SIMS Res II

8/6/2019 SIMS Res II

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Unit IIUnit II -- Research DesignResearch Design

Meaning of Research DesignMeaning of Research Design

Need for Research DesignNeed for Research Design

Features of a Good DesignFeatures of a Good Design

Important concepts relating to research designImportant concepts relating to research designDifferent research designsDifferent research designs

Principles of Experimental DesignPrinciples of Experimental Design


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Meaning of Research DesignMeaning of Research Design

conceptual structure withinconceptual structure within

-- which research is conductedwhich research is conducted

-- outline of what the researcher will dooutline of what the researcher will do

-- constitutes the blueprint for the collection,constitutes the blueprint for the collection,measurement and analysis of datameasurement and analysis of data

Decisions regarding what, where, how much, by whatDecisions regarding what, where, how much, by whatmeans concerning the research study constitute ameans concerning the research study constitute aresearch designresearch design

A plan of what data to gather, from whom, how andA plan of what data to gather, from whom, how andwhen to collect the data, and how to analyze the datawhen to collect the data, and how to analyze the dataobtained constitutes research designobtained constitutes research design


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DefinitionsDefinitions

KothariKothari -- A research design is theA research design is thearrangement of conditions for collection andarrangement of conditions for collection and

analysis of data in a manner that aims toanalysis of data in a manner that aims tocombine relevance to the research purposecombine relevance to the research purposewith economy in procedurewith economy in procedure..

MillerMiller -- research design is theresearch design is the plannedplannedsequence of the entire process involved insequence of the entire process involved in

conducting a research study.conducting a research study.


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Design decisionsDesign decisions -- in respect of:in respect of:

What is the study about?What is the study about? Why is the study being made?Why is the study being made?

Where will the study be carried out?Where will the study be carried out?

What type of data is required?What type of data is required?

Where can the required data be found?Where can the required data be found?

What periods of time will the study include?What periods of time will the study include?

What will be the sample design?What will be the sample design?

What techniques of data collection will beWhat techniques of data collection will beused?used?

How will the data be analysedHow will the data be analysed??

In what style will the report be prepared ?In what style will the report be prepared ?


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facilitates smooth sailing of variousfacilitates smooth sailing of various

research operations thereby makingresearch operations thereby making

research as efficient as possible yieldingresearch as efficient as possible yielding

maximal information with minimalmaximal information with minimalexpenditure of effort, time and moneyexpenditure of effort, time and money

stands for advanced planning of thestands for advanced planning of themethods to be adopted for collecting themethods to be adopted for collecting the

relevant data and the techniques to berelevant data and the techniques to be

used in their analysisused in their analysis


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(contd)(contd) has great bearing on the reliability of thehas great bearing on the reliability of the

results arrived atresults arrived at

constitutes firm foundation of the entireconstitutes firm foundation of the entireedifice of the research workedifice of the research work

proper design helps researcher to organizeproper design helps researcher to organizehis ideas and look for flaws andhis ideas and look for flaws andinadequaciesinadequacies

thoughtlessness in designing researchthoughtlessness in designing researchproject may result in rendering the researchproject may result in rendering the researchexercise futileexercise futile

an adequate design outlines possiblean adequate design outlines possibleconclusions to be drawn from the statisticalconclusions to be drawn from the statistical

analysisanalysis..


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Research process flow chartResearch process flow chart

Define problem

Review conceptsand theories

Review previousresearch finding

Formulate hypothesis

Design Research

Collect data

Analyse data

(Test hypothesis)

Interpret and report


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Catalyst for business research

Opportunity

Problem

Management action Plan Implement

Monitor

Report preparationand presentation

Interpretation of findings

Data analysis

Qualitative

Quantitative

Data collection

Qualitative

Quantitative

Research design

Research objectives Research questions

Hypothesis

Frame development

Conceptual

Theoretical

Problem definition

Preliminary information gatheringand literature survey

BUSINE

SSRESEARCH

PROCESS


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A good research design should satisfyA good research design should satisfy

the following four conditionsthe following four conditions

a)a) ObjectivityObjectivity ::pertains to methods of collection of data and thepertains to methods of collection of data and thescoring of the responses.scoring of the responses.

Closed ended questionnairesClosed ended questionnaires are objective toolsare objective toolsbecause all the scorers can apply a scoring keybecause all the scorers can apply a scoring key

Open ended questionnairesOpen ended questionnaires -- respondents arerespondents areallowed to give free responsesallowed to give free responses

Therefore questionnaires consisting of both theTherefore questionnaires consisting of both the

types of questions are used purposelytypes of questions are used purposely


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b) Reliabilityb) Reliability

refers to consistency throughout a series ofrefers to consistency throughout a series ofmeasurements.measurements.

If respondent gives a response to particular item,If respondent gives a response to particular item,

he is expected to give the same response to thathe is expected to give the same response to thatitem whenever he is asked subsequently.item whenever he is asked subsequently.

If the respondent keeps on changing hisIf the respondent keeps on changing his

responses to the same item when he is askedresponses to the same item when he is askedrepeatedly, then investigator faces difficultyinrepeatedly, then investigator faces difficultyinconsidering which one of the responses is theconsidering which one of the responses is thegenuine response of the respondentgenuine response of the respondent..

..


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c) Validityc) Validity

Any measuring instrument is said to beAny measuring instrument is said to be

valid when it measures what it purportsvalid when it measures what it purports

to measureto measure

Eg. An intelligence test, constructed forEg. An intelligence test, constructed for

measuring intelligence should measuremeasuring intelligence should measure

intelligence and nothing else.intelligence and nothing else.


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d) Generalizationd) Generalization

Every research design has to answer to theEvery research design has to answer to thegeneralizabilitygeneralizability of the findings of the study, i.e.,of the findings of the study, i.e.,

how best the data collected from a sample can behow best the data collected from a sample can beutilized for drawing certain generalizations,utilized for drawing certain generalizations,applicable to a larger group (population) from whichapplicable to a larger group (population) from whichthe sample is drawnthe sample is drawn

with how much authority and confidence, anwith how much authority and confidence, aninvestigator can say that the same findings will beinvestigator can say that the same findings will beobtained even though the data is collected from theobtained even though the data is collected from thetotal population from which the sample is selected.total population from which the sample is selected.


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Important concepts relating toImportant concepts relating to

research designresearch design VariableVariable

any characteristic (of man or hisany characteristic (of man or his

environment) that can take on differentenvironment) that can take on differentvaluesvalues

A concept which can take on differentA concept which can take on different

quantitative values is called a variablequantitative values is called a variable

eg., height, weight and incomeeg., height, weight and income

length, breadth and thicknesslength, breadth and thickness


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Dependent variableDependent variable

Is the variable of primary interest to researcher.Is the variable of primary interest to researcher.

The researchers goal is to understand and describeThe researchers goal is to understand and describethe dependent variable or to explain its variability orthe dependent variable or to explain its variability orto predict it.to predict it.

It is the main variable that lends itself as a viableIt is the main variable that lends itself as a viablefactor for investigationfactor for investigation

It has circumstances or characteristics that change,It has circumstances or characteristics that change,disappear or appear when the researcherdisappear or appear when the researcherimplements the independent variable. For example,implements the independent variable. For example,employee performance is the dependent variable,employee performance is the dependent variable,while the knowledge, skills, abilities and judgementwhile the knowledge, skills, abilities and judgementare the independent variablesare the independent variables

Dependent variables are also called response orDependent variables are also called response orconsequent variables.consequent variables.


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Independent variableIndependent variable

An independent variable is one that influencesAn independent variable is one that influencesthe dependent variable in either a positive orthe dependent variable in either a positive ornegative way.negative way.

When the independent variable is present theWhen the independent variable is present thedependent variable is also present, and withdependent variable is also present, and witheach unit of increase in the independenteach unit of increase in the independentvariable, there is an increase or decrease in thevariable, there is an increase or decrease in thedependent variable also.dependent variable also.

In other words, the variance in the dependentIn other words, the variance in the dependentvariable is accounted for by the independentvariable is accounted for by the independentvariable.variable.


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Sugar

Tea leaves

Milk

Water

Heat

Added flavours

Variables


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Moderating VariableModerating Variable

has strong effect on the dependenthas strong effect on the dependent--independent variableindependent variable

relationshiprelationship

presence of third variable modifies the original relationshippresence of third variable modifies the original relationship

between dependent and independent variablesbetween dependent and independent variables

Work forcediversity

OrganizationalEffectiveness

Independent variable Dependent variable

Work forcediversity OrganizationalEffectiveness

Independent variable Dependent variable

Moderating variable

Managerial Expertise


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Intervening variableIntervening variable

called mediating or interfering variables.called mediating or interfering variables. it surfaces between the time the independent variableit surfaces between the time the independent variable

operates to influence the dependent variable. Theseoperates to influence the dependent variable. These

enhance/distort the relationship between the dependentenhance/distort the relationship between the dependent

and independent variables.

and independent variables.

in order to obtain the real relationship between thein order to obtain the real relationship between the

independent and dependent variable, the influence of theindependent and dependent variable, the influence of the

intervening variable is to be controlled.intervening variable is to be controlled.

Organizational

EffectivenessWork force

diversityCreative Synergy

Independent variable Intervening variable Dependent variable

Time: t1 t2t3


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HypothesisHypothesis

-- a tentative supposition or provisionala tentative supposition or provisional

guess which seems to explain the situationguess which seems to explain the situation

under observationunder observation

-- states what we are looking forstates what we are looking for

-- it looks forwardit looks forward

-- It is an assumption which may be put toIt is an assumption which may be put totest to determine its validitytest to determine its validity

-- It may prove to be correct or incorrectIt may prove to be correct or incorrect


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DefinitionDefinition of Hypothesisof Hypothesis

GA Lundberg, A hypothesis is a tentativeGA Lundberg, A hypothesis is a tentative

generalization, the validity of which remains togeneralization, the validity of which remains to

be tested. In its most elementary stage, thebe tested. In its most elementary stage, the

hypothesis may be any hunch, guess,hypothesis may be any hunch, guess,imaginative idea, which becomes the basis forimaginative idea, which becomes the basis for

action or investigation.action or investigation.

EgEg. All athletes are tall and thin. All athletes are tall and thin

Automobile A performs better than automobile BAutomobile A performs better than automobile B


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Types of Research DesignsTypes of Research Designs

Observation ResearchObservation Research

Experimental StudiesExperimental Studies

Field StudiesField Studies

Case StudiesCase Studies

Historical ResearchHistorical Research

Internet ResearchInternet Research

ExEx--post Facto Researchpost Facto Research


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Observation ResearchObservation Research

thethe researcherresearcher carefullycarefully watcheswatches howhow peoplepeople actactandand behavebehave inin differentdifferent situationssituations..

primaryprimary objectiveobjective isis toto systematically,systematically, withoutwithoutquestioningquestioning oror communicating,communicating, collectcollect datadataaboutabout individualsindividuals asas theythey actact naturallynaturally..ParticipantsParticipants includeinclude humans,humans, laboratorylaboratory animals,animals,chimpanzees,chimpanzees, anyany beingsbeings..

Interviews and/or questionnaires oftenInterviews and/or questionnaires oftenencourage individuals, to provide biasedencourage individuals, to provide biasedinformation about themselves.information about themselves.

Important tool for sample who cannot articulateImportant tool for sample who cannot articulate


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Field StudiesField Studies

research in a realistic situation in which one orresearch in a realistic situation in which one ormore independent variables are manipulated bymore independent variables are manipulated bythe experimenter under as carefully controlledthe experimenter under as carefully controlled

conditions as the situation will permit.conditions as the situation will permit.Any scientific studies, large or small, that areAny scientific studies, large or small, that are

done in life situations like communities, schools,done in life situations like communities, schools,factories, organizations and institutions will befactories, organizations and institutions will be

considered field studies.considered field studies. the large sample sizes increase confidence inthe large sample sizes increase confidence in

findingsfindings..


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Case StudiesCase Studies

Case studies have become very popular recentlyCase studies have become very popular recentlybecause they help students connect their knowledgebecause they help students connect their knowledgewith practical situations.with practical situations.

In thisIn this researcher systematically gathers inresearcher systematically gathers in--depthdepth

information on a single entityinformation on a single entity-- individual, group,individual, group,organization or community in a unique setting asorganization or community in a unique setting asintensely as possibleintensely as possible -- using variety of datausing variety of datagathering methods.gathering methods.

Communities, racial groups, school systems,Communities, racial groups, school systems,families, clubs, gangs, businesses, churches, socialfamilies, clubs, gangs, businesses, churches, socialservice programs, hospitals, provide case studyservice programs, hospitals, provide case studymaterial.material.

favorite research method of physicians,favorite research method of physicians,psychologists, organizational theorists.psychologists, organizational theorists.


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Case study (contd)Case study (contd)

Harvard Business School uses case study method for much ofHarvard Business School uses case study method for much ofits course material. Students analyze cases of businessits course material. Students analyze cases of business

organizations;organizations; egeg, why they fail, why they succeed, what were, why they fail, why they succeed, what werethe causes and so on?the causes and so on?

It is an extensive data collection and analysis method, intenseIt is an extensive data collection and analysis method, intensefocus, detail orientation, both qualitative and quantitativefocus, detail orientation, both qualitative and quantitativemethodologies, lengthy time commitment.methodologies, lengthy time commitment.

examines inexamines in--depth practices or trends of single/ limited no. ofdepth practices or trends of single/ limited no. ofgroups.groups.

focuses on one or limited number of phenomenon in order tofocuses on one or limited number of phenomenon in order toconstruct an inconstruct an in--depth account of what happens or happeneddepth account of what happens or happenedThe emphasis here is on depth rather than breadth of study.The emphasis here is on depth rather than breadth of study.

Examples of possible case studies:Examples of possible case studies:

Why hasU

niversity of Chicago produced so many NobelWhy hasU

niversity of Chicago produced so many NobelLaureates?Laureates?

Why is the leukemia rate so high in community X?Why is the leukemia rate so high in community X?

What are the career paths of women graduates of elite MBAWhat are the career paths of women graduates of elite MBAprograms who enter the vast Proctor and Gamble empire?programs who enter the vast Proctor and Gamble empire?

Why is the customer service program not working well inWhy is the customer service program not working well incompany X but is favorable in its peers in the same regioncompany X but is favorable in its peers in the same region


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Historical ResearchHistorical Research

is research based on describing the past.is research based on describing the past.

includes investigations like recording, analysisincludes investigations like recording, analysisand interpretation of events in the past forand interpretation of events in the past fordiscovering generalizations and deductions thatdiscovering generalizations and deductions thatcan be useful in understanding past, presentcan be useful in understanding past, present

and to an extent, anticipate the futureand to an extent, anticipate the future((LandmanLandman).).

Sheik AliSheik Ali -- Historical research is digging into theHistorical research is digging into thepast in order to repast in order to re--enact and reconstruct the pastenact and reconstruct the pastevents as fully as they have happened to explainevents as fully as they have happened to explain

the meaning and significance of these events, tothe meaning and significance of these events, tocorrect any wrong notions so long prevalent, andcorrect any wrong notions so long prevalent, andtoto analyseanalyse andand philosophisephilosophise the ideas in the lightthe ideas in the lightof the present day knowledgeof the present day knowledge


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Historical research (contd)Historical research (contd)

Historical researchers work with primaryHistorical researchers work with primary

documents, artifacts, and records found indocuments, artifacts, and records found in

archives, libraries, other specializedarchives, libraries, other specialized

institutional collections, and elsewhere.institutional collections, and elsewhere.

Historical researchers also use secondaryHistorical researchers also use secondary

sources which provide other people'ssources which provide other people's

descriptions of original events or sources.descriptions of original events or sources.


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Historical Research (contd)Historical Research (contd)

By examining past events and procedures,By examining past events and procedures,

attempts are made to predict future events orattempts are made to predict future events ormake suggestions for future actions.make suggestions for future actions.

mere compilation of chronological events is notmere compilation of chronological events is notconsidered research in itself. An investigationconsidered research in itself. An investigationcan only be regarded as scientific researchcan only be regarded as scientific research

when the researcher interprets the events thatwhen the researcher interprets the events thattook place by pointing out their relationship totook place by pointing out their relationship tothe problem investigated, and explaining theirthe problem investigated, and explaining theirmeaning.meaning.

Types of historical or interpretive researchTypes of historical or interpretive researchstudies include: biographies, histories ofstudies include: biographies, histories ofinstitutions and organizations; editing andinstitutions and organizations; editing andtranslating historical documents; studying thetranslating historical documents; studying thehistory of ideas; or compiling bibliographieshistory of ideas; or compiling bibliographies


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Internet researchInternet research

fast and relatively inexpensive way of gaining access tofast and relatively inexpensive way of gaining access toa wider range of sources of data than most conventionala wider range of sources of data than most conventionalresearch approaches could manageresearch approaches could manage

can include internet searches for existing databases andcan include internet searches for existing databases and

sources, also using the internet to collect new datasources, also using the internet to collect new datathrough ethrough e--mail and webmail and web--based enquiries andbased enquiries andquestionnaires.questionnaires.

potential advantages have to be weighed against thepotential advantages have to be weighed against thepotential problems: biased samples, lack of qualitypotential problems: biased samples, lack of quality

control, difficulties in checking the trustworthiness ofcontrol, difficulties in checking the trustworthiness ofsome of the data available on the net,some of the data available on the net,

ethical issues associated with plagiarism, guaranteeingethical issues associated with plagiarism, guaranteeingconfidentiality to providers of dataconfidentiality to providers of data


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Ex post factoEx post facto--researchresearch

(after the fact research)(after the fact research)

researcher does not have any control overresearcher does not have any control overindependent variables, as they have alreadyindependent variables, as they have alreadybeen manifested or because they are notbeen manifested or because they are not

manipulable.manipulable.

Inferences about relationships betweenInferences about relationships betweenvariables are made without direct intervention.variables are made without direct intervention.

This research is based on scientific andThis research is based on scientific andanalytical examination of dependent andanalytical examination of dependent and

independent variables. Independent variablesindependent variables. Independent variablesare studied in retrospect for seeking possibleare studied in retrospect for seeking possiblerelations and likely effects that the changes inrelations and likely effects that the changes inindependent variables produce in on a single orindependent variables produce in on a single orset of dependent variables.set of dependent variables.


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Ex post factoEx post facto--researchresearch Acc to Landman, ex post facto is used to refer to anAcc to Landman, ex post facto is used to refer to an

experiment in which the researcher, rather than creatingexperiment in which the researcher, rather than creatingthe treatment, examines the effect of a naturallythe treatment, examines the effect of a naturallyoccurring treatment after it has occurred.occurring treatment after it has occurred.

study that attempts to discover the prestudy that attempts to discover the pre--existing causalexisting causalconditions between groups. In this researchers controlconditions between groups. In this researchers control

over independent variables is very weak / no control atover independent variables is very weak / no control atall. Yet they attempt to discover causes for the outcome.all. Yet they attempt to discover causes for the outcome.

Ex post factoEx post facto--research, therefore, has to take things asresearch, therefore, has to take things asthey are and examine separately or wholly their impactthey are and examine separately or wholly their impacton the explained variables. This type of research ison the explained variables. This type of research is

useful in social scientific research which is based on theuseful in social scientific research which is based on theconclusion that because two factors go together, one isconclusion that because two factors go together, one isthe cause and the other is the effect.the cause and the other is the effect.

Eg.Eg.-- transport problems due to heavy rains in Mumbaitransport problems due to heavy rains in Mumbai

-- increase in shopping on declaration of monsoon saleincrease in shopping on declaration of monsoon sale


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Principles ofExperimental Design

Principle of Replication;

Principle of Randomization;

Principle of Local Control.


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Replication

According to the Principle of Replication, the

experiment should be repeated more than

once.

Thus, each treatment is applied in many

experimental units instead of one. By doingso the statistical accuracy of the experiment

is increased.


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Randomization

The Principle of Randomization provides

protection, against the effects of extraneous

factors.

This principle indicates that the design

should be planned in such a way that the

variations caused by extraneous factors

can all be combined under the general

heading of chance.


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Local Control

The extraneous factor, variability, is made to vary

deliberately over as wide a range as necessary in

such a way that the variability it causes can be

measured and hence eliminated from the

experimental error.

Plan the experiment to perform a two-way analysis

of variance, in which the total variability of the data

is divided into three components attributed to

treatments, the extraneous factor and experimental

error.

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