The Birth and Passing of Minicomputers: From A Digital...
91
The Birth and Passing of Minicomputers: From A Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC) Perspective 1957-1998. 41 yrs., 4 generations: transistor, IC, VLSI, clusters - winner take all How computer classes formand die. Not dealing with technology =change = disruption Gordon Bell 11 October 2006
Transcript of The Birth and Passing of Minicomputers: From A Digital...
The
Birt
h an
d P
assi
ng o
f Min
icom
pute
rs:
From
A D
igita
l Equ
ipm
ent C
orp.
(DE
C) P
ersp
ectiv
e
1957
-199
8. 4
1 yr
s., 4
gen
erat
ions
: tra
nsis
tor,
IC, V
LSI,
clus
ters
-w
inne
r tak
e al
l
How
com
pute
r cla
sses
form
�an
d di
e.
Not
dea
ling
with
tech
nolo
gy =
chan
ge =
dis
rupt
ion
Gor
don
Bel
l 11
Oct
ober
200
6
On
His
tory
�1.
"God
alo
ne k
now
s th
e fu
ture
, but
onl
y an
his
toria
n ca
n al
ter t
hepa
st."
--A
mbr
ose
Bie
rce
2."A
his
toria
n w
ho w
ould
con
vey
the
truth
mus
t lie
. Ofte
n he
mus
t en
larg
e th
e tru
th b
y di
amet
ers,
oth
erw
ise
his
read
er w
ould
not
be
able
to s
ee it
."--M
ark
Twai
n3.
"The
pas
t is
mal
leab
le a
nd fl
exib
le, c
hang
ing
as o
ur re
colle
ctio
n in
terp
rets
and
re-e
xpla
ins
wha
t has
hap
pene
d." -
-Pet
er B
erge
r4.
"His
tory
, a d
istil
latio
n of
rum
our."
--T
hom
as C
arly
le5.
"Any
one
who
bel
ieve
s yo
u ca
n't c
hang
e hi
stor
y ha
s ne
ver t
ried
tow
rite
his
mem
oirs
." _
-Dav
id B
en G
urio
n6.
"No
harm
's d
one
to h
isto
ry b
y m
akin
g it
som
ethi
ng s
omeo
ne w
ould
w
ant t
o re
ad."
--D
avid
McC
ullo
ugh
7."H
isto
ry is
the
pres
ent.
That
's w
hy e
very
gen
erat
ion
writ
es it
ane
w.
But
wha
t mos
t peo
ple
thin
k of
as
hist
ory
is it
s en
d pr
oduc
t, m
yth.
" --
E.L
. Doc
toro
w8.
"Peo
ple
alw
ays
seem
ed to
kno
w h
alf o
f his
tory
, and
to g
et it
co
nfus
ed w
ith th
e ot
her h
alf."
--J
ane
Had
dam
9."A
ll hi
stor
y be
com
es s
ubje
ctiv
e; in
oth
er w
ords
ther
e is
pro
perly
no
hist
ory,
onl
y bi
ogra
phy.
" --
Ral
ph W
aldo
Em
erso
n
Dig
ital�s
Tria
ls b
y Te
chno
logy
�W
ith ti
me,
�hig
h�te
ch b
ecom
es a
com
mod
ity.
�DE
C fo
und
guilt
y of
vio
latin
g M
oore
�s L
aw �
��gb
ell
1.D
esig
ning
and
bui
ldin
g fir
st tr
ansi
stor
circ
uits
.1957
-196
5
2.Tr
ansi
tion
to in
tegr
ated
circ
uits
& m
odul
o 8
bits
1965
-197
5
3.D
esig
n w
ith V
LSI;
man
ufac
turin
g V
LSI 1
975-
2002
4.D
esig
n of
�clu
ster
s� a
s th
e ul
timat
e co
mpu
ter 1
983-
????
5.Q
uadr
uple
wha
mm
y c1
983
��k
iller
� mic
ros,
UN
IX:
PC
, Wor
ksta
tions
, CM
OS
AN
D U
NIX
, as
�sta
ndar
ds�
Any
one
can
man
ufac
ture
r com
pute
rs in
thei
r dor
m!
�You
mea
n to
say
, our
new
EC
L m
ainf
ram
e is
not
eq
ual t
o ou
r lat
est C
MO
S c
hip?
� �K
en O
lsen
c19
906.
Fail
to e
xplo
it: n
etw
orks
, WW
W, p
rinte
rs, c
lust
ers�
http
://re
sear
ch.m
icro
soft.
com
/use
rs/g
bell/
Dig
ital/D
EC
Mus
eum
.htm
1.B
ell�s
Law
that
ope
ns th
e pa
ge a
nd is
on
my
page
and
Wik
iped
ia. I
will
ope
n w
ith a
bit
abou
t law
s.2.
Com
pute
r, O
ctob
er 1
984
that
giv
es th
e co
min
g an
d go
ing
of th
e 10
0 m
ini c
ompa
nies
. 198
4 w
as th
e tim
e of
tra
nsiti
on to
mic
ros.
Sta
rtups
use
d U
NIX
and
mic
ros
that
had
per
form
ance
com
petit
ive
with
min
is.
Als
o no
te m
y ar
ticle
in S
cien
ce o
n �M
ultis
� is
impo
rtant
bec
ause
it b
ecam
e th
e st
anda
rd g
0t c
ompu
ters
.3.
List
ing
of M
inic
ompu
ter c
ompa
nies
196
0-19
84 a
nd s
uper
-min
icom
pute
r and
min
i-sup
erco
mpu
ter c
ompa
nies
19
84-1
995.
4.D
igita
l 41
Year
His
tory
CD
publ
ishe
d 30
Apr
il, 1
998
with
key
eve
nts
and
timel
ine.
.. w
ith p
hoto
s an
d fa
cts
abou
t m
achi
nes
(alp
ha to
PD
P-1
), m
odul
e, th
e m
ill, a
nd p
eopl
e!A
nic
e re
fere
nce
with
tim
e, b
ulle
ts, a
nd p
hoto
s.5.
CO
MPU
TER
EN
GIN
EER
ING
Bell,
C. G
., C
. Mud
ge, J
. McN
amar
a,, D
igita
l Pre
ss 1
978
has
the
orig
in o
f DE
C
from
the
circ
uits
that
cam
e fro
m M
IT L
inco
ln L
abor
ator
y.It
has
the
stor
y of
how
the
PD
P-5
was
cre
ated
as
a co
mpo
nent
. PD
P-5
beg
ot th
e P
DP
-8 th
at w
as th
e �c
lass
ic� o
r arc
hety
pica
l min
i.Th
e sa
me
stor
y ca
n be
told
ab
out m
icro
s as
com
pone
nts.
6.Th
e Be
ll A
ppen
dix
for E
dgar
H. S
chei
n's
book
�DE
C is
Dea
d, L
ong
Live
DE
C�B
eret
t-Koe
hler
Pub
lishe
rs, S
an
Fran
cisc
o, 2
003.
The
app
endi
x de
scrib
es B
ell's
vie
w o
f Wha
t Hap
pene
d su
ch th
at D
igita
l was
firs
t sol
d to
C
ompa
q in
199
8 an
d th
ento
HP
in 2
002.
Dig
ital a
ka D
EC
was
onl
y 41
yea
rs o
ld.
It ha
s so
me
tech
nolo
gy, b
ut it
is
man
agem
ent t
oo.
I am
not
a fa
n of
Chr
istia
n�s
use
of D
EC a
s th
e po
ster
chi
ld to
illust
rate
Inno
vato
r�s
Dile
mm
a or
dis
rupt
ive
tech
nolo
gy�
7.N
ote
the
VA
X S
trate
gy, s
imila
r to
the
IBM
360
pla
n, a
nd th
en S
un�s
�All
the
woo
d be
hind
one
arro
w�.
8.N
ote
the
trans
ition
to d
istri
bute
d co
mpu
ting
and
the
Ethe
rnet
pre
sent
atio
n. T
he c
ompl
ete
Ethe
rnet
A
nnou
ncem
ent b
y B
ell (
Dig
ital),
Noy
ce (I
ntel
), an
d Li
ddle
(Xer
ox) s
lides
and
scr
ipt (
PD
F 7M
B) w
as m
ade
in
New
Yor
k C
ity o
n Fe
brua
ry 1
0, 1
982
by th
e D
IX g
roup
, fol
low
ed b
yan
noun
cem
ents
in A
mst
erda
m, a
nd L
ondo
n.
Not
e m
y pr
esen
tatio
n in
clud
ed: "
the
netw
ork
beco
mes
the
syst
em"..
. Can
you
reca
ll a
sim
ilar m
antra
that
SU
N
Mic
rosy
stem
s la
ter a
ppro
pria
ted?
9.S
ee th
e th
ree
artic
les
on th
e P
DP
-11
on �t
he a
ddre
ss s
pace
pro
blem
�: a.
Bell,
C. G
� a
nd W
. Wul
f, "A
New
Arc
hite
ctur
e fo
r Min
i-Com
pute
rs --
The
DE
C P
DP
-11,
SJC
C, p
p. 6
57-6
75
(197
0).
b.W
hat w
e le
arne
d fro
m th
e P
DP
-11,
pub
lishe
d by
mys
elf a
nd B
ill S
treck
er in
197
5.
c.R
etro
spec
tive
on th
e P
DP
-11
Bill
Stre
cker
with
a re
trosp
ectiv
e ab
out V
AX a
nd A
lpha
, 199
5.
10.
Fam
ily T
ree
of D
igita
l's C
ompu
ters
Pos
ter c
reat
ed in
198
0, s
how
s th
e ev
olut
ion
of a
ll of
all
com
pute
r mod
els
and
times
they
wer
e in
trodu
ced
sinc
e 19
60�
my
favo
rite
way
to re
pres
ent h
isto
ryB
ob S
upni
k ha
s si
mul
ator
s fo
r the
DEC
mac
hine
s P
aper
s on
Sim
ulat
ion
and
His
toric
Sys
tem
s.
Sea
rchi
ng fo
r spe
cific
mac
hine
s an
d pe
ople
usu
ally
get
a lo
t mor
e th
an y
ou w
ant o
r nee
d. E
.g.
http
://w
ww
.pdp
8.or
g/, w
ww
.pdp
11.o
rgw
ww
.pdp
10.o
rg, w
ww
.vax
.org
are
site
s ab
out s
peci
fic m
inis
incl
udin
g si
mul
ator
s.ht
tp://
en.w
ikip
edia
.org
/wik
i/Dig
ital_
Equ
ipm
ent_
Cor
pora
tion
lists
all
the
mac
hine
fam
ilies.
The
41 y
ear l
ife a
nd tr
ials
of
Dig
ital E
quip
men
t Cor
p. a
ka D
EC
�19
60: B
irth
of D
EC fr
om M
IT L
inco
ln L
ab�
its
evol
utio
n�
1965
-198
4+?:
Birt
h an
d de
ath
of th
e m
inic
ompu
ter i
ndus
trybu
ilt w
ith L
SI t
o be
repl
aced
by
mul
tiple
, mic
ropr
oces
sors
�Th
eory
: Bel
l�s L
aw (o
f Com
pute
r Cla
sses
)�
1978
: VA
X a
nd th
e V
AX
Stra
tegy
to b
ecom
e nu
mbe
r 2�
1985
-: P
Cs,
wor
ksta
tions
, �ki
ller m
icro
s� a
nd s
tand
ards
take
on
all
com
ers
�Th
e D
EC
Org
aniz
atio
n an
d C
ultu
re...
Wha
t hap
pene
d?�
Sum
mar
y�
�S
torie
s�
PDP-
1; IT
T St
ore
& Fo
rwar
d Sw
itch�
UA
RT
�PD
P-6
from
PD
P-3.
Com
pile
r�
PDP-
5 ho
w it
was
cre
ated
& P
DP-
8�
PDP
-11
at C
MU
�VA
X a
nd V
AX S
trate
gy�
add
ress
bit
prob
lem
�Et
hern
et D
IX, L
iddl
e,
Dig
ital�s
aka
DE
C�s
Orig
in a
nd P
lan
�
1957
: Ken
Ols
en, H
arla
n A
nder
son,
Sta
n O
lsen
--le
ave
MIT
�s L
inco
ln L
abor
ator
y as
tran
sist
or
circ
uit a
nd c
ompu
ter d
esig
ners
; col
lect
$70
K
from
Am
eric
an R
esea
rch
and
Dev
elop
men
t �V
CB
usin
ess
plan
: des
ign,
man
ufac
ture
, sel
l log
ic
mod
ules
� a
nd e
vent
ually
use
the
earn
ings
and
m
odul
es fo
r bui
ldin
g co
mpu
ters
See
als
o w
ww
.com
pute
rhis
tory
.org
http
://re
sear
ch.m
icro
soft.
com
/use
rs/g
bell/
Dig
ital/D
ECM
useu
m.h
tm
Mov
ie c
eleb
ratin
g th
e P
DP
-1 B
irth,
Spa
cew
ar, e
tc.
http
://w
ww
.com
pute
rhis
tory
.org
/eve
nts/
inde
x.ph
p?id
=114
2978
073
Som
e Fi
nanc
ial &
Siz
e, D
ates
, Fac
toid
s19
57: F
ound
ed @
$70
K. 5
Mhz
logi
c m
odul
es. P
rofit
able
1st
yr
@$9
4K. 6
0p. K
en O
lsen
, CE
O &
Ben
Gur
ley,
PD
P-1
@$1
4K19
59: M
emor
y te
st e
quip
men
t usi
ng s
yste
m m
odul
es;
1960
: 1st. P
DP
-1de
liver
y to
BB
N;
1964
: $1.
8M R
&D
, 1/6
of r
even
ue19
65: $
15M
. PD
P-5
(the
Min
i), P
DP
-6 (T
imes
harin
g);1
966:
$23
M;
1971
: $14
7M. P
DP
-11;
197
2: 7
.8K
p, $
200M
; 197
7: $
1B38
Kp;
19
78: V
AX
& V
AX
Stra
tegy
;197
9: $
1.8b
; 198
0: 2
00K
C, $
2B;
1982
: VA
X C
lust
ers.
$4B
, 369
KC
, 67K
p, F
ortu
ne 1
37th; 1
984:
$5B
, 19
88 1
20K
p la
rges
t in
MA
&N
H; 6
2 co
untri
es, 4
75 s
ales
offi
ces
$11.
4B re
venu
e, $
1.3
billi
on in
net
pro
fits,
mar
ket c
ap $
23.9
bi
llion
(10t
h in
US
), Fo
rtune
38.
NU
MB
ER
2!
1992
: Alp
ha, B
ob P
alm
er, f
orm
er V
P D
EC
Sem
is, a
ppoi
nted
CE
O19
98: C
ompa
q A
cqui
res
DE
C @
age
41.
All
exce
ptP
alm
er lo
se!
2002
: HP
acq
uire
s C
ompa
q.
Firs
t DE
C B
uild
ing
Blo
cks
and
Logi
c M
odul
es
PD
P-1
pro
toty
pe w
ith
sepa
rate
con
sole
. 18
bit
wor
d� p
atte
rned
afte
r Li
ncol
n La
b TX
-0
40 w
ere
sold
ITT:
mes
sage
sw
itchi
ng
PD
P-5
Initi
al d
esig
n w
as fo
r da
ta c
olle
ctio
n fo
r an
expe
rimen
tal r
eact
or
in C
anad
a� A
/D, I
/O
bus,
12-
bit w
ord
Bus
ines
s W
eek
Bus
ines
s W
eek,
M
arch
196
4(r
ecal
l 4/7
/196
4)
DE
C F
amily
Tre
e 19
57-1
980
60x70x80
PDP-
1,4
�15
18-b
it
PDP-
6�10
Firs
t
Com
mer
cial
Tim
e-sh
arin
g
PDP-
8 (1
2 bi
ts)
esta
blis
hed
The
clas
s of
Min
icom
pute
rs
PDP-
11�
16 b
its
VAX
32 b
its
VLSI
18 b
it an
d 12
bit
fam
ily
The
41 y
ear l
ife a
nd tr
ials
of
Dig
ital E
quip
men
t Cor
p. a
ka D
EC
�19
60: B
irth
of D
EC
from
MIT
Lin
coln
Lab
� it
s ev
olut
ion
�19
65-1
984+
?: B
irth
and
deat
h of
the
min
icom
pute
r ind
ustr
ySh
ift to
8 b
it w
ord
with
intr
oduc
tion
of th
e IB
M S
yste
m 3
60.
�Th
eory
: Bel
l�s L
aw (o
f Com
pute
r Cla
sses
)�
1978
: VA
X a
nd th
e V
AX
Stra
tegy
to b
ecom
e nu
mbe
r 2�
1985
-: P
Cs,
wor
ksta
tions
, �ki
ller m
icro
s� a
nd s
tand
ards
take
on
all c
omer
s �
The
DE
C O
rgan
izat
ion
and
Cul
ture
... W
hat h
appe
ned?
�Su
mm
ary�
�St
orie
s�
PD
P-1
; ITT
Sto
re &
For
war
d Sw
itch�
UA
RT
�P
DP
-6 fr
om P
DP
-3. C
ompi
ler
�P
DP
-5 h
ow it
was
cre
ated
& P
DP
-8�
PD
P-1
1 at
CM
U�
VA
X an
d V
AX
Stra
tegy
� a
ddre
ss b
it pr
oble
m�
Eth
erne
t DIX
, Lid
dle,
Tech
/Com
pute
rGen
erat
ions
�19
47 T
rans
isto
r�
1958
IC�
1971
400
4 M
icro
proc
esso
r�
1960
1st
Tran
s. C
omp.
; 64�
8bi
ts�
1979
-83
Ethe
rnet
/LA
Ns
(DIX
)�
1966
1st
IC C
ompu
ters
�19
65-8
5+ M
ini e
ra (1
00 c
ompa
nies
)�
1975
1st
Mic
ro-c
ompu
ters
�19
81,4
IB
M P
C, M
AC
; u�s
& U
NIX
�19
88 �
clus
ters
= th
e co
mpu
ter
�19
92 �
WW
W;1
000s
of m
icro
s�
1960
DEC
PD
P-1
�19
65 D
EC P
DP-
5 (m
ini a
rche
type
); D
EC P
DP-
6 (ti
mes
harin
g)�
1970
, 75
DEC
PD
P-11
,LSI
-11
�19
78; 8
4; 9
2 D
EC V
AX;
uVA
X , A
lpha
�19
82 D
EC P
Cs
�19
83 D
EC V
AX
Clu
ster
s..V
AX
stra
tgy
�19
92 D
ECA
ltavi
sta
Min
icom
pute
r def
initi
ons
c197
0, 7
1w
ith in
trodu
ctio
n of
PD
P-1
1
Min
icom
pute
rs (f
or m
inim
al c
ompu
ters
) are
a s
tate
of m
ind;
the
curre
nt
logi
c te
chno
logy
, �, a
re c
ombi
ned
into
a p
acka
ge w
hich
has
the
smal
lest
co
st. A
lmos
t the
sol
e de
sign
goa
l is
to m
ake
the
cost
low
; �. A
ltern
ativ
ely
stat
ed: t
he h
ardw
are-
softw
are
trade
offs
for m
inic
ompu
ter d
esig
n ha
ve, i
n th
e pa
st, f
avor
ed s
oftw
are.
H
AR
DW
AR
E C
HA
RA
CTE
RIS
TIC
SM
inic
ompu
ter m
ay b
e cl
assi
fied
at le
ast t
wo
way
s:I.
It is
the
min
imum
com
pute
r (or
ver
y ne
ar it
) tha
t can
be
built
with
the
stat
e of
the
art t
echn
olog
y.2.
It is
that
com
pute
r tha
t can
be
purc
hase
d fo
r a g
iven
, rel
ativ
ely
min
imal
, fix
ed c
ost (
e.g.
, $10
K in
197
0).
91 M
inic
ompu
ter
com
pani
es 1
984
DG
, DE
C, H
P,
IBM
�
surv
ived
by
1990
X XXX
PD
P-1
1 to
VA
X
The
41 y
ear l
ife a
nd tr
ials
of
Dig
ital E
quip
men
t Cor
p. a
ka D
EC
�19
60: B
irth
of D
EC fr
om M
IT L
inco
ln L
ab�
its
evol
utio
n�
1965
-198
4+?:
Birt
h an
d de
ath
of th
e m
inic
ompu
ter i
ndus
try�
Theo
ry: B
ell�s
Law
(of C
ompu
ter C
lass
es)
�19
78: V
AX
and
the
VA
X S
trate
gy to
bec
ome
num
ber 2
�19
85-:
PC
s, w
orks
tatio
ns, �
kille
r mic
ros�
and
sta
ndar
ds ta
ke
on a
ll co
mer
s �
The
DE
C O
rgan
izat
ion
and
Cul
ture
... W
hat h
appe
ned?
�Su
mm
ary�
�S
torie
s�
PDP-
1; IT
T St
ore
& Fo
rwar
d Sw
itch�
UA
RT
�PD
P-6
from
PD
P-3.
Com
pile
r�
PDP-
5 ho
w it
was
cre
ated
& P
DP-
8�
PDP
-11
at C
MU
�VA
X a
nd V
AX S
trate
gy�
add
ress
bit
prob
lem
�Et
hern
et D
IX, L
iddl
e,
Com
putin
g La
ws
Com
putin
g La
ws
Bel
l�s L
aw o
f Com
pute
r Cla
sses
&
thei
r For
mat
ion
the
Que
st�
to m
ove
or e
ncod
e th
e en
tire
wor
ld in
to c
yber
spac
e
Econ
omic
s-ba
sed
law
s de
term
ine
the
mar
ket
�Dem
and:
dou
bles
as
pric
e de
clin
es b
y 20
%�L
earn
ing
curv
es: 1
0-15
% c
ost d
eclin
e w
ith 2
X un
its th
at e
nabl
e M
oore
�s L
aw a
nd o
ther
ha
rdw
are
tech
nolo
gy e
volu
tion
�Bill
�s L
aw fo
r the
eco
nom
ics
of P
C s
oftw
are
�Nat
han�
s La
ws
of S
oftw
are
--th
e vi
rtuo
us
circ
le�M
etca
lfe�s
Law
of t
he �
valu
e of
a n
etw
ork�
�Com
pute
r cla
sses
form
and
evo
lve
just
like
m
odes
of t
rans
port
atio
n, re
stau
rant
s, e
tc.
Softw
are
Econ
omic
s: B
ill�s
Law
Pric
ePr
ice
Fixe
d_co
stFi
xed_
cost
Mar
gina
l _co
stM
argi
nal _
cost
==U
nits
Uni
ts++
�Bill
Joy
�s la
w (S
un):
NO
sof
twar
e fo
r <10
0,00
0 pl
atfo
rms
@$1
0 m
illio
n en
gine
erin
g ex
pens
e, $
1,00
0 pr
ice
�Bill
Gat
e�s
law
: NO
sof
twar
e fo
r <1,
000,
000
plat
form
s @
$10M
eng
inee
ring
expe
nse,
$10
0 pr
ice
�Exa
mpl
es:
�UN
IX v
ersu
s W
indo
ws
NT:
$3,
500
vers
us $
500
�Ora
cle
vers
us S
QL-
Serv
er:
$100
,000
ver
sus
$6,0
00�N
o sp
read
shee
t or p
rese
ntat
ion
pack
on
UN
IX/V
MS/
...�C
omm
oditi
zatio
n of
bas
e so
ftwar
e an
d ha
rdw
are
Innovatio
n
The
Virt
uous
Eco
nom
ic C
ycle
th
at d
rives
the
PC in
dust
ry
Volume
Com
petit
ion
Stan
dard
sUtil
ity/va
lue
!Tr
ansi
stor
den
sity
dou
bles
ev
ery
18 m
onth
s 60
% in
crea
se p
er y
ear
�C
hip
dens
ity tr
ansi
stor
s/di
e �
Mic
ro p
roce
ssor
spe
eds
!Ex
pone
ntia
l gro
wth
:�
The
past
doe
s no
t mat
ter
�10
x he
re, 1
0x th
ere
�m
eans
REA
L ch
ange
!PC
cos
ts d
eclin
e fa
ster
than
any
oth
er
plat
form
�Vo
lum
e an
d le
arni
ng c
urve
s�
PCs
are
the
build
ing
bric
ks o
f all
futu
re s
yste
ms
Moo
re�s
Firs
t Law
128K
B12
8KB
128M
B12
8MB
2000
2000
8KB
8KB
1MB
1MB
8MB
8MB
1GB
1GB
1970
1970
1980
1980
1990
1990
1M1M16
M16
Mbi
ts:
1Kbi
ts:
1K4K4K
16K
16K
64K
64K
256K
256K
4M4M64
M64
M25
6M25
6M
1 ch
ip m
emor
y si
ze1
chip
mem
ory
size
( 2 M
B to
32
MB
)( 2
MB
to 3
2 M
B)
Com
pute
r com
pone
nts
mus
t al
l evo
lve
at th
e sa
me
rate
�Am
dahl
�s la
w: o
ne in
stru
ctio
n pe
r sec
ond
requ
ires
one
byte
of m
emor
y an
d on
e bi
t per
sec
ond
of I/
O�S
tora
ge e
volv
ed a
t 60%
; afte
r 199
5: 1
00�P
roce
ssor
per
form
ance
evo
lved
at 6
0%.
�Clo
ck P
erfo
rman
ce fl
at >
1995
unt
il m
ulti-
core
s�M
ulti
proc
esso
rs.
�Gra
phic
s Pr
oces
sing
Uni
t to
expl
oit
para
llelis
m�W
ide
Are
a N
etw
ork
spee
d ev
olve
d at
>60
%�L
ocal
Are
a N
etw
ork
spee
d ev
olve
d 26
-60%
� G
rove
�sLa
w:P
lain
Old
Tele
phon
eSe
rvic
e
Com
putin
g La
ws
Com
putin
g La
ws
Min
icom
pute
r pric
e de
clin
e
The
clas
ses,
san
s ph
ones
, 200
6
year
log (people per computer)
Mai
nfra
me
Min
icom
pute
r
Wor
ksta
tion
PCLa
ptop PD
A??
?
Dav
id C
ulle
r UC
/Ber
kele
y
The
clas
ses,
san
s ph
ones
, 200
6
year
log (people per computer)
Mai
nfra
me
Min
icom
pute
r
Wor
ksta
tion
PCLa
ptop PD
A??
?
Dav
id C
ulle
r UC
/Ber
kele
y
Sca
labl
e co
mpu
ters
Inte
rcon
nect
ed v
ia IP
Evo
lutio
n of
cla
sses
c 1
985
Sci
ence
Bel
l Vie
w 1
985
with
the
intr
o of
Mul
tis
Cop
yrig
ht G
Bel
l and
J G
ray
1996
33
How
Will
Fut
ure
Com
pute
rs B
e B
uilt?
Thes
is: S
NA
P:Sc
alab
le N
etw
orks
and
Pla
tform
s�
upsi
ze fr
om d
eskt
op to
wor
ld-s
cale
com
pute
r�
base
d on
a fe
w s
tand
ard
com
pone
nts
Bec
ause
: �
Moo
re�s
law
: exp
onen
tial p
rogr
ess
�St
anda
rdiz
atio
n &
com
mod
itiza
tion
�St
ratif
icat
ion
and
com
petit
ion
Whe
n: S
oone
r tha
n yo
u th
ink!
�m
assi
ve s
tand
ardi
zatio
n gi
ves
mas
sive
use
�
econ
omic
forc
es a
re e
norm
ous
Net
wor
kPl
atfo
rm
Cop
yrig
ht G
Bel
l and
J G
ray
1996
34
Cla
ss c
onfli
ct w
ith S
NA
P
1980
1990
2000
234567 1log(
$)
min
is
mai
nfra
mes
Pock
et o
rgan
izer
& P
DA
x= c
lass
con
flict
wor
ksta
tions
PCs
X XSN
AP
1,00
0�s
?10
,000
�s ?
100,
000s
?1,
000,
000s
?
Larg
e se
rver
s� n
ew s
ervi
ces
are
adde
d �i
n fl
ight
�
La
rge
serv
ers�
new
ser
vice
s ar
e ad
ded
�in
flig
ht�
Bel
l�s L
aw o
f C
ompu
ter C
lass
esH
ardw
are
tech
nolo
gy im
prov
emen
ts i.
e. M
oore
�s
Law
for s
emis
,� d
isks
, ena
ble
two
evol
utio
nary
pa
ths(
t) fo
r com
pute
rs:
1. c
onst
ant p
rice,
incr
easi
ng p
erfo
rman
ce
2. C
onst
ant o
r dec
reas
ing
perf
orm
ance
, de
crea
sing
cos
t by
a fa
ctor
O(1
0)X
.. le
adin
g to
new
str
uctu
res
or a
new
com
pute
r cl
ass!
Bel
l�s L
aw o
f C
ompu
ter C
lass
esTe
chno
logy
ena
bles
two
evol
utio
nary
pat
hs:
1. c
onst
ant p
erfo
rman
ce, d
ecre
asin
g co
st2.
con
stan
t pric
e, in
crea
sing
per
form
ance
1.26
= 2
x/3
yrs
1.26
= 2
x/3
yrs
----10
x/de
cade
; 1/1
.26
= .8
10x/
deca
de; 1
/1.2
6 =
.81.
6 =
4x/
3 yr
s 1.
6 =
4x/
3 yr
s ----
100x
/dec
ade;
1/1
.6
= .6
210
0x/d
ecad
e; 1
/1.6
=
.62
Min
iM
ini
????Ti
me
Tim
e
Mai
nfra
mes
(cen
tral
)M
ainf
ram
es (c
entr
al)
PCs
(per
sona
ls)
PCs
(per
sona
ls)
Log price Log price
WSs
WSs
Con
spira
cies
: Why
old
com
pani
es
can�
t cre
ate
new
com
pute
r cla
sses
�
Pric
e, p
erfo
rman
ce, a
nd c
lass
of
var
ious
goo
ds &
ser
vice
sC
ompu
ter p
rice
= $1
0 x
10
clas
s#
Com
pute
r wei
ght =
.05
x 10
clas
s#
Car
pric
e =
$6K
x 1
.5 cl
ass
#
Tran
spor
tatio
n a
rtifa
ct p
rices
=
k x
$10
type
(sho
es,..
.car
s,...
trai
ns,..
. IC
BM
s)
Fren
ch R
esta
uran
ts(t=
'95)
=f(a
mbi
ance
, loc
atio
n) x
$25
x 1
.5 st
ars
Plat
form
, Int
erfa
ce, &
Net
wor
k C
ompu
ter C
lass
Ena
bler
sNetworkInterfacePlatform
�The
C
ompu
ter�
Mai
nfra
me
tube
, cor
e,
drum
, tap
e,
batc
h O
/S
dire
ct >
ba
tch
Min
i &
Tim
esha
ring
SSI-M
SI, d
isk,
tim
esha
re
O/S
term
inal
s vi
a co
mm
ands
POTS
PC/W
S
mic
ro, f
lopp
y,
disk
, bit-
map
di
spla
y, m
ouse
, di
st�d
O/S
WIM
P
LAN
Web
bro
wse
r,
PC, s
cala
ble
serv
ers,
Web
, HTM
L
Inte
rnet
Bel
l�s L
aw o
f Com
pute
r Cla
sses
�Ev
ery
Dec
ade
a ne
w c
lass
em
erge
s�E
very
dec
ade
a ne
w, l
ower
(1/1
0) c
ost c
lass
of c
ompu
ters
em
erge
to c
over
cyb
ersp
ace
with
aN
ew c
ompu
ting
plat
form
New
Inte
rfac
e to
hum
ans
or a
par
t of p
hysi
cal w
orld
New
net
wor
king
and
/or i
nter
conn
ect s
truc
ture
New
cla
sses
-->
new
app
s -->
new
indu
strie
s�T
he c
lass
es�
a d
ecad
e in
pric
e ev
ery
deca
de60
s$m
illio
nsm
ainf
ram
es80
s
$10K
wor
ksta
tions
& P
Cs;
MIC
RO
s70
s
$10K
-100
Km
inis
90s
$1
KPC
s00
s
$100
s PD
As
& c
ellp
hone
s10
s$1
0SF
F& C
PSD
s, s
enso
rs, m
otes
��
Bel
l�s N
ine
Com
pute
r Pric
e Ti
ers
Supe
r ser
ver:
cos
ts m
ore
than
$10
0,00
0�M
ainf
ram
e�:
cost
s m
ore
than
$1
mill
ion
an a
rray
of p
roce
ssor
s, d
isks
, tap
es, c
omm
port
s
1$:
em
bedd
able
se.
g. g
reet
ing
card
10$:
w
rist w
atch
& w
alle
t com
pute
rs10
0$:
pock
et/ p
alm
com
pute
rs1,
000$
:po
rtab
le c
ompu
ters
10,0
00$:
pe
rson
al c
ompu
ters
(des
ktop
)10
0,00
0$:
depa
rtm
enta
l com
pute
rs (c
lose
t)1,
000,
000$
:si
te c
ompu
ters
(gla
ss h
ouse
)10
,000
,000
$:re
gion
al c
ompu
ters
(gla
ss c
astle
)10
0,00
0,00
0$:
natio
nal c
ente
rs
SAP
IV.
Appl
icat
ion/
Cont
ent
III.
Infra
stru
ctur
e
II.Pr
oces
sing
I.St
orag
e/Ph
ysic
al
Hie
rarc
hyof
Val
ue:
Inte
l
Mic
roso
ft
IBM
Appl
e
HPpr
inte
rs
Ora
cle EM
C
AOL
Tim
e W
arne
r
Yaho
o
Sun Co
mpa
q (to
HP
2002
)
HPco
mpu
ters
Dell
DEC
Appl
eiT
unes
Noki
a ce
ll ph
ones
Cis
co
Emer
genc
e of
Dom
inan
t Des
ign:
198
1
1955
1985
1980
1975
1990
1995
1970
1965
1950
1960
2000
1945
Tran
s-is
tor
(194
7)
Inte
grat
edCi
rcui
t(1
958)
Unix
O/S
(197
0)
RISC
Arch
’(1
986)
16-b
it
32-
bit
Mic
ropr
oces
sor
(197
8)
(19
79)
HTM
L/W
WW
(199
3)
TCP/
IPIn
tern
et(1
969)
Tech
nolo
gica
lIn
nova
tions
GUI
(198
1)
2005
V.Ne
uman
nAr
ch’
(194
5)
Mag
netic
Stor
age
(~19
55)
1945
Min
i-Co
mpu
ter
(196
5)
Opt
ical
Stor
age
(198
2)
Linu
xO
/S(1
991)
The
Vert
ical
Dis
-inte
grat
ion
of th
e IT
Indu
stry
: Th
e R
ise
of C
ateg
ory
Kille
rs
1981
1975
1968
1972
1957
1977
1984
1977
1979
1985
1994
1982
1982
1966
1984
1952
2003
1984
Goo
gle
1998
Pro
vide
d C
ourte
sy o
f Pau
l Kam
pas
©A
ll R
ight
s R
eser
ved
Pyr
amid
of n
etw
orke
d -c
ompu
ting,
co
mm
unic
atin
g, a
nd s
tora
ge d
evic
esLa
rge
serv
ice
clus
ters
e.g
. Am
azon
,G
oogl
e, M
SN�
Cor
pora
te s
ervi
ces
Top
500
tech
nica
l com
pute
rs �
Fam
ily P
C, H
ome
&
ente
rtai
nmen
t net
s
Smal
l For
m F
acto
r inc
l. C
PSD
s
Ubi
quity
Land
: (fix
ed) m
achi
nes,
room
s,
high
way
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nviro
nmen
tal p
lace
s, e
tc.
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ile: i
dent
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ate
tags
an
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s, c
ars,
equ
ipm
ent,
� y
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ronm
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pute
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putin
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putin
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pute
r Ind
ustr
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82So
lutio
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lutio
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licat
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App
licat
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OS
Com
pute
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ompu
ters
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esso
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oces
sors
IBM
IBM
IBM
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CD
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DE
CH
PH
PH
PN
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NC
RN
CR
Com
putin
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ws
Com
putin
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ws
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tegr
atio
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rmin
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Hor
izon
tal C
ompu
ter I
ndus
try
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oriz
onta
l in
tegr
atio
nis
new
str
uctu
re!
Each
laye
r pi
cks
best
from
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wer
laye
r!
All
laye
rs ru
n //
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eskt
op (C
/S)
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ket
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1: 5
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l & S
eaga
teIn
tel &
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licon
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xide
Syst
ems
Syst
ems
Bas
ewar
eB
asew
are
Mid
dlew
are
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dlew
are
App
licat
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App
licat
ions
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SAP
Ora
cle
Ora
cle
Mic
roso
ftM
icro
soft
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paq
Com
paq
Inte
grat
ion
Inte
grat
ion
EDS
EDS
Ope
ratio
nO
pera
tion
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TA
T&T
Func
tion
Func
tion
Exam
ple
Exam
ple
Cou
rtesy
And
y G
rove
Stru
ctur
e of
indu
stry
aro
und
DE
C c
1982
Com
putin
g La
ws
Com
putin
g La
ws
Bel
l�s L
aw o
f Com
pute
r Cla
sses
&
thei
r For
mat
ion
End
The
41 y
ear l
ife a
nd tr
ials
of
Dig
ital E
quip
men
t Cor
p. a
ka D
EC
�19
60: B
irth
of D
EC fr
om M
IT L
inco
ln L
ab�
its
evol
utio
n�
1965
-198
4+?:
Birt
h an
d de
ath
of th
e m
inic
ompu
ter i
ndus
try�
Theo
ry: B
ell�s
Law
(of C
ompu
ter C
lass
es)
�19
78: V
AX
and
the
VAX
Stra
tegy
to b
ecom
e nu
mbe
r 2�
1985
-: P
Cs,
wor
ksta
tions
, �ki
ller m
icro
s� a
nd s
tand
ards
take
on
all
com
ers
�Th
e D
EC
Org
aniz
atio
n an
d C
ultu
re...
Wha
t hap
pene
d?�
Sum
mar
y�
�S
torie
s�
PDP-
1; IT
T St
ore
& Fo
rwar
d Sw
itch�
UA
RT
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P-6
from
PD
P-3.
Com
pile
r�
PDP-
5 ho
w it
was
cre
ated
& P
DP-
8�
PDP
-11
at C
MU
�VA
X a
nd V
AX S
trate
gy�
add
ress
bit
prob
lem
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hern
et D
IX, L
iddl
e,
PD
P-1
1 to
VA
X
VA
X-A
Blu
eboo
k 1
Apr
il 19
75B
ell,
Cut
ler,
Has
tings
, Lar
y, R
othm
an, S
treck
er
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re is
onl
y on
e m
ista
ke th
at c
an b
e m
ade
in a
com
pute
r de
sign
that
is d
iffic
ult t
o re
cove
r fro
m �
not p
rovi
ding
en
ough
add
ress
bits
for m
emor
y ad
dres
sing
and
mem
ory
man
agem
ent.
The
PD
P-1
1 fo
llow
ed th
e un
brok
en tr
aditi
on
of n
early
eve
ry k
now
n co
mpu
ter.
VA
X
Pla
nnin
g M
odel
Gor
don
Bel
l�s 1
975
VA
X P
lann
ing
Mod
el...
I D
idn�
t Bel
ieve
It!
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: Mem
ory
is5x
: Mem
ory
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% o
f cos
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% o
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: DE
C m
arku
p3x
: DE
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arku
p.0
4x:
$ pe
r by
te.0
4x:
$ pe
r by
te""
Did
nD
idn ��
t bel
ieve
:t b
elie
ve:
the
proj
ectio
nth
e pr
ojec
tion
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mac
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ould
nC
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n ��tt
com
preh
end
com
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impl
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ions
impl
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ions
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$
10.K
$
100.
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$
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100,
000.
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1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
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KB
256
KB
1 M
B8
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Syst
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VAX/
VMS
Stra
tegy
(c19
78)
�a
hom
ogen
eous
, dis
trib
uted
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putin
g sy
stem
, whe
re
user
s in
terf
ace,
sto
re in
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atio
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pute
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ogra
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ing
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xtra
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k:�
via
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uste
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arge
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pute
rs u
sing
CI,
�at
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l min
is, w
orks
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ns, &
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ster
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inte
rfac
es to
indu
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ndar
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stem
s,�
inte
rcon
nect
ed v
ia L
AN
s (E
ther
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gree
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t was
es
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ial),
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pus
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Ns
DE
C V
alu
e M
igra
tion
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88
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92
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Market Value (Billions of Dollars)
So
urc
e: C
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ue
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wth
Dat
abas
e
Cou
rtesy
Pet
e D
eLis
i
The
41 y
ear l
ife a
nd tr
ials
of
Dig
ital E
quip
men
t Cor
p. a
ka D
EC
�19
60: B
irth
of D
EC
from
MIT
Lin
coln
Lab
�its
evo
lutio
n�
1965
-198
4+?:
Birt
h an
d de
ath
of th
e m
inic
ompu
ter i
ndus
try�
Theo
ry: B
ell�s
Law
(of C
ompu
ter C
lass
es)
�19
78: V
AX
and
the
VA
X S
trate
gy to
bec
ome
num
ber 2
�19
85-:
�kill
er m
icro
s�en
able
PC
s, w
orks
tatio
ns, a
nd
stan
dard
s to
take
on
all c
omer
s�
The
DE
C O
rgan
izat
ion
and
Cul
ture
... W
hat h
appe
ned?
�Su
mm
ary�
�S
torie
s�
PD
P-1
; ITT
Sto
re &
For
war
d S
witc
h�U
AR
T�
PD
P-6
from
PD
P-3
. Com
pile
r�
PD
P-5
how
it w
as c
reat
ed &
PD
P-8
�P
DP
-11
at C
MU
�V
AX
and
VAX
Stra
tegy
�ad
dres
s bi
t pro
blem
�E
ther
net D
IX, L
iddl
e,
Mot
orol
a 68
K, U
NIX
Lic
ense
, PC
Sta
ndar
d:An
yone
can
man
ufac
ture
com
pute
rs
get (
UN
IX L
icen
se, d
evel
oper
s)
Mul
tis: M
ultip
le, s
hare
d m
emor
y M
icro
proc
esso
rs (B
ell,
Sci
ence
4/2
5/19
85)
TTL
& E
CL
to
CM
OS
tran
sitio
n�En
ter t
he �
Kill
er M
icro
�!
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Cha
lleng
e: D
ealin
g w
ith te
chno
logy
tra
nsiti
ons
and
any
ensu
ing
stan
dard
sTe
chno
logy
= C
hang
e =
Dis
rupt
ion
�19
57: V
acuu
m tu
be to
Tra
nsis
tor c
ircui
ts (h
igh
bar)
�19
65: T
rans
isto
rs to
ICs�
100
min
i com
pani
es�
1971
: 8 b
it M
icro
proc
esso
r >>
mas
ter V
LSI;
1981
: IB
M P
C >
> fa
ilure
to e
mbr
ace,
onl
y ex
tend
�19
83: V
LSI o
verta
kes
TTL
AN
D E
CL>
> 90
00 fa
il�
1984
+?+:
UN
IX a
nd 3
2-bi
t mic
ros
>> s
tand
ards
fail
�Eith
er m
ake
the
stan
dard
, or f
ollo
w th
e st
anda
rd.
If yo
u fa
il to
set
the
stan
dard
, you
get
to d
o it
twic
e.�
�19
92: W
WW
Alta
vist
a, s
erve
rs, c
lient
s. M
rkt�n
gfa
il.
Dig
ital�s
Tria
ls b
y Te
chno
logy
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ith ti
me,
hig
h te
ch b
ecom
es a
com
mod
ity.
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C fo
und
guilt
y of
vio
latin
g M
oore
�s L
aw �
��gb
ell
1.D
esig
ning
and
bui
ldin
g fir
st tr
ansi
stor
circ
uits
.1957
-196
5
2.Tr
ansi
tion
to in
tegr
ated
circ
uits
& m
odul
o 8
bits
1965
-197
5
3.D
esig
n w
ith V
LSI;
man
ufac
turin
g V
LSI 1
975-
2002
4.D
esig
n of
�clu
ster
s� a
s th
e ul
timat
e co
mpu
ter 1
983-
????
5.Q
uadr
uple
wha
mm
y c1
983
��k
iller
� mic
ros,
UN
IX:
PC
, Wor
ksta
tions
, CM
OS
AN
D U
NIX
, as
�sta
ndar
ds�
Any
one
can
man
ufac
ture
r com
pute
rs in
thei
r dor
m!
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mea
n to
say
, our
new
EC
L m
ainf
ram
e is
not
eq
ual t
o ou
r lat
est C
MO
S c
hip?
� �K
en O
lsen
c19
906.
Fail
to e
xplo
it: n
etw
orks
, WW
W, p
rinte
rs, c
lust
ers�
Kam
pas�
Pro
s &
Con
s pr
oduc
ts-L
eadi
ng 1
2, 1
6, 3
2-bi
t min
is
& O
S�s
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ding
vid
eo te
rmin
als
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ding
prin
ting
term
inal
s
(LA
-xx)
, firs
t des
ktop
lase
rs-F
irst w
ww
pro
duct
s-L
eadi
ng O
EM b
usin
ess
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ding
offi
ce s
oftw
are
-Effe
ctiv
e di
visi
onal
str
uctu
re
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roVA
X II
(M68
000
+ 8y
rs)
-VA
X 86
00 (8
yea
rs a
fter 7
80)
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X 90
00 w
as u
nsuc
cess
ful
>$1B
inve
stm
ent (
1990
)-R
ISC
/Alp
ha (v
ia M
IPS;
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year
s af
ter S
un/H
P)-N
ever
fully
end
orse
d U
nix
Ols
en: �
snak
e oi
l�-L
ate
to T
CP/
IP fr
om O
SI
-Lat
e to
IBM
-com
patib
le P
C
-(Rai
nbow
, Pro
, DEC
mat
e)-F
aile
d to
div
isio
naliz
e-F
aile
d at
low
cos
t cap
abili
ty-In
the
end:
SEV
EN P
latfo
rms
VAX,
X86
, MIP
S an
d U
nixe
s
Pro
vide
d C
ourte
sy o
f Pau
l Kam
pas
©A
ll R
ight
s R
eser
ved
1955
1985
1980
1975
1990
1995
1970
1965
1950
1960
2000
1945
Tim
e
PDP-1
PDP-8
MicroVAX
PDP-11
IBM S/360
IBM 7090
ENIAC
Univac I
DEC
Foun
ded
(195
7)
DEC
Acq
uire
d(1
998)
Ken
Ols
enR
esig
ns(1
992)
DEC
�sB
est Y
ear
(198
7)
DEC
Ent
ers
Fort
une
500
(197
4)
IBM PC/MS-DOS
MIT WhirlwindJay Forrester/
Ken Olsen
Rainbow/Pro
IBM 701
IBM 1401
Sun & HP RISC
MIPS Wkstn
Oth
erPr
oduc
ts
Alpha
VAX 9000
PDP-10
Apple II
Palm Pilot
Unix
NT
Linux
FORTRAN
DEC
Org
aniz
atio
n:Fu
nctio
nal
Har
dwar
ePr
oduc
t Lin
esM
arke
t/Cha
nnel
Prod
uct L
ines
Fu
nctio
nal
Varie
d
Apple Mac
VAX 750
VAX 8600
VAX 780
DEC
Prod
ucts
SunCompaq
Para
digm
3: 1
981+
-PC
s +
Wor
ksta
tions
+ S
erve
rs +
Han
dhel
ds-C
lient
-Ser
ver C
ompu
ting
+ B
row
sers
/WW
W-H
oriz
onta
l Pro
duct
Inte
grat
ion
(Inte
l + M
icro
soft
+ C
isco
+
Ora
cle
+ S
eaga
te +
HP
Prin
ters
�)
Open Software Foundation
DEC
Pro
prie
tary
Des
ign
Cro
ss-v
endo
r Dom
inan
t Des
ign
Prod
uct
Line
sA
bolis
hed
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Para
digm
1: 1
951
-196
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ainf
ram
es C
ompu
ters
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ch C
ompu
ting
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tical
Pro
duct
Inte
grat
ion
(IBM
, �B
unch
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Pre
curs
orP
recu
rsor
Pre
curs
or
DEC
Situ
atio
n:
RIS
C +
Uni
x or
NT
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inux
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racl
e +
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IP +
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tel P
C +
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Win
dow
s +
MS-
Offi
ce +
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wse
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X +
VMS
+ R
db +
DEC
net +
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PS +
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00D
omin
ant
Des
ign
Emer
ges
-Lat
e to
Mic
roVA
X II
(8 y
ears
afte
r M68
000)
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e to
VAX
860
0 (8
yea
rs a
fter 7
80)
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900
0 w
as u
nsuc
cess
ful $
1B in
vest
men
t (19
90)
-Lat
e to
RIS
C/A
lpha
(via
MIP
s; 6
yea
rs a
fter S
un/H
P)-N
ever
fully
end
orse
d U
nix
(�sna
ke o
il�)
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e in
mov
ing
from
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to T
CP/
IP s
tand
ard
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e to
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le P
C (v
ia R
ainb
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ro, D
ECm
ate)
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er s
ucce
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lly re
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ever
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ieve
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ost c
apab
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ding
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32-
bit m
inis
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S�s
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ding
vid
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rintin
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rmin
als
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xx)
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ding
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ines
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eadi
ng o
ffice
sof
twar
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ffect
ive
divi
sion
al s
truc
ture
Gor
don
Bel
l Res
igns
1983
Para
digm
2: 1
965
-198
1-M
inic
ompu
ters
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esha
red
Com
putin
g-V
ertic
al P
rodu
ct In
tegr
atio
n (IB
M,
DE
C, H
P)
The
Ris
e an
d Fa
ll of
DEC
: An
nota
ted
Tim
elin
e
1st�
Cre
atio
n2n
d�
Ris
e 3r
d�
Pla
teau
4t
h�
Dec
line
The
Four
Age
s of
DEC
:
The
41 y
ear l
ife a
nd tr
ials
of
Dig
ital E
quip
men
t Cor
p. a
ka D
EC
�19
60: B
irth
of D
EC
from
MIT
Lin
coln
Lab
�its
evo
lutio
n�
1965
-198
4+?:
Birt
h an
d de
ath
of th
e m
inic
ompu
ter i
ndus
try�
Theo
ry: B
ell�s
Law
(of C
ompu
ter C
lass
es)
�19
78: V
AX
and
the
VA
X S
trate
gy to
bec
ome
num
ber 2
�19
85-:
PC
s, w
orks
tatio
ns, �
kille
r mic
ros�
and
stan
dard
s ta
ke
on a
ll co
mer
s �
The
DEC
Org
aniz
atio
n an
d C
ultu
re...
Wha
t hap
pene
d?�
Sum
mar
y�
�S
torie
s�
PD
P-1
; ITT
Sto
re &
For
war
d S
witc
h�U
AR
T�
PD
P-6
from
PD
P-3
. Com
pile
r�
PD
P-5
how
it w
as c
reat
ed &
PD
P-8
�P
DP
-11
at C
MU
�V
AX
and
VAX
Stra
tegy
�ad
dres
s bi
t pro
blem
�E
ther
net D
IX, L
iddl
e,
Cro
ss-s
ectio
nal V
iew
of t
he D
EC O
rgan
izat
iona
l Sys
tem
c.1
970s
: �T
he D
EC W
ay�
Exte
rnal
Env
iron
men
t
Res
ults
Cul
tura
l A
ssum
ptio
ns
Lea
d,
Org
aniz
e &
Sup
port
Exec
ute
(Ope
ratio
ns)
Stra
tegy
, G
oals
&Pr
iori
ties
Cul
tura
l Sou
rces
(c.1
940s
-50s
)
Fairl
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eak
CFO
, m
arke
ting
&
busin
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agem
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Hea
dy te
chni
cal
com
mun
ity n
eede
d an
d ha
d a
brill
iant
lead
er
(Gor
don
Bel
l)
Det
erm
ine
valid
ity
thro
ugh
deba
te, b
uy-
in th
roug
h co
nsen
sus
Hed
ge b
ets b
y of
ferin
g m
ultip
le p
rodu
cts a
nd
letti
ng th
e m
arke
t de
cide
Avo
id e
xter
nal
depe
nden
cies
and
in
tern
al
divi
sion
aliz
atio
n
Mar
ketin
g do
ne v
ia D
ECU
S an
d Pr
oduc
t Lin
es; m
uch
of it
DEC
en
gine
er to
cus
tom
er te
chie
s
DEC
was
goo
d at
inno
vativ
e an
d la
ter
soph
istic
ated
pro
duct
s
DEC
was
typi
cally
slow
in
getti
ng to
mar
ket a
nd n
ot a
lo
w-c
ost p
rodu
cer
DEC
gre
w in
to a
lmos
t ev
ery
hard
war
e an
d so
ftwar
e se
gmen
t
DEC
had
goo
d re
latio
ns w
ith
early
ado
pter
s
DEC
�s P
DP-
8, 1
0,
11, a
nd V
AX
wer
e ve
ry su
cces
sful
DEC
was
pro
fitab
le d
ue to
hi
gh g
row
th a
nd IB
M p
rice
umbr
ella
DEC
�s p
ropr
ieta
ry
suite
of H
W &
SW
w
as v
ery
succ
essf
ul
DEC
was
su
cces
sful
go
ing
it al
one
Mot
ivat
e th
roug
h in
tern
al c
ompe
titio
nTe
chni
cal e
litis
m: w
e ca
n an
d w
ant t
o bu
ild
supe
rior p
rodu
cts
Let/e
ncou
rage
eve
ryon
e to
inno
vate
and
be
entre
pren
euria
lSt
rive
to b
e a
valu
ed
mem
ber o
f the
fam
ily
Mos
t m
arke
ting
is ly
ing
A g
ood
prod
uct
sells
itse
lfW
e ca
n do
itbe
tter t
han
othe
rs
DEC
is a
tigh
t-kni
t, in
divi
dual
istic
, in
war
dly
focu
sed
fam
ily
If yo
u m
ake
good
pr
oduc
ts, m
oney
will
na
tura
lly fo
llow
Ever
yone
is
empo
wer
ed, s
elf-
man
agin
g,eg
alita
rian
We
are
smar
ter t
han
othe
rs
Tech
nolo
gy
driv
es b
usin
ess
MIT
Hon
esty
Fam
ilyPe
rson
al
resp
onsib
ility
Yan
kee
Chr
istia
n V
alue
s
Entre
pren
euria
l I
ndep
ende
nt
Am
eric
an R
ugge
d In
divi
dual
ism
Partn
ersh
ips,
allia
nces
, ou
tsour
cing
, etc
wer
e no
t hig
hly
impo
rtant
The
indu
stry
m
oved
qui
te
slow
ly w
ith lo
ng
prod
uct c
ycle
s
IBM
�s p
rovi
ded
a hi
gh
pric
ing
umbr
ella
and
the
mar
ket w
as g
row
ing
rapi
dly
Mar
ket w
as m
ostly
ea
rly a
dopt
ers (
end-
user
and
OEM
)
Cus
tom
ers w
ante
d in
tegr
ated
pro
duct
so
lutio
ns, b
ut fe
w
stan
dard
s exi
sted
Low
-cos
t, en
d-us
er
com
pute
rs w
ere
only
ju
st e
mer
ging
to
war
ds th
e en
d of
th
is e
ra
Prov
ided
Cou
rtesy
of P
aul K
ampa
s ©A
ll R
ight
s Res
erve
d
Sour
ce:
Kam
pas
Res
earc
h
Wha
t Doe
s a
Tech
nolo
gy
Com
pany
Loo
k Li
ke?
(A lo
ok a
t Mic
roso
ft an
d D
igita
l aka
DE
C)
Gor
don
Bel
lP
ersp
ectiv
e fro
m th
e de
pths
of
Mic
roso
ft R
esea
rch
Thre
e pa
rt co
mpa
rison
with
MS
FT
�O
bser
vatio
ns o
n hi
gh te
ch o
rgan
izat
ion
cultu
res
base
d on
my
expe
rienc
e at
Dig
ital a
ka D
EC
, M
icro
soft,
and
var
ious
hig
h te
ch s
tartu
ps�
Is it
sca
labl
e?
�Bu
ilt p
rodu
ctiv
ely
on a
ppro
pria
te te
chno
logy
?
Mic
roso
ft S
ecre
ts
Cus
uman
oan
d S
elby
1.O
rgan
izin
g an
d m
anag
ing
the
com
pany
�Fi
nd s
mar
t peo
ple
who
kno
w te
chno
logy
&
busi
ness
Hiri
ng p
ool,
inte
rvie
ws,
turn
-ove
r�2.
Man
agin
g cr
eativ
e pe
ople
and
tech
nica
l ski
lls
�Sm
all t
eam
s, o
verla
ppin
g fu
nctio
nal s
peci
alis
ts3.
Com
pete
with
pro
duct
s an
d st
anda
rds
NO
T br
and
Bod
ies!
�Pi
onee
r and
orc
hest
rate
mas
s m
arke
ts�
try
man
y4.
Def
inin
g pr
oduc
ts a
nd d
evel
opm
ent p
roce
sses
�Fo
cus
crea
tivity
on
evol
utio
n an
d fix
ing
reso
urce
s5.
Dev
elop
and
shi
p pr
oduc
ts
�D
o it
in p
aral
lel,
sync
hron
ize
and
stab
ilize
6.B
uild
a le
arni
ng o
rgan
izat
ion
�Im
prov
e th
roug
h co
ntin
uous
sel
f-crit
iqui
ng,
feed
back
, and
sha
ring
7.A
ttack
the
futu
re�
be o
r be
in, t
he m
ains
trea
m�
hom
e, g
ames
, SA
AS/
SAS
(SW
as
Ser
vice
s),
Mic
roso
ft�
Prod
uct a
nd p
roce
ss. A
rchi
tect
ure
for /
/ dev
elop
men
t�
HB
R A
rticl
e: A
rchi
tect
ure,
inte
rface
s, in
t/ext
dev
elop
ers
�G
row
ing,
incr
easi
ngly
val
uabl
e pl
atfo
rm�
Smal
l tea
ms,
inte
rcon
nect
with
syn
c�
One
dev
elop
men
t site
w/ r
esea
rch.
Lar
ge c
apita
l exp
endi
ture
s.�
Com
mon
lang
uage
. Com
mon
dev
elop
men
t env
ironm
ent.
�w
hole
com
pany
test
s (w
e ea
t our
ow
n do
g fo
od)
�N
o si
ngle
poi
nt o
f dev
elop
er fa
ilure
�M
anag
ers
who
cre
ate
tech
nolo
gy, m
ake
tech
nica
l dec
isio
ns�
Qui
ck d
ecis
ion
mak
ing
re. b
usin
ess
etc.
issu
es�
Feed
back
from
use
rs�
e.g.
Do
you
wan
t to
send
this
to M
S?
�Le
arn
from
the
past
�v3
is g
reat
�Tr
y th
ings
, don
�t gi
ve u
p�be
pre
pare
d to
fail
vod,
web
tv, �
�A
n un
ders
tand
ing
and
appr
ecia
tion
for t
he in
divi
dual
�st
ock
�R
esea
rch!
DE
C C
ultu
ral B
elie
fs (E
d S
chei
n m
s.)
unco
nsci
ous,
sha
red,
taci
t ass
umpt
ions
1.
�Rat
iona
l & A
ctiv
e P
robl
em S
olvi
ng�
2.G
ivin
g P
eopl
e Fr
eedo
m W
ill M
ake
Them
Res
pons
ible
3.
Res
pons
ibili
ty m
eans
Bei
ng o
n To
p of
One
�s J
ob, a
nd
owni
ng o
ne�s
ow
n P
robl
ems.
(He
who
pla
ns, d
oes.
)4.
�Tru
th th
roug
h C
onfli
ct�a
nd �B
uy-In
�5.
Inte
rnal
Com
petit
ion
and
�Let
the
Mar
ket D
ecid
e�6.
Man
agem
ent b
y P
assi
on, b
ut W
ork
shou
ld b
e Fu
n an
d En
joya
ble.
Ben
ign
Man
ipul
atio
n or
Con
trolle
d C
haos
7.
Per
petu
al L
earn
ing
8.Lo
yalty
and
Life
Tim
e E
mpl
oym
ent
9.M
oral
com
mitm
ent t
o cu
stom
ers
Dig
ital a
ccor
ding
to S
chei
n
�In
divi
dual
ism
�Tr
uth
thro
ugh
conf
lict
�Pe
rson
al re
spon
sibi
lity
�En
gine
erin
g ar
roga
nce
�M
arke
t com
petit
ion�
let i
t dec
ide
�Pa
tern
alis
tic c
omm
itmen
t to
peop
le�
Org
aniz
atio
nal i
deal
ism
�M
oral
com
mitm
ent t
o cu
stom
ers
Dig
ital-g
b1
�G
reat
resp
onsi
bilit
y, fr
eedo
m, a
nd tr
ust i
n th
e in
divi
dual
. �
�Do
the
right
thin
g.�
Ope
n do
or-e
mai
l. Sc
alab
ility
is a
pro
blem
.�
Pate
rnal
istic
org
aniz
atio
n.
��H
e w
ho p
ropo
ses,
doe
s.�
Very
littl
e w
as to
p-do
wn
�Pr
oduc
t man
ager
s ar
e pa
rt o
f the
pro
duct
(c
onfli
ct a
t low
leve
l)�
Smal
l, re
spon
sibl
e te
ams.
Mak
e th
eir o
wn
sche
dule
s.�
CD
C: C
ray
left,
mac
hine
s ob
sole
te, E
TA h
ad n
o le
gacy
, Pric
e (C
E0) t
houg
ht to
p de
cide
s, b
otto
m
exec
utes
�C
onfli
ct is
goo
d. C
ame
from
sta
rtin
g fr
om M
.I.T.
Dat
a de
cide
s�
OK
to h
ave
com
petin
g an
d ov
erla
ppin
g te
chno
logy
/pro
ject
s/pr
oduc
ts,
but k
now
whe
n to
cut
them
! Whe
n D
EC s
tart
ed d
own,
it h
ad a
lmos
t 10
plat
form
s
Dig
ital g
b-2
�Fo
cus
on C
usto
mer
. Le
t the
m d
ecid
e th
e st
rate
gy.
�Pr
ofit
is e
ssen
tial �
all p
rodu
cts
wer
e m
easu
red
��E
ither
mak
e th
e st
anda
rd o
r fol
low
it, i
f you
fail
to
mak
e th
e st
anda
rd y
ou g
et to
do
it tw
ice.
�IB
M P
C
vers
us 3
��M
ake
wha
t you
can
sel
l, no
t wha
t you
can
buy
.�Th
eref
ore:
sel
l eve
ryth
ing
you
mak
e.�
sem
i�
Wilk
es: �
Stay
in th
e m
ains
trea
m��
SOS,
EC
L�
Bew
are
of c
ompl
ex s
truc
ture
s. B
uyer
-sel
ler
rela
tions
hips
ver
sus
mat
rix
DE
C: S
chei
n V
iew
of W
hat�s
Lea
rned
�1. D
on�t
judg
e a
com
pany
by
its p
ublic
face
. 2.
A c
ultu
re o
f inn
ovat
ion
does
not
sca
le u
p; �
func
tiona
l fam
iliar
ity�
and
�tru
th th
roug
h de
bate
�ar
e lo
st w
ith s
ize;
�do
the
right
thin
g�be
com
es d
ysfu
nctio
nal;
man
ager
ial s
ense
of r
espo
nsib
ility
ch
ange
s w
ith a
ge a
nd m
atur
ity; b
uy-in
bec
omes
sup
erfic
ial a
gree
men
t. 3.
If a
cul
ture
of i
nnov
atio
n on
ly w
orks
at a
cer
tain
sm
all s
ize,
the
orga
niza
tion
mus
t eith
er fi
nd a
way
to
brea
k aw
ay s
mal
l uni
ts th
at c
ontin
ue to
inno
vate
or a
band
on in
nova
tion
as a
str
ateg
ic p
riorit
y.
4. A
cul
ture
that
bre
eds
succ
ess
and
grow
th o
ver a
con
side
rabl
e tim
e be
com
es s
tabl
e an
d em
bedd
ed
even
if it
con
tain
s dy
sfun
ctio
nal e
lem
ents
; cha
ngin
g th
e cu
lture
mea
ns c
hang
ing
key
peop
le w
ho
are
the
cultu
re c
arrie
rs5.
Cul
ture
s ar
e so
met
imes
str
onge
r tha
n or
gani
zatio
ns
6. A
suc
cess
ful t
echn
ical
vis
ion
will
eve
ntua
lly c
reat
e its
ow
n co
mpe
titio
n an
d, th
eref
ore,
cha
nges
in
tech
nolo
gy a
nd in
the
mar
ket c
ondi
tions
; dom
inan
t des
igns
will
em
erge
and
com
mod
itiza
tion
will
oc
cur.
7. S
ucce
ssfu
l gro
wth
bas
ed o
n a
tech
nica
l vis
ion
will
hid
e bu
sine
ss p
robl
ems
and
inef
ficie
ncie
s un
til
an e
cono
mic
cris
is re
veal
s th
em o
r unt
il th
e bu
sine
ss g
ene
is s
witc
hed
on; r
ecog
nitio
n of
thos
e pr
oble
ms
will
not
nec
essa
rily
prod
uce
rem
edia
l act
ion.
8. If
a g
row
ing
busi
ness
lack
s th
e bu
sine
ss g
ene,
the
Boa
rd m
usta
ct to
intr
oduc
e th
at g
ene.
9. If
you
try
to d
o ev
eryt
hing
, you
may
end
up
not d
oing
any
thin
g ve
ry w
ell.
10. H
ow th
e m
arke
t evo
lves
may
not
refle
ct e
ither
the
best
tech
nolo
gy o
r the
mos
t obv
ious
logi
c.11
. A te
chni
cal v
isio
n th
at is
righ
t for
its
time
can
blin
d yo
u to
tech
nica
l evo
lutio
n12
. The
val
ue o
f �lis
teni
ng to
you
r cus
tom
ers�
depe
nds
upon
whi
ch c
usto
mer
s yo
u ch
oose
to li
sten
to.
13. T
he ty
pe o
f Gov
erna
nce
Syst
em a
n or
gani
zatio
n us
es m
ust e
volv
e as
the
orga
niza
tion
mat
ures
14
. The
eve
nts
and
forc
es a
ct in
uni
son�
A P
uzzl
ing
Que
stio
nW
hat w
ould
cau
se o
ne o
f the
indu
stri
al st
ars
of th
e 20
th c
entu
ry, a
nd o
ne o
f the
firs
t tru
ly
digi
tal e
cono
my
com
pani
es,a
t the
ver
y ze
nith
of
its s
ucce
ss, t
o be
gin
a pr
ecip
itous
dec
line
that
w
ould
eve
ntua
lly re
sult
in it
s dem
ise?
Cou
rtesy
Pet
e D
eLis
i
Why
did
Dig
ital f
ail (
GB
)�
The
top
3-5
exec
s di
dn�t
unde
rsta
nd c
ompu
ting
�M
oore
�s L
aw, S
tand
ards
and
thei
r effe
ct�
Plat
form
s an
d th
eir s
uppo
rt�
Leve
ls o
f int
egra
tion,
mak
e-bu
y, a
nd IS
Vs
�C
ompe
titor
met
rics:
it s
impl
y go
t �ou
t of c
ontro
l��
Des
troye
d its
mar
ketin
g or
gani
zatio
n, re
quiri
ng a
co
mpl
ex m
atrix
edor
gani
zatio
n, b
ut la
ckin
g IS
Vs�
Did
n�t e
xplo
it: p
rintin
g (e
.g. H
P),
netw
orki
ng (e
.g.
Cis
co),
the
Web
, and
UN
IX�
Did
: EC
L m
ainf
ram
e, n
on-c
ompa
tible
PC
, too
man
y pl
atfo
rms,
sem
i-fab
sw
ithou
t par
tner
ship
s
Bel
l Mas
on d
iagn
ostic
of D
EC
dig
ital
equi
pmen
t cor
pora
tion
11/9
0
1986
-198
8
GO
H
EA
D-T
O-H
EA
DW
ITH
IBM
DE
C su
cces
sful
, ot
hers
not
Mar
ketp
lace
shift
s -In
dust
ry m
atur
ity, U
NIX
No
grow
thFa
ilure
to a
ntic
ipat
eFa
ilure
to c
reat
e ne
w
grow
th m
arke
ts1.
Pol
itics
2. N
o fo
cus
3. N
o vi
sion
No
way
to c
ut c
ost
1. N
o la
yoff
s2.
Inef
ficie
ncie
s3.
Lac
k of
Pro
f mgm
t.Po
or le
ader
ship
1. F
ail t
o ac
t/dec
ide
2. F
ail t
o di
rect
3. L
oss o
f pow
er
Cen
tral
izat
ion
of p
ower
Hub
ris
P/L
s go
away
Gor
don
Bel
l lea
ves
Cul
ture
1. V
astly
inef
ficie
nt2.
Ove
rlap
& r
edun
danc
y3.
Tru
th th
roug
h co
nflic
t4.
Fam
ily b
elie
f5.
Mar
ketp
lace
dec
ides
Ken
�s M
gt. m
odel
Inco
mpe
tent
Boa
rdN
o Pr
of. M
grs
No
succ
essi
on p
lan.
Wea
k go
vern
ance
Palm
er h
ired
Lay
offs
The
End
Stra
tegy
1. N
ot v
alue
d2.
Lac
k of
kno
wle
dge
Cou
rtesy
Pet
e D
eLis
i
Dig
ital�s
Tria
ls b
y Te
chno
logy
�W
ith ti
me,
hig
h te
ch b
ecom
es a
com
mod
ity.
�DE
C fo
und
guilt
y of
vio
latin
g M
oore
�s L
aw �
��gb
ell
1.D
esig
ning
and
bui
ldin
g fir
st tr
ansi
stor
circ
uits
.1957
-196
5
2.Tr
ansi
tion
to in
tegr
ated
circ
uits
& m
odul
o 8
bits
1965
-197
5
3.D
esig
n w
ith V
LSI;
man
ufac
turin
g V
LSI 1
975-
2002
4.D
esig
n of
�clu
ster
s� a
s th
e ul
timat
e co
mpu
ter 1
983-
????
5.Q
uadr
uple
wha
mm
y c1
983
��k
iller
� mic
ros,
UN
IX:
PC
, Wor
ksta
tions
, CM
OS
AN
D U
NIX
, as
�sta
ndar
ds�
Any
one
can
man
ufac
ture
r com
pute
rs in
thei
r dor
m!
�You
mea
n to
say
, our
new
EC
L m
ainf
ram
e is
not
eq
ual t
o ou
r lat
est C
MO
S c
hip?
� �K
en O
lsen
c19
906.
Fail
to e
xplo
it: n
etw
orks
, WW
W, p
rinte
rs, c
lust
ers�
Pau
l Kam
pas�
Vie
w o
f the
Com
pute
r Ind
ustry
an
d D
EC
Fai
lure
SAP
IV.
Appl
icat
ion/
Cont
ent
III.
Infra
stru
ctur
e
II.Pr
oces
sing
I.St
orag
e/Ph
ysic
al
Hie
rarc
hyof
Val
ue:
Inte
l
Mic
roso
ft
IBM
Appl
e
HPpr
inte
rs
Ora
cle EM
C
AOL
Tim
e W
arne
r
Yaho
o
Sun Co
mpa
q (to
HP
2002
)
HPco
mpu
ters
Dell
DEC
Appl
eiT
unes
Noki
a ce
ll ph
ones
Cis
co
Emer
genc
e of
Dom
inan
t Des
ign:
198
1
1955
1985
1980
1975
1990
1995
1970
1965
1950
1960
2000
1945
Tran
s-is
tor
(194
7)
Inte
grat
edCi
rcui
t(1
958)
Unix
O/S
(197
0)
RISC
Arch
’(1
986)
16-b
it
32-
bit
Mic
ropr
oces
sor
(197
8)
(19
79)
HTM
L/W
WW
(199
3)
TCP/
IPIn
tern
et(1
969)
Tech
nolo
gica
lIn
nova
tions
GUI
(198
1)
2005
V.Ne
uman
nAr
ch’
(194
5)
Mag
netic
Stor
age
(~19
55)
1945
Min
i-Co
mpu
ter
(196
5)
Opt
ical
Stor
age
(198
2)
Linu
xO
/S(1
991)
The
Vert
ical
Dis
-inte
grat
ion
of th
e IT
Indu
stry
: Th
e R
ise
of C
ateg
ory
Kille
rs
1981
1975
1968
1972
1957
1977
1984
1977
1979
1985
1994
1982
1982
1966
1984
1952
2003
1984
Goo
gle
1998
Pro
vide
d C
ourte
sy o
f Pau
l Kam
pas
©A
ll R
ight
s R
eser
ved
Pro
vide
d C
ourte
sy o
f Pau
l Kam
pas
©A
ll R
ight
s R
eser
ved
1955
1985
1980
1975
1990
1995
1970
1965
1950
1960
2000
1945
Tim
e
PDP-1
PDP-8
MicroVAX
PDP-11
IBM S/360
IBM 7090
ENIAC
Univac I
DEC
Foun
ded
(195
7)
DEC
Acq
uire
d(1
998)
Ken
Ols
enR
esig
ns(1
992)
DEC
�sB
est Y
ear
(198
7)
DEC
Ent
ers
Fort
une
500
(197
4)
IBM PC/MS-DOS
MIT WhirlwindJay Forrester/
Ken Olsen
Rainbow/Pro
IBM 701
IBM 1401
Sun & HP RISC
MIPS Wkstn
Oth
erPr
oduc
ts
Alpha
VAX 9000
PDP-10
Apple II
Palm Pilot
Unix
NT
Linux
FORTRAN
DEC
Org
aniz
atio
n:Fu
nctio
nal
Har
dwar
ePr
oduc
t Lin
esM
arke
t/Cha
nnel
Prod
uct L
ines
Fu
nctio
nal
Varie
d
Apple Mac
VAX 750
VAX 8600
VAX 780
DEC
Prod
ucts
SunCompaq
Para
digm
3: 1
981+
-PC
s +
Wor
ksta
tions
+ S
erve
rs +
Han
dhel
ds-C
lient
-Ser
ver C
ompu
ting
+ B
row
sers
/WW
W-H
oriz
onta
l Pro
duct
Inte
grat
ion
(Inte
l + M
icro
soft
+ C
isco
+
Ora
cle
+ S
eaga
te +
HP
Prin
ters
�)
Open Software Foundation
DEC
Pro
prie
tary
Des
ign
Cro
ss-v
endo
r Dom
inan
t Des
ign
Prod
uct
Line
sA
bolis
hed
IBM S/370
Para
digm
1: 1
951
-196
5-M
ainf
ram
es C
ompu
ters
-Bat
ch C
ompu
ting
-Ver
tical
Pro
duct
Inte
grat
ion
(IBM
, �B
unch
�)
Pre
curs
orP
recu
rsor
Pre
curs
or
DEC
Situ
atio
n:
RIS
C +
Uni
x or
NT
or L
inux
+ O
racl
e +
TCP/
IP +
Win
tel P
C +
MS-
Win
dow
s +
MS-
Offi
ce +
Bro
wse
rVA
X +
VMS
+ R
db +
DEC
net +
All-i
n-1
+ W
PS +
VTx
00D
omin
ant
Des
ign
Emer
ges
-Lat
e to
Mic
roVA
X II
(8 y
ears
afte
r M68
000)
-Lat
e to
VAX
860
0 (8
yea
rs a
fter 7
80)
-VAX
900
0 w
as u
nsuc
cess
ful $
1B in
vest
men
t (19
90)
-Lat
e to
RIS
C/A
lpha
(via
MIP
s; 6
yea
rs a
fter S
un/H
P)-N
ever
fully
end
orse
d U
nix
(�sna
ke o
il�)
-Lat
e in
mov
ing
from
OSI
to T
CP/
IP s
tand
ard
-Lat
e to
IBM
-com
patib
le P
C (v
ia R
ainb
ow, P
ro, D
ECm
ate)
-Nev
er s
ucce
ssfu
lly re
-div
isio
naliz
ed-N
ever
ach
ieve
d lo
w c
ost c
apab
ility
-Lea
ding
12,
16,
32-
bit m
inis
& O
S�s
-Lea
ding
vid
eo te
rmin
als
(VT-
xx�
)-L
eadi
ng p
rintin
g te
rmin
als
(LA-
xx)
-Lea
ding
OEM
bus
ines
s-L
eadi
ng o
ffice
sof
twar
e-E
ffect
ive
divi
sion
al s
truc
ture
Gor
don
Bel
l Res
igns
1983
Para
digm
2: 1
965
-198
1-M
inic
ompu
ters
-Tim
esha
red
Com
putin
g-V
ertic
al P
rodu
ct In
tegr
atio
n (IB
M,
DE
C, H
P)
The
Ris
e an
d Fa
ll of
DEC
: An
nota
ted
Tim
elin
e
1st�
Cre
atio
n2n
d�
Ris
e 3r
d�
Pla
teau
4t
h�
Dec
line
The
Four
Age
s of
DEC
:
Cro
ss-s
ectio
nal V
iew
of t
he D
EC O
rgan
izat
iona
l Sys
tem
c.1
970s
: �T
he D
EC W
ay�
Exte
rnal
Env
iron
men
t
Res
ults
Cul
tura
l A
ssum
ptio
ns
Lea
d,
Org
aniz
e &
Sup
port
Exec
ute
(Ope
ratio
ns)
Stra
tegy
, G
oals
&Pr
iori
ties
Cul
tura
l Sou
rces
(c.1
940s
-50s
)
Fairl
y w
eak
CFO
, m
arke
ting
&
busin
ess
man
agem
ent
Hea
dy te
chni
cal
com
mun
ity n
eede
d an
d ha
d a
brill
iant
lead
er
(Gor
don
Bel
l)
Det
erm
ine
valid
ity
thro
ugh
deba
te, b
uy-
in th
roug
h co
nsen
sus
Hed
ge b
ets b
y of
ferin
g m
ultip
le p
rodu
cts a
nd
letti
ng th
e m
arke
t de
cide
Avo
id e
xter
nal
depe
nden
cies
and
in
tern
al
divi
sion
aliz
atio
n
Mar
ketin
g do
ne v
ia D
ECU
S an
d Pr
oduc
t Lin
es; m
uch
of it
DEC
en
gine
er to
cus
tom
er te
chie
s
DEC
was
goo
d at
inno
vativ
e an
d la
ter
soph
istic
ated
pro
duct
s
DEC
was
typi
cally
slow
in
getti
ng to
mar
ket a
nd n
ot a
lo
w-c
ost p
rodu
cer
DEC
gre
w in
to a
lmos
t ev
ery
hard
war
e an
d so
ftwar
e se
gmen
t
DEC
had
goo
d re
latio
ns w
ith
early
ado
pter
s
DEC
�s P
DP-
8, 1
0,
11, a
nd V
AX
wer
e ve
ry su
cces
sful
DEC
was
pro
fitab
le d
ue to
hi
gh g
row
th a
nd IB
M p
rice
umbr
ella
DEC
�s p
ropr
ieta
ry
suite
of H
W &
SW
w
as v
ery
succ
essf
ul
DEC
was
su
cces
sful
go
ing
it al
one
Mot
ivat
e th
roug
h in
tern
al c
ompe
titio
nTe
chni
cal e
litis
m: w
e ca
n an
d w
ant t
o bu
ild
supe
rior p
rodu
cts
Let/e
ncou
rage
eve
ryon
e to
inno
vate
and
be
entre
pren
euria
lSt
rive
to b
e a
valu
ed
mem
ber o
f the
fam
ily
Mos
t m
arke
ting
is ly
ing
A g
ood
prod
uct
sells
itse
lfW
e ca
n do
itbe
tter t
han
othe
rs
DEC
is a
tigh
t-kni
t, in
divi
dual
istic
, in
war
dly
focu
sed
fam
ily
If yo
u m
ake
good
pr
oduc
ts, m
oney
will
na
tura
lly fo
llow
Ever
yone
is
empo
wer
ed, s
elf-
man
agin
g,eg
alita
rian
We
are
smar
ter t
han
othe
rs
Tech
nolo
gy
driv
es b
usin
ess
MIT
Hon
esty
Fam
ilyPe
rson
al
resp
onsib
ility
Yan
kee
Chr
istia
n V
alue
s
Entre
pren
euria
l I
ndep
ende
nt
Am
eric
an R
ugge
d In
divi
dual
ism
Partn
ersh
ips,
allia
nces
, ou
tsour
cing
, etc
wer
e no
t hig
hly
impo
rtant
The
indu
stry
m
oved
qui
te
slow
ly w
ith lo
ng
prod
uct c
ycle
s
IBM
�s p
rovi
ded
a hi
gh
pric
ing
umbr
ella
and
the
mar
ket w
as g
row
ing
rapi
dly
Mar
ket w
as m
ostly
ea
rly a
dopt
ers (
end-
user
and
OEM
)
Cus
tom
ers w
ante
d in
tegr
ated
pro
duct
so
lutio
ns, b
ut fe
w
stan
dard
s exi
sted
Low
-cos
t, en
d-us
er
com
pute
rs w
ere
only
ju
st e
mer
ging
to
war
ds th
e en
d of
th
is e
ra
Prov
ided
Cou
rtesy
of P
aul K
ampa
s ©A
ll R
ight
s Res
erve
d
Sour
ce:
Kam
pas
Res
earc
h
DEC
�s P
ositi
on in
the
Evol
ving
Com
pute
r Ind
ustr
y La
ndsc
ape:
197
6 -2
001
Pro
vide
d C
ourte
sy o
f Pau
l Kam
pas
©A
ll R
ight
s R
eser
ved
Not
es: O
nly
sele
cted
sys
tem
s sh
own;
Siz
e of
bub
ble
repr
esen
ts m
arke
t cov
erag
e, n
ot n
eces
saril
y re
venu
e
IBM
Mai
nfra
mes
IBM
AS
/400
DEC
V
AX/
Alp
ha
PerformanceH
igh
Low
Tech
nica
lG
ener
al P
urpo
seC
omm
erci
alTe
chni
cal
Gen
eral
Pur
pose
Com
mer
cial
IBM
Mai
nfra
mes
IBM
S/3
, S/3
4
Sup
er-
com
pute
rs(C
DC
,C
ray-
1)
Performance
Hig
h
Low
Sup
er-
com
pute
rs
RIS
C/U
nix
Wor
ksta
tions
& S
erve
rs
Win
tel P
Cs/
Serv
ers
RIS
C/U
nix
Wor
ksta
tions
&S
erve
rs
Win
tel P
Cs/
Serv
ers
App
leM
ac
App
le M
ac
c. 1
976
c. 1
987
DEC
�s
Bes
t Ye
ar
c. 1
995
c. 2
001
Sup
er-
com
pute
rs
App
le I
Pal
m?
Son
yP
lays
tatio
n?
DE
C P
DP
-11
DE
C P
DP
-10
IBM
Mai
nfra
mes
IBM
AS
/400
Com
paq
Alp
ha
IBM
Mai
nfra
mes IB
MS
/38
DE
C V
AX
Sup
er-
com
pute
rs
RIS
C/
Uni
xW
kstn
s &
Ser
vers
Win
tel P
Cs/
Serv
ers
App
le M
ac
Performance
Hig
h
Low Performance
Hig
h
Low
Dom
inan
t Des
ign
Emer
ges
�The
recl
usiv
e Pa
lmer
was
not
wel
l-su
ited
to le
ad c
ultu
ral c
hang
e�K
en O
lsen
had
bee
n to
o ce
ntra
l to
cultu
re, m
akin
g su
cces
sion
har
d
�DE
C�s
heav
ily o
ptim
ized
Bia
s A
cu
lture
did
n�t e
volv
e w
ell
�The
cul
ture
was
diff
icul
t to
chan
ge
with
the
foun
der p
rese
nt
DE
C�s
heav
ily B
ias
A c
ultu
re w
as w
ell
alig
ned
with
pre
-dom
inan
t des
ign
stag
e of
indu
stry
�Ken
sta
rted
early
in m
akin
g cu
lture
a
stra
tegi
c w
eapo
n at
DE
C
�Bia
s A
cultu
re re
sist
s ch
ange
eve
n w
ith n
ew m
anag
emen
t�B
ias
A cu
lture
bec
omes
mal
adap
ted
and
resi
sts
chan
ge to
war
d B
ias
B��
Fam
ily re
spon
sibi
lity�
of c
ultu
re g
ets
in th
e w
ay o
f nee
ded
layo
ffs
�Bia
s A
cultu
re p
rolif
erat
es a
nd ta
kes
hold
as
it is
rein
forc
ed b
y m
uch
succ
ess
�Ken
ada
pts
MIT
/Lin
coln
Lab
s cu
lture
to D
EC
in c
reat
ing
a B
ias
A
cultu
re
Cul
ture
1.C
ost c
uttin
g w
ithou
t new
vis
ion
was
not
suf
ficie
nt to
rein
vent
a
com
pany
1.D
EC
�svi
sion
was
not
�bui
lt to
last
�2.
DE
C�s
high
leve
ls o
f org
�aut
onom
y an
d in
tern
al c
ompe
titio
n w
ere
barr
iers
to
pro
cess
inno
vatio
n an
d lo
w c
ost
1.D
EC
was
hig
hly
impr
inte
d by
this
�h
eyda
y�er
a of
gre
at s
ucce
ss,
mak
ing
chan
ges
in fu
ture
mor
e di
fficu
lt
1.D
EC
attr
acte
d an
d hi
red
the
best
an
d th
e br
ight
est e
arly
, bui
ldin
g a
stro
ng b
ase
for f
utur
e le
ader
ship
1.N
o ne
w v
isio
n em
erge
s fo
r re
inve
ntin
g D
EC
2.La
yoffs
dem
oral
ize
DE
C c
ultu
re
1.D
EC
�stim
esha
ring
visi
on ru
ns o
ut o
f ga
s as
clie
nt-s
erve
r em
erge
s2.
Sel
f-man
agin
g cu
lture
turn
s in
to
�cou
ntry
clu
b�as
com
pany
pol
itici
zes
1.D
EC
�svi
sion
of c
ompu
ting
is w
idel
y ac
cept
ed b
y th
e m
arke
t2.
Ent
repr
eneu
rial e
ngin
eers
mov
e in
to m
any
rela
ted
prod
uct c
ateg
orie
s
1.D
EC
�sfo
undi
ng v
isio
n is
to b
uild
af
ford
able
, int
erac
tive
com
pute
rs2.
Eve
ryon
e is
enc
oura
ged
to
inno
vate
Visi
on/
Driv
e
�DE
C�s
wea
k bo
ard
was
a li
abilit
y,
wai
ting
too
long
to a
ct�D
EC
�sbo
ard
shou
ld h
ave
gone
for
an o
utsi
de C
EO
�DE
C o
rg�s
truct
ure
did
not c
hang
e w
hen
indu
stry
stru
ctur
e ch
ange
d�D
EC
faile
d to
gro
w g
ener
al m
anag
ers
1.D
EC
�sco
nsen
sus
deci
sion
-mak
ing
was
poo
rly s
uite
d fo
r har
d ch
oice
s
1.Tw
o so
rt-of
-in-a
-box
(Ken
and
G
ordo
n) w
orke
d w
ell
2.D
EC
pio
neer
ed p
rodu
ct li
nes
plus
m
atrix
edfu
nctio
ns o
rg�s
truct
ure
1.P
rodu
ct in
nova
tion
and
orga
niza
tiona
l inn
ovat
ion
wer
e cl
osel
y lin
ked,
bot
h re
flect
ing
the
cultu
re
1.P
alm
er is
nam
ed C
EO
, hire
s m
any
new
exe
cs, a
nd m
oves
to
�mar
ket d
riven
�org
aniz
atio
n2.
Pal
mer
�s re
orga
niza
tion
fails
and
m
any
new
exe
cs le
ave
3.M
assi
ve la
yoffs
and
sel
l-offs
1.D
EC
stra
tegy
bec
omes
�def
ensi
ve�
2.K
en m
oves
from
dev
il�s
advo
cate
to
advo
cate
3.P
rodu
ct li
nes
abol
ishe
d4.
Gor
don
Bell
and
man
y ex
ecs
leav
e5.
Sm
ith a
nd S
hiel
ds c
onso
lidat
e po
wer
1.D
EC
�sst
rate
gy is
�offe
nsiv
e�2.
Pro
duct
line
s an
d m
atrix
edfu
nctio
ns e
stab
lishe
d3.
Gor
don
crea
tes
netw
orke
d V
AX
stra
tegy
4.K
aufm
ann
and
Maz
zare
sele
ave
1.C
ompa
ny o
rgan
ized
by
func
tion
2.M
ultip
le p
roje
cts
allo
wed
to
proc
eed
in p
aral
lel
3.C
ompu
ter a
rchi
tect
Ben
Gur
ley
leav
esSt
eerin
g/In
fras
truc
tur
e
1.D
EC
�sbi
g se
rvic
e or
g w
asn�
t go
od a
t sys
tem
s in
tegr
atio
n du
e to
la
ck o
f dis
cipl
ine,
sta
ndar
d m
etho
ds
1.D
EC
unw
isel
y at
tack
ed IB
M h
ead-
on2.
DE
C�s
Bia
s A
cul
ture
cau
sed
prod
�s
to b
e la
te, e
xpen
sive
, and
clo
sed
1.D
EC
�sin
nova
tion
focu
s pa
id o
ff2.
DE
C w
as a
pio
neer
in k
now
ledg
e m
gt u
sing
em
ail &
VA
Xnot
es
1.D
EC
wis
ely
atta
cked
an
unco
ntes
ted
mar
ket s
pace
1.A
lpha
intro
duce
d an
d ex
perie
nces
onl
y lim
ited
succ
ess,
m
ostly
in V
AX
base
2.D
EC
sel
ls a
lmos
t exc
lusi
vely
to
inst
alle
d ba
se3.
DE
C s
ervi
ces
mis
ses
syst
ems
inte
grat
ion
wav
e th
at IB
M c
atch
es
1.R
ainb
ow/D
EC
mat
e/P
ro fa
il ag
ains
t IB
M P
C2.
Sun
suc
cess
fully
atta
cks
VA
X w
ith
UN
IX a
nd R
ISC
(�87
) in
tech
�mar
ket
3.D
EC
uns
ucce
ssfu
lly a
ttack
s IB
M w
ith
VA
X 90
00 a
nd s
ervi
ces
4.D
EC
has
bur
st o
f suc
cess
in �8
5-�8
7 w
ith h
igh-
end
VA
Xes,
DE
Cne
t, O
ffice
1.P
DP
-8 is
firs
t big
, hig
h vo
lum
e hi
t2.
PD
P-1
1, V
AX,
and
DE
Cne
tin
trodu
ced
and
succ
eed
wild
ly3.
16-b
it an
d 32
-bit
mic
ropr
oces
sors
po
wer
ing
PC
s an
d w
orks
tatio
ns
emer
ge a
s po
tent
ial d
isru
ptiv
e te
chno
logi
es
�DE
C s
ells
mod
ules
to g
ener
ate
early
reve
nue
stre
am a
nd p
rofit
s�D
EC
intro
duce
s fir
st P
DP
�sin
se
arch
of t
he ri
ght f
orm
ula
for
smal
l, in
tera
ctiv
e co
mpu
ters
Exec
utio
n/R
esul
ts
4th
Age
(199
2-98
): D
eclin
e(S
cala
ble
Com
pute
rs ta
ke a
ll)3r
d A
ge (1
981-
92):
Pla
teau
(The
PC
Indu
stry
form
s�2n
d A
ge (
1965
-81)
: R
ise
ICs:
min
icom
pute
rs fo
rm1s
t Age
(195
7-65
): C
reat
ion
Esta
blis
h in
dust
ry, T
rans
isto
rsO
rg�
Sys
tem
:
DEC
Ana
lysi
s an
d Le
sson
s Le
arne
d Ac
ross
Its
Four
Age
s
1993
: Mic
roso
ft N
T19
81: I
BM
PC
1982
: Sun
/UN
IX w
orks
tatio
n19
75: I
BM
S/3
2 m
ini
1976
: IB
M S
erie
s/1
1978
: App
le II
1964
: IB
M 3
60
Com
petit
ion:
1987
: DE
C�s
best
yea
r19
87: O
ctob
er �8
7 bl
ack
Frid
ay19
75: $
533M
1977
: >$1
B; 3
8,00
0 em
ploy
ees
1966
: DE
C IP
O19
74: E
nter
s Fo
rtune
500
(475
)19
67: $
39M
rev�
s, $
4.5M
pro
fit
Bus
ines
s:
1992
: Ken
resi
gns
1981
: Sta
n O
lsen
left
1982
: Ted
Joh
nson
left
1983
: Gor
don
Bel
l (to
Enc
ore)
, A
ndy
Kno
wle
s, J
uliu
s M
arcu
s,
Bob
Puf
fer,
Dic
k C
layt
on, L
arry
P
ortn
er, R
oger
Cad
y, B
erni
e La
Cro
ute
(to S
un),
Dav
e R
oger
s al
l lef
t
1977
: Kau
fman
n le
ft19
66: P
ete
Kau
fman
n19
66: H
arla
n A
nder
son
leav
es19
66: G
ordo
n B
ell g
oes
to C
MU
1968
: DeC
astro
left,
foun
ded
DG
1969
: Kno
wle
s, M
arcu
s, C
ady
1972
: Maz
zare
sele
ft19
72: G
ordo
n B
retu
rns
1957
: KO
, Sta
n O
, Har
lan
And
ers�
n19
58: T
ed J
ohns
on, J
ack
Sm
ith19
59: B
en G
urle
y (le
ft 19
62)
1960
: Gor
don
Bel
l19
61: J
ack
Shi
elds
1962
: Win
Hin
dle,
Nic
k M
azza
rese
,
Peop
le:
1992
: Ken
Res
igns
; re
plac
ed b
y Pa
lmer
1981
: Enf
ield
Pla
nt o
pens
1982
: Eng
r& m
fg c
onso
lidat
ed19
83: �
Gun
fight
at K
O C
orra
l�:
Pro
d lin
es, O
ffice
of P
res,
O
pera
tions
Ctte
disb
ande
d19
83: S
hiel
ds g
et s
ales
(+se
rvic
e)19
83: J
. Sm
ith g
ot e
ngin
eerin
g19
87: D
orio
tdie
d
1974
: Cen
tral E
ngrf
orm
ed
(GB)
1974
: Com
pone
nts
Gro
up
(AK)
1978
: Ser
vice
(Shi
elds
) spu
n ou
t fro
m s
ales
(Joh
nson
)19
80: J
ulie
Pita
(Bus
�nW
eek)
in
terv
iew
of K
O
1969
: Hire
d ou
tsid
e P
Lin
e m
grs
1970
: �P
alac
e R
evol
t�(K
aufm
ann)
1972
: Mar
ket p
rodu
ct li
nes
1972
: Dor
iotj
oins
the
boar
d
1964
: Har
dwar
e pr
oduc
t lin
es +
m
atrix
man
agem
ent
Org
aniz
atio
n:
1992
: DE
C P
C c
lone
1993
: Alp
ha19
81: R
obin
(VT-
180)
1982
: Rai
nbow
, Pro
, DE
Cm
ate
II19
83: J
upite
r/10s
/20/
s ki
lled
1984
: 860
019
85: M
icro
VA
X II
1975
: VA
X te
am fo
rmed
1975
: LS
I-11,
DE
Cm
ate
1976
: DE
Cne
t19
78: V
AX-
780
1978
: Gor
don�
s V
AX
Stra
tegy
1979
: Eth
erne
t
1965
: PD
P-8
(1st
min
icom
pute
r)19
67: P
DP
-10,
PD
P-X
1970
: PD
P-1
1
1957
: Log
ic m
odul
es19
61: P
DP
-119
64: P
DP
-6,
Prod
ucts
:
1993
: Wor
ld W
ide
Web
1981
: Gra
phic
al U
ser I
nter
face
1986
: RIS
C a
rchi
tect
ure
1975
: DE
C b
uys
Mos
tek
fab
1978
: 16-
bit m
icro
proc
esso
r19
79: 3
2-bi
t mic
ropr
oces
sor
1965
: MS
I19
69: L
SI,
Arp
anet
1970
: UN
IX19
72: 8
-Bit
mic
ropr
oces
sor
1958
: Int
egra
ted
circ
uit �
SS
I19
64: A
utom
ated
wire
wra
p
Tech
nolo
gy:
Four
th A
ge (1
992-
98)
Third
Age
(198
1-19
92)
Seco
nd A
ge:
A (1
965-
75),
B (1
975-
81)
Firs
t Age
(195
7-65
)
Key
Eve
nts
Acr
oss
DEC
�sFo
ur A
ges
1.Th
e W
orld
Wid
e W
eb a
nd
hand
held
com
pute
rs g
ive
wor
kers
eve
n m
ore
acce
ss a
nd
cont
rol o
f the
ir in
fo d
estin
y
1.W
orke
rs c
ontin
ue to
see
k m
ore
open
acc
ess
and
cont
rol o
f the
ir in
form
atio
n de
stin
y, a
nd m
igra
te
from
term
inal
s to
PC
s
1.W
orke
rs w
ant m
ore
open
acc
ess
to in
form
atio
n an
d co
mpu
ters
, m
akin
g tim
esha
ring
and
term
inal
s a
big
succ
ess
�Pos
t-war
soc
iety
kno
cks
dow
n m
any
barr
iers
as
wom
en e
nter
th
e w
orkf
orce
and
com
pute
rs
ente
r the
cor
pora
tion.
Soci
ety
1.C
ateg
ory
kille
rs c
ontin
ue to
gr
ow, m
any
beco
min
g �8
00
poun
d go
rilla
s�. D
ell�s
pro
cess
in
nova
tions
hel
p dr
ive
pric
es
dow
n an
d ga
in a
dvan
tage
.
1.C
ateg
ory
kille
rs e
mer
ge
(Mic
roso
ft, In
tel,
Com
paq,
Del
l, Su
n, C
isco
, EM
C, H
P pr
inte
rs,
Ora
cle,
Lot
us, A
OL)
1.D
G, H
P, T
ande
m, I
BM
, Prim
e,
Wan
g�N
ot m
uch
dire
ct c
ompe
titio
n;
mos
t com
pute
rs w
ere
expe
nsiv
e an
d bu
ilt b
y IB
M a
nd th
e B
UN
CH
(B
urro
ughs
, Uni
vac,
NC
R, C
DC
, an
d H
oney
wel
l)C
ompe
titio
n
1.La
ggar
d co
mpa
nies
and
ear
ly
maj
ority
con
sum
ers
ente
r1.
Late
maj
ority
com
pani
es a
nd
early
ado
pter
con
sum
ers
ente
r1.
Early
maj
ority
com
pani
es jo
in
early
ado
pter
s�E
arly
ado
pter
com
pani
es e
nter
Cus
tom
er M
ix
1.M
any
hard
war
e sy
stem
ve
ndor
s be
com
e sa
ndw
iche
d be
twee
n In
tel a
nd M
icro
soft
runn
ing
3rdpa
rty
softw
are,
re
sulti
ng in
und
iffer
entia
ted
prod
ucts
, and
thus
losi
ng
muc
h m
arke
t pow
er
1.W
ith th
e em
erge
nce
of s
tand
ards
(d
e fa
ctor
and
de
jure
), so
ftwar
e ve
ndor
s an
d cu
stom
ers
gain
pow
er
over
har
dwar
e ve
ndor
s
1.So
ftwar
e ve
ndor
s em
erge
in th
e m
id-7
0s a
nd g
ain
som
e po
wer
, but
ha
rdw
are
vend
ors
still
hav
e th
e up
per h
and
�Har
dwar
e is
com
plic
ated
, un
relia
ble,
and
pro
prie
tary
, gi
ving
har
dwar
e ve
ndor
s th
e up
per h
and
Envi
ronm
enta
l D
eter
min
ism
1.Th
e W
orld
Wid
e W
eb
emer
ges
in 1
993,
runn
ing
over
th
e In
tern
et (f
orm
erly
the
Arp
anet
)
1.Th
e IB
M P
C (1
981)
and
clie
nt-
serv
er a
rchi
tect
ure
emer
ge a
s th
e do
min
ant d
esig
n of
com
putin
g2.
Hig
h pe
rfor
man
ce R
ISC
(Red
uced
In
stru
ctio
n Se
t Com
putin
g)
arch
itect
ure
hits
the
mar
ket i
n 19
863.
Mic
ropr
oces
sors
ove
rtak
e tr
aditi
onal
boa
rd-b
ased
com
pute
rs
in p
erfo
rman
ce b
y th
e en
d of
this
ag
e4.
Pack
aged
app
licat
ions
bec
ome
a dr
ivin
g fo
rce
as h
ardw
are
stan
dard
izes
1.Ti
mes
harin
g be
com
es a
do
min
ant c
ompu
ting
wav
e2.
Mic
ropr
oces
sors
em
erge
in th
e ea
rly �7
0s, p
reci
pita
ting
the
emer
genc
e of
per
sona
l com
pute
rs
and
wor
ksta
tions
in th
e la
te �7
0s3.
The
Arp
anet
and
UN
IX e
mer
ge in
19
69 a
nd 1
970
resp
ectiv
ely,
bot
h of
w
hich
late
r bec
ame
the
basi
s of
ke
y st
anda
rds
4.Pa
ckag
ed a
pplic
atio
ns b
egin
to
emer
ge in
the
mid
-197
0s
�Com
pute
rs a
re m
ovin
g fr
om
vacu
um tu
bes
to tr
ansi
stor
s an
d ea
rly in
tegr
ated
circ
uits
(IC
s)�T
imes
harin
g is
em
ergi
ng a
s a
mor
e us
er-fr
iend
ly c
ompu
ting
para
digm
than
bat
ch�P
rogr
amm
ing
lang
uage
s em
erge
, but
alm
ost n
o pa
ckag
ed
appl
icat
ions
exi
st (s
o us
ers
mus
t w
rite
thei
r ow
n ap
plic
atio
ns)
Tech
nolo
gy
mat
urity
4th
Age
(199
2-98
): D
eclin
e3r
d A
ge (1
981-
92):
Pla
teau
2nd
Age
(19
65-8
1):
Ris
e1s
t Age
(195
7-65
): C
reat
ion
Them
e:
Exte
rnal
Con
text
Indu
stry
For
ces
Acro
ss D
EC�s
Four
Age
s
The
End
NO
D: N
o O
utpu
t D
ivis
ion
The
Tech
nolo
gy B
alan
ce S
heet
Tech
nolo
gy A
dvis
ory
Boa
rd
Team
, Pro
duct
Arc
hite
ct,
Engi
neer
ing
Cul
ture
Chi
ef T
echn
ical
Offi
cer
(Eng
. VP)
Man
ufac
turin
g Sp
ecs.
(i.
e. H
ow to
Pr
oduc
e Pr
oduc
t)
Eng.
Spe
cs:
Use
r vie
w (e
.g.,
data
she
ets,
m
anua
ls) a
nd F
eatu
res,
Fun
ctio
ns,
Ben
efit
(FFB
)En
g. v
iew
(e.g
., pr
oduc
t str
uctu
re,
how
to d
esig
n)
Plan
with
:Sc
hedu
le o
f M
ilest
ones
&R
esou
rces
Tech
nolo
gy
Futu
re -
-Fi
nanc
eabi
lity
$s
(Cas
h / B
udge
t)
Qua
lity
Des
ign
Met
hods
/Pro
cess
es
Exte
rnal
(ind
ustr
y),
inte
rnal
, & o
ther
sta
ndar
ds
Ope
ratio
nal M
anag
emen
t(a
bilit
y to
fulfi
lpla
ns-
spec
s, re
sour
ces,
sch
edul
e)
Indi
geno
us (i
.e.,
skill
s,to
ols,
& te
chni
cal k
now
how
)&
exo
geno
us te
chno
logy
base
(e.g
., pa
tent
s)
![Community Based Survey Methodology for Maternal Healthcare … · 2016. 11. 22. · Table 1. aDemographic characteristics of MATIND study districts [25]. Indicators Dahod Sabarkantha](https://static.fdocuments.nl/doc/165x107/6136e8070ad5d206764851c8/community-based-survey-methodology-for-maternal-healthcare-2016-11-22-table.jpg)
