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Amity Business School

Learning

A major factor to make all

individuals different.




learning is a key process in human behavior,

Learning:Learning:

K nowledge or skill acquired by instruction or study K nowledge or skill acquired by instruction or study




Learning is defined as any relatively permanent change

in behavior as result of observation and experience«

� It is a process of acquiring modifications in existing

knowledge, skills, habits, or tendencies through

experience, practice, or exercise. Learning includes

associative processes.

� Learning can be by birth i. e inherited and it can also be

learnt.



Amity Business SchoolTypes Of Learning

1. Perpetual learning ± is an ability to learn to recognize

the stimuli that you have seen before.

2. Stimulus response learning ± is an ability to perform a

particular behavior when a certain stimulus is present.3. Observational learning ± it is by watching and imitating

other people



Amity Business SchoolTheories of learning

1. Classical conditioning ± given by Ivan Pavlov.

� The theory has 4 main parts ±

� Unconditioned stimulus

� Unconditioned response

� Conditioned stimulus

� Conditioned response




� The study was conducted by seeing the reaction of dog when stimuli

is there.

� Meat is an unconditioned stimulus which makes the dog react in a

specific way.

� The reaction which takes place is unconditioned response.

� The bell is an artificial stimulus or conditioned stimulus.

� Lastly there is a conditioned response and that¶s the behavior of the

dog i.e its salivation to the ringing of bell.



Amity Business SchoolConclusion

Conditioned response involves building up of an association between a

conditioned stimulus (ringing of bell) and unconditioned stimulus

(meat) and when there are two stimuli one compels and the other is

neutral, the one being neutral becomes conditioned stimuli and

hence takes the properties of unconditioned stimulus.




� Given by B.F. Skinner

� It explains more complex behavior

� He argues that the behavior is a function of its consequences.

� People learn to behave in a certain manner to get something and avoid

something when they don¶t want something.� It is a voluntary or learned behavior.

� This theory is also known reinforcement theory

� It is based on two principles-

1. Behavior which results in positive rewards tends to be repeated

2. Behavior is based upon consequences. It can be predicted andcontrolled according to the consequences .




Types of reinforcement

1. Positive reinforcement ± it is a response followed by something

pleasant.

� It is a reward for desired behavior so that it increases the

probability of occurrence.

� Examples ± money, incentives, appraisal, recognition, employeesconsideration in decision-making etc.

Negative reinforcement ± it is a response followed by something

unpleasant.

� This is to avoid or escape certain behavior.

� It is an avoidance learning

� Examples ± termination from job, criticism etc.




Extinction

� This is applied to reduce the undesirable behavior.

� If rewards are removed such behavior tends to become less

frequent and eventually stops occurring.

� Punishment

� It is most controversial behavior modification method.

� It is unpleasant consequence contingent upon

occurrence of an undesirable behavior.

� Its consequences may be positive or negative.

� Negative behavior after punishment can be reduced if

certain things are kept in mind like :-




� Praise in public, punish in private.

� Apply punishment before the undesirable behavior has been

strongly reinforced.

� Focus should be behavior and not the person.

� Punishment should be in proportion to the undesired behavior so

that it does not result in hostility.




Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

The two major types of reinforcement schedules are:The two major types of reinforcement schedules are:

1)1) Continuous ScheduleContinuous Schedule: In this reinforcement: In this reinforcementschedule the desired behavior is reinforced each &schedule the desired behavior is reinforced each &every time it is demonstrated.every time it is demonstrated.

2)2) Intermittent Schedule: Intermittent Schedule: In this type of In this type of reinforcement schedule, not every instance of thereinforcement schedule, not every instance of thedesirable behavior is reinforced, but reinforcementdesirable behavior is reinforced, but reinforcement

is given often enough to make the behavior worthis given often enough to make the behavior worthrepeating.repeating.




Classification of Intermittent SchedulesClassification of Intermittent Schedules

An intermittent reinforcement can be of two types:An intermittent reinforcement can be of two types:

1)1) Ratio Schedules Ratio Schedules depend on how many responses the subjectdepend on how many responses the subjectmakes.makes.

The individual is reinforced after giving a certain number of The individual is reinforced after giving a certain number of specific types of behavior.specific types of behavior.

2)2) Interval Schedules Interval Schedules depend on how much time has passeddepend on how much time has passedsince the previous reinforcement.since the previous reinforcement.

With interval schedules, the individual is reinforced on theWith interval schedules, the individual is reinforced on the

first appropriate behavior after a particular time has elapsed.first appropriate behavior after a particular time has elapsed.




A reinforcement can also be classified asA reinforcement can also be classified as f ixed f ixed or or variable.variable.

F ixed F ixed--interval type :interval type :

R ewards are spaced at uniform time intervals. The criticalR ewards are spaced at uniform time intervals. The criticalvariable is time & it is held constant.variable is time & it is held constant.

V ariableV ariable--interval type:interval type:R ewards are distributed over time so that reinforcements areR ewards are distributed over time so that reinforcements areunpredictable.unpredictable.

F ixed F ixed--ratio type:ratio type:

A reward is initiated, after a constant number of responses areA reward is initiated, after a constant number of responses are

givengiven V ariableV ariable--ratio type:ratio type:

R eward varies relative to the behavior of the individual.R eward varies relative to the behavior of the individual.




ReinforcementReinforcement

SSchedulechedule

Nature of Nature of

ReinforcementReinforcement

Effect on BehaviorEffect on Behavior ExampleExample

ContinuousContinuous Reward given afterReward given after

each desired behavior.each desired behavior.

Fast learning of Fast learning of

new behavior butnew behavior but

rapid extinction.rapid extinction.

ComplimentsCompliments

FixedFixed--intervalinterval Rewards given at fixedRewards given at fixed

time intervals.time intervals.

Average &Average &

irregularirregular

performance withperformance with

rapid extinction.rapid extinction.

Weekly paychecksWeekly paychecks

VariableVariable--intervalinterval Rewards given atRewards given at

variable time intervals.variable time intervals.

Moderately highModerately high

& stable& stable


slow extinction.slow extinction.

Pop quizzesPop quizzes

FixedFixed--ratioratio Rewards given atRewards given at

fixed amounts of fixed amounts of

output.output.

High & stableHigh & stable

performanceperformance

attained quicklyattained quicklybut also with rapidbut also with rapid

extinction.extinction.

PiecePiece--rate payrate pay

VariableVariable--ratioratio Rewards given atRewards given at

variable amounts of variable amounts of

output.output.

Very highVery high


slow extinction.slow extinction.

Commissioned salesCommissioned sales



Amity Business SchoolSocial learning

� People learn by observing

� Through their experiences

� This theory acknowledges the existence of observation andimportance of perception in learning.

� People get inf luences from various sources.� Examples ± family, friends, reference groups, aspiring groups etc.

� Following are the training programs to improveemployees learning :-

1. Attention process ± people learn from a model only when

they recognize and pay attention to its critical features.� Features- attractive, repeatedly available, important to

us.




Retention process ± model¶s inf luence depends upon how

well you remember their action after they are no longer

available.

3. Motor reproduction process ± after seeing the behavior watching must be converted into doing.

4. Reinforcement process- individuals can be reinforced to

repeat their behavior only if they are rewarded.



Amity Business SchoolCognitive theory

� Two key assumptions under lie in cognitive approach:

1. that the memory system is an active organizedprocessor of information and

2. that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.

� Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning.

� Cognitivists consider how human memory works topromote learning




� Cognitive skills are under lying mental abilities and arenot the same as the academic knowledge acquired in theclassroom.

� Cognitive skills can change and improve.

� Malfunctioning cognitive skills make learning difficult andfrustrating.

� Specific cognitive skills testing is the best way to identifywhich cognitive skills are the cause of a learning problem

and need strengthening.� With the right information and training, every child canexperience learning that is easy, fast, and fun.




Therefore we should keep

learning as

³ WE LEARN THE WHOLELIFE´

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