s h e l ay s o u t. A s t h e g l o b a l p o li t ic a l e c o n o m y m o v e s w i t h e v e r g r e a t e r

d e t e r m i n a t io n t o w a r d t h e im p l a n t a ti o n o f m o r e t h o r o u g h l y m a r k e t iz e d e c o -

n o m i c r el a ti o n s , a n a l y s t s m u s t c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y f o c u s m o r e c l o s e l y o n h o w t o

p r e v e n t m a r k e t - b a s e d p o w e r i n e q u al it ie s f r o m u n d e r m i n i n g d e v e l o p m e n t a s

f r e e d o m . C e n t r a l i z a t io n o f p o w e r o v e r t h e c u l t u ra l f l o w s t h at s h a p e p r e f e r-

e n c e s i s a m o r e su b t l e f o r m o f u n f r e e d o m t h a n t h o s e w h i c h S e n h i g h li g h ts ,

b u t n o l e s s p o w e r f u l f o r b e i n g s u b t l e . I n s t i tu t i o n a l s t r a t e g i e s f o r f a c il i t a ti n g

c o l l e c t i v e c a p a b i l it i e s a r e a s im p o r t a n t t o t h e e x p a n s i o n o f f r e e d o m a s s u s ta i n -

i n g f o r m a l e l e c t o r a l in s t i t u ti o n s . I n d e e d , w i t h o u t p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r c o l l e c t i v e

m o b i l i z a t io n f o r m a l e l e c t i o n s t o o e a s i l y b e c o m e a h o l l o w f a rc e . S e n ' s c a p a b i l -

i t y a p p r o a c h p r o v i d e s a n i n v a l u a b l e a n a l y t i c a l a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l f o u n d a t i o n

f o r th o s e i n t e r e s t e d i n p u r s u i n g d e v e l o p m e n t a s fr e e d o m , b u t it is a f o u n d a t i o n

t h a t m u s t b e b u i l t o n , n o t j u s t a d m i r e d .

N o t e s

1. All citations from

D e v e l o p m e n t a s F r e e d o m a re

referred to by pag e number only.

2. See amon g his many interventions into the social choice debate, both his Presidential Add ress

to the A merican Economic Association (Sen 1995) and his N obe l Lecture (Sen 1999).

3. For a cogen t statement of the oppo sing view, see Srinivasan 1994.

R e f e r e n c e s

Arrow, Kenneth. 1951.

Soc i a l C ho i c e a nd Ind i v i dua l Va lue s.

New York: Wiley.

. 1963.

Soc i a l C ho i c e and Ind i v i dua l Va lue s

2nd ed. N ew York: Wiley.

Heller, Patrick. 1 999.

T he L abor o f De v e l op me n t : W ork e rs and t he T rans forma t i on o f C ap i t a li sm i n

Kerala India .

Ithaca, NY: Co rnell Unive rsity Press.



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P o l l o c k , R o b e r t L . 19 98 . T h e W r o n g E c o n o m i s t W o n ? ' Wall Street Journal 15 Oc t obe r (Ed i t o r i a l ) .

S e n , Am a r t ya . 1995 . R a t i o na l i t y a nd S oc i a l C h o i c e ? ' American Economic Review P a pe rs a nd P ro -

c e e d i ng s 85 : 1 -24. [P re s i de n t i a l Ad dre s s ] .

. 1999 . The P os s i b i l i t y o f S oc i a l C ho i c e .

American Economic Review

P a pe rs a nd P ro -

c e e d i ng s 89 349 -378 . [Nob e l Le c t u re ] .

. 1999.

Development as Freedom.

N e w Y o rk : A l f r e d A . K n o p f .

S r i n iv a s a n , T . N . 1 99 4. H u m a n D e v e l o p m e n t : A N e w P a r a d i g m o r R e i n v e n t i o n o f t h e W h e e l .

American Economic Review P a pe rs a nd P roc e e d i ngs 84 : 238 -243 .