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This !ri*ile(e is fur"her dra#a"ied in "he ao*e co#!lain" aou" "he !ossiili"y of re"alia"ion. Gor "he Sou"h "o achie*e "he

!ossiili"y of influencin( ual de(rees or kinds of a(ency.Ker focus is on an as!ec" of !ower which has recei*ed increasin( "rea"#en" wi"hin cri"ical n"erna"ional ?ela"ions 0?3 "heory durin("he las" years, "ha" is, "he !ower "o define and ar"icula"e iden"i"ies and "o de"er#ine "he rela"ions e"ween "he#.

As was ar(ued ao*e, "he 9es"ern in*en"ion of "he Sou"h durin( "he cold war can e in"er!re"ed as an

i#!erial (es"ure. The Sou"h was rendered in"o a 9es"8in8"he8#akin(, wi"h i"s own dis"in(uished his"orical, cul"ural, andsocial fea"ures reduced "o indica"ors of 4underde*elo!#en"4. Fl"i#a"ely, "he narra"i*e !roclai#ed, "he Sou"h would eco#e !ar" of"he 9es"ern 4#!ire4, "he la""er would e ale "o e:!and in"o 4araric4 areas of "he world 88 !ro*ided i" could win "he war a(ains"Co##unis#.

The end of "he cold war saw "his 4e:!ansionis"4 lo(ic (i*e way "o a e:clusi*e !os"ure . The rela"ions

e"ween "he 9es" and "he Sou"h are no lon(er #edia"ed "hrou(h "i#e. ns"ead, a s!a"ial differen"ia"ion now

s"ruc"ures "he i#!erial encoun"er, "he Sou"h is no lon(er "o e 4de*elo!ed4 and 49es"ernied4. "is "o e sur*eilled, con"rolled and disci!lined, i"s 4s!illa(e4 of crisis and ins"aili"y "o e

con"ained.

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and ou"siders a!!ears "o e ased on "he de(ree "o which "he res!ec"i*e coun"ries are willin( "o su)ec" "he#sel*es "o "he i#!erialencoun"er wi"h "he 9es", and "o o!en "he#sel*es "o "he s"ra"e(ic (ae and con"rol of ua"e s"ra"e(ic #eans.

$n "he o"her hand, "he 9es" is !resen"ed as a 4si"e of knowled(e4 , as "he source or au"hor of "he !ro!er ando)ec"i*e 4world8!ic"ure4 "ha" de!ic"s "he reali"ies of !os"8cold war (loal !oli"ics. n "his sense, "he

9es" eco#es "he #e"a!hysical (rounds fro# which knowled(e can e (a"hered and

disse#ina"ed. And ini"s differen" *ersions 88 securi"ia"ion, !rolifera"ion, and infor#a"ion 88 "his knowled(e

draws on and re!roduces "his #e"a!hysics. There are conse>uen"ly reasons "o e ske!"ical aou" uali"y has ad*anced fro# "he es"alish#en" of racial hierarchy and ins"i"u"ionalia"ion of

se(re(a"ion, "o "he confine#en" and e:clusion, and eli#ina"ion, of "hose considered inferior

"hrou(h (enocide. n "his "ra)ec"ory, (loal racism manifests genocide . %ut this is not

inevitable .This ar"icle, y e:a#inin( (loal racis#, e:!lores "he new "er#s of e:clusion and "he !a"h "o !er#anen" war and(enocide, "o e:a#ine "he in"e(rali"y of (enocide "o "he fra#e8work of (loal an"iracis" confron"a"ion. ND$BAD ?ACS/ < TK

AN $G CFDTF? 9A?S% ?acis" le(i"i#ia"ion of ine>uali"y has chan(ed fro# !resu!!osed

iolo(ical inferiori"y "o assu#ed cul"ural inade>uacy.This defines "he new "er#s of i#!ossiili"y of coe:is"ence,

#uch less e>uali"y. The Ji# Crow racis# of iolo(ical inferiori"y is now ein( re!laced wi"h a new and

#odern racis#0Baker 11= Ansell 123wi"h cul"ure war% as "he key "o )us"ify difference, hierarchy,and o!!ression. The ideolo(y of cul"ure war% is eco#in( e#edded in ins"i"u"ions, definin( "he

workin(s of or(ania"ions, and is now defended y indi*iduals who ar(ue "ha" "hey are no" racis", u"

are no" lind "o "he inheren" differences e"ween African8A#ericans'Aras'Chinese , or who#e*er,

and us.% Fs% as a conce!" defines "he !ower of a (rou! "o dis"in(uish i"self and "o assi(n a

su!erior *alue "o i"s ins"i"u"ions, re*ealin( cer"ain"y "ha" affini"y wi"h "he#% will e har#ful "o

i"s e:is"ence0Kun"er 11= Buchanan 67763. Kow can we conce!"ualie "his shif" "o e:a#ine wha" has chan(ed o*er "he !as"cen"ury and wha" has re#ained "he sa#e in a racis" socie"yO Joe Gea(in e:a#ines "his >ues"ion wi"h a "heory of sys"e#ic racis# "oe:!lore socie"al co#!le:i"y of in"erconnec"ed ele#en"s for lon(e*i"y and ada!"aili"y of racis#. Ke sees "ha" sys"e#ic racis#!ersis"s due "o a whi"e racial fra#e,% definin( and #ain"ainin( an or(anied se" of racialied ideas, s"ereo"y!es, e#o"ions, and

inclina"ions "o discri#ina"e% 0Gea(in 677E& 653. The whi"e racial fra#e arran(es "he rou"ine o!era"ion of

racis" ins"i"u"ions, which enales social and econo#ic re!ro8duc"ion and a#end#en" of racial

!ri*ile(e." is "his fra#e "ha" defines "he !oli"ical and econo#ic ases of cul"ural and his"orical le(i"i#ia"ion.9hile "hewhi"e racial fra#e is one of "he co#!onen"s of sys"e#ic racis#, i" is a""ached "o o"her "er#s of

racial o!!ression "o for(e sys"e#ic coherency." has al"ered o*er "i#efro# sla*ery "o se(re(a"ion "o racial

o!!ression and now fra#es cul"ure war,%or clash of ci*ilia"ions,% "o le(i"i#a"e "he racis" o!!ression of

do#ina"ion, e:clusion, war, and (enocide.The conce!" of cul"ure war%e#er(ed "o define o!!osin( ideas

in A#erica re(ardin( !ri*acy, censorshi!, ci"ienshi! ri(h"s, and secularis#, u" i" has een (loalied "hrou(h

conflic"s o*eri##i(ra"ion, nuclear power, and "he war on "erroris#.% "s discourseand ac"ion ar"icula"e "o

flood "he racial s!ace of sys"e#ic racis#.?acis# is a !rocess of definin( and uildin( co##uni"ies and socie"ies

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ased on racial8ied hierarchy of !ower. The e:!ansion of ca!i"alis# cas" new for#ulas of di*isions and o!!osi"ions, fos"erin(ine>uali"y e*en while in"e(ra"in( all !re*ious for#s of o!!ressi*e hierarchical arran(e#en"s as lon( as "hey ols"ered "he need "o#ain"ain "he s"ruc"ure and for# of ca!i"alis" arran(e#en"s 0Ba"ur8ManderDi!!e 1E3. n "his con"e:", "he whi"e racial fra#e,

definin( "he "er#s of racis" sys"e#s of o!!ression, enaled "he (loalia"ion of racial s!ace "hrou(h "he ar"icula"ion of ca!i"alis#0u Bois 16= 9inan" 13. The key "o unders"andin( "his e:!ansion is co#!rehension of "he syner(is"ic rela"ionshi! e"weenracis" sys"e#s of o!!ression and "he ca!i"alis" sys"e# of e:!loi"a"ion. Taken se!ara"ely, "hese "wo sys"e#s would e unale "o crea"esuch o!!ression inde!enden"ly. Kowe*er, "he syner(y e"ween "he# is de*as"a"in(. n "he a(e of indus"rial ca!i"alis#, "his syner(y

#anifes"ed i"self i#!erialis# and colonialis#. n "he a(e of ad*anced ca!i"alis#, i" is war and (enocide. The ca!i"alis" sys"e#, y

enalin( and #ain"ainin( "he connec"ion e"ween e*eryday life and "he (loal, u""resses "he !rocesses of racial o!!ression, andsyner(y e"ween racial o!!ression and ca!i"alis" e:!loi"a"ion e(e"s *iolence. "ienne Baliar !oin"s ou" "ha" "he connec"ione"ween e*eryday life and "he (loal is es"alished "hrou(h "hou(h", #akin( (loal racis# a way of "hinkin(, enalin( connec"ions ofwords wi"h o)ec"s and words wi"h i#a(es in order "o crea"e conce!"s% 0Baliar 1& 6773. He", (loal racis# is no" only an

ar"icula"ion of "hou(h", u" also a way of knowin( and ac"in(, fra#ed y o"h e*eryday and (loal e:!eriences. Syner(y e"weenca!i"alis# and racis# as sys"e#s of o!!ression enales "his !er!e"ua"ion and des"ruc"ion on "he (loal le*el. As ca!i"alis#e:!anded and ada!"ed "o "he !ar"iculari"ies of s!a"ial and "e#!oral *ariales, (loal racis# eca#e !ar" of i"s le(i"i#ia"ion and

acco##oda"ion, firs" in "er#s of colonialis" arran(e#en"s. n colonied and coloniin( lands, (loal racis# has

een !er!e"ua"ed "hrou(h racial ideolo(ies and discri#ina"ory !rac"icesunder ca!i"alis#y "he

crea"ion and recrea"ion of connec"ions a#on( #e#ory, knowled(e, ins"i"u"ions, and

cons"ruc"ion of "he fu"ure in "hou(h" and ac"ion. 9ha" #akes racis# (loal are "he rid(es

connec"in( "he !ar"iculari"ies of e*eryday racis" e:!eriences "o "he uni*ersali"y of racis" conce!"s

and ac"ions, #ain"ained (loally y #yriad for#s of !re)udice, discri#ina"ion, and *iolence

0Baliar and 9allers"ein 11= Ba"ur 1, 677E3. Fnder colonialis#, coloniin( and colonied socie"ies were an"a(onis"ic o!!osi"es.Since coloniin( socie"y !or"rayed "he colonied o"her,% as "he ad*ersary and challen(er of "he

"he ideal self,% no" only iden"ifica"ion u" also se(re(a"ion and con"ain#en" were essen"ial "o

racis" !olicies.The "er#s of e:clusion were se" y "he ins"i"u"ions "ha" fos"ered and #ain"ained

se(re(a"ion, u" "he in"ensi"y of e:clusion, and redundancy, eca#e #ore a!!aren"in "he a(e of

ad*anced ca!i"alis#, as an e:"ension of !os"8colonial disci!line. The e:clusionary #easures when

"es"ed led "o war , and (enocide. Al"hou(h, #ore of"en "han no", (enocide was !er!e"ua"ed and fos"ered

y "he !os"8colonial ins"i"u"ions , ra"her "han coloniin( forces, "he colonial iden"ifica"ion of "he

inferior o"her% led "o se(re(a"ion, "hen e:clusion, "hen war and (enocide.Miolence (lued "he# "o(e"her

in"o sea#less con"inui"y.*iolence is integral to understanding global racism. Ganon 01E;3, in

e:!lorin( colonial o!!ression, discusses how di*isions crea"ed or reinforced y colonialis# (uaran"ee "he

!er!e"ua"ion, and escala"ion, of *iolence for o"h "he colonier and colonied. ?acial

differen"ia"ions , ce#en"ed "hrou(h "he colonial rela"ionshi!, are in"e(ral "o "he a((re(a"ion of

*iolence durin( and af"er colonialis#& /anichaeis# [di*ision of "he uni*erse in"o o!!osi"es of (ood

and e*il- (oes "o i"s lo(ical conclusion and dehu#anies% 0Ganon 1E;&63.9i"hin "his dehu#aniin(

fra#ework, Ganon ar(ues "ha" "he *iolence resul"in( fro# "he des"ruc"ion of e*eryday life, sense of

self and i#a(ina"ion under colonialis# con"inues "o infes" "he !os"8colonial e:is"ence y

in"e(ra"in( colonied land in"o "he *iolen" des"ruc"ion of a new (eo(ra!hy of hun(er% and

e:!loi"a"ion0Ganon 1E;& E3. The (eo(ra!hy of hun(er% #arks "he con"e:" and s!ace in which o!!ression and e:!loi"a"ioncon"inue. The his"orical #a!s drawn y colonialis# now de#arca"e "he oundaries of !os"8colonial arran(e#en"s. The whi"e racialfra#e res"ruc"ures "his s!ace "o fi" "he i#a(ery of sy#olic racis#, #odifyin( i" "o fi" "he "ele*ision screen, or #akin( "he e*idence of

"he necessi"y of "he !oli"ics of e:clusion, and "he *iolence of war and (enocide, !ala"ale enou(h for "he fron" !a(e of news!a!ers,s!read ou" ne:" "o "he #ornin( reakfas" cereal. Two e:a#!les of "his (eo(ra!hy of hun(er and e:!loi"a"ion% are ra> and

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The recen" resusci"a"ion of "he !ro)ec" of #!ire should (i*e n"erna"ional ?ela"ions scholars !ar"icular !ause.1 Gor a disci!line lon(!re#ised on a "riu#!han" 9es"!halian so*erei(n"y, "here should e so#e"hin( re#arkale aou" "he ease wi"h which "he case forru"e force, re(i#e chan(e and e#!ire8uildin( is ein( for#ula"ed in wides!read co##en"ary s!annin( "he !oli"ical s!ec"ru#.

9ri"in( af"er "he 11 Nulf 9ar, dward Said no"es "he FS hesi"ance "o use "he word e#!ireQ des!i"e i"s lon( i#!erial his"ory.6 Thishesi"ance "oo is increasin(ly under a""ack as e*en self8desi(na"ed lieral co##en"a"ors such as /ichael (na"ieff ur(e "he FS "oo*erco#e i"s unease wi"h "he e8wordQ and selfconsciously don "he #an"le of i#!erial !ower, con"ra*enin( "he li#i"s of so*erei(nau"hori"y and re#akin( "he world in i"s uni*ersalis" i#a(e of de#ocracyQ and freedo#Q.; ?ashid Ihalidi has ar(ued "ha" "he FS

in*asion and occu!a"ion of ra> does indeed #ark a new s"a(e in A#erican world he(e#ony, re!lacin( "he indirec" and !ro:y for#s

of Cold 9ar do#ina"ion wi"h a re(i#e #uch #ore re#iniscen" of uro!ean colonial e#!ires in "he /iddle as". The easewi"h which a defence of e#!ire has een #oun"edand a colonial !ro)ec" so unaashedly resurrec"ed #akes

"his a!ar"icularly o!!or"une, if no" necessary, #o#en", as scholars of "he (loalQ, "o "ake s"ock of our

disci!linary co#!lici"ies wi"h !ower, "o accoun" for colonialis" i#a(inaries "ha" are lod(ed a" "he

hear" of a disci!lineos"ensily in"eres"ed in !ower u" !erha!s far "oo deluded y"he for#al e>uali"y of s"a"e

so*erei(n"y and o*erly concerned wi"h securi"yand order.

Perha!s #ore "han any o"her scholar, dward SaidQs (roundreakin( work in Orientalism has ar(ued and de#ons"ra"ed "he lon(and dee! co#!lici"y of acade#ic scholarshi! wi"h colonial do#ina"ion.5 n addi"ion "o s!awnin( whole new areas of scholarshi!such as !os"colonial s"udies, SaidQs wri"in(s ha*e had considerale influence in his own disci!line of co#!ara"i*e li"era"ure u" also

in such *aried disci!lines as an"hro!olo(y, (eo(ra!hy and his"ory, all of which ha*e "aken serious and sus"ained s"ock of "heir own!ar"ici!a"ion in i#!erial !ro)ec"s and in fac" re(rou!ed around "ha" consciousness in a way "ha" has si#!ly no" ha!!ened wi"h

n"erna"ional ?ela"ions.E " has een ;7 years since S"anley Koff#an accused ? of ein( an A#erican social

scienceQ and no"ed i"s "oo close connec"ions "o FS forei(n !olicy eli"es and FS !reoccu!a"ions of "he Cold

9ar "o e ale "o #ake any uni*ersal clai#s,2 ye" "here see#s "o ea curious a#nesiaand lack of curiosi"y aou" "he

!oli"ical his"ory of "he disci!line, and in !ar"icular i"s own co#!lici"ies in "he !roduc"ion of e#!ire.Throu(h wha" discourses "he i#!erial (e"s re!roduced, resurrec"ed and re8ener(ised is a >ues"ion "ha" should

e *ery #uch a" "he hear" of a disci!line whose "ask i" is "o e:a#ine "he con"ours of (loal !ower.

Thinkin( "his failure of ? "hrou(h so#e of dward SaidQs cri"ical scholarly work fro# his lon( dis"in(uished career as an in"ellec"ual

and ac"i*is", "hisar"icle is an a""e#!" "o !oli"icise and hence render questionable "he

disciplinar$ traps "ha" ha*e, ironically, circu#scried "he aili"y of scholarswhose *ery usiness i" is "o

"hink aou" (loal !oli"ics "o ac"ually "hink (loally and !oli"ically. 9ha" dward Said has "o offer ? scholars, elie*e, is a cer"ain kind of (loal sensiili"y, a cri"ical u" sy#!a"he"ic and fel" awareness of an inhai"ed and cohai"ed world.Gur"her#ore, i" is a !rofoundly !oli"ical sensiili"y whose (loalis# is !redica"ed on a co(nisance of "he i#!erial and a fir# non8i#!erial e"hic in i"s for#ula"ion. #ake "his ar(u#en" y "ra*ellin( "hrou(h a cou!le of SaidQs "he#a"ic foci in his enor#ous cor!us

of wri"in(. Fsin( a lo" of SaidQs reflec"ions on "he role of !ulic in"ellec"uals, ar(ue in "his ar"icle "ha" ? scholars need "o

de*elo! wha" call a (loal in"ellec"ual !os"ureQ. n "he 1; ?ei"h Dec"ures deli*ered on BBC channels, Said

ou"lines "hree !osi"ions for !ulic in"ellec"uals "o assu#e L as an ou"sider'e:ile'#ar(inal, as an a#a"eurQ, and as a dis"urer

of "he s"a"us >uos!eakin( "ru"h "o !owerQ and self8consciously sidin( wi"h "hose who are

underre!resen"edand disad*an"a(ed. Be(innin( wi"h a discussion of SaidQs cri"i>ue of !rofessionalis#Q and "he cul" ofe:!er"iseQ as i" a!!lies "o n"erna"ional ?ela"ions, firs" ar(ue "he i#!or"ance, for scholars of (loal !oli"ics, of "akin(politicsseriously. Second, "urn "o SaidQs co##en"s on "he !os"ure of e:ile and his cri"i>ue of iden"i"y !oli"ics, !ar"icularly in i"s na"ionalis"for#ula"ions, "o ask wha" i" #eans for s"uden"s of (loal !oli"ics "o "ake "he lobal seriously. Ginally, a""end "o so#e of SaidQsco##en"s on hu#anis# and con"ra!un"ali"y "o e:a#ine wha" ? scholars can learn fro# Said aou" feelin and thin!in loball"

concre"ely, "horou(hly and carefully.

? Professionals in an A(e of #!ire& Gro# n"erna"ional :!er"sQ "o Nloal Pulic n"ellec"ualsQ

$ne of "he !rofound effec"s of "he war on "error ini"ia"ed y "he Bush ad#inis"ra"ion has een a si(nifican" cons"ric"ion ofa de#ocra"ic !ulic s!here, which has included "he ac"i*e and a((ressi*e cur"ail#en" of

in"ellec"ual and !oli"ical dissen"and a shar! delinea"ion of na"ional oundaries alon( wi"h concen"ra"ion of s"a"e !ower.

The acade#yin "his con"e:" has eco#e a !ar"icularly e#a""led si"e wi"hso#e hi(hly dis"urin( onslau(h"son acade#ic freedo#. A" "he #os" o*ious le*el, "his has in*ol*ed fairly well8calira"ed neoconser*a"i*e a""acks on FS hi(her

educa"ion "ha" ha*e in*oked "he #an"ra of lieral iasQ and de#anded le(isla"i*e re(ula"ion and refor#17, an onslau(h"su!!or"ed y a well8funded ne"work of conser*a"i*e "hink "anks, cen"res, ins"i"u"es and concerned ci"ien (rou!sQ wi"hin and

ou"side "he hi(her educa"ion es"alish#en"11 and wi"h considerale reach a#on( si""in( le(isla"ors, )uris"s and !olicy8#akers as

well as "he #edia. Bu"wha" hasin !ar" #ade !ossile "he encroach#en" of suchna"ionalis" and s"a"is"

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a(endas has een a lar(er his"ory of"he cor!ora"isa"ion of "he uni*ersi"y and "he acco#!anyin(

!rofessionalisa"ionQ"ha" (oes wi"h i". :!ressin( concern wi"h acade#ic ac>uiescence in "he decline of !ulic discourse in

"he Fni"ed S"a"esQ, Kerer" ?eid has e:a#ined "he ways in which "he uni*ersi"y is e(innin( "o o!era"e as ano"her "ransna"ional

cor!ora"ion16, and cri"i>ued "he consolida"ion of a cul"ure of !rofessionalis#Q where academic

bureaucrats engage in bureaucratic role"pla$ing, #inor acade#ic turf battles mas!

the larger managerial power pla$on ca#!uses and "he increasin( influence of a rela"i*ely

au"ono#ous ad#inis"ra"i*e eli"e and "he rise of insular e:!er" cul"uresQha*e led "o acade#icsrelin>uishin( "heir clai#s "o !ulic s!ace and au"hori"y.1;

9hile i" is no sur!rise "ha" "he FS acade#y should find i"self "oo a" "ha" uneasy confluence of neolieral (loalisin( dyna#ics and

e:clusi*is" na"ionalis" a(endas "ha" is "he !redica#en" of #any con"e#!orary ins"i"u"ions around "he world, "here is #uch reasonfor concern and an ur(en" need "o re"hink "he role and !lace of in"ellec"ual laour in "he de#ocra"ic !rocess. This is es!ecially "ruefor scholars of "he (loal wri"in( in "his a(e of (loalisa"ion and e#!ire. dward Said has wri""en e:"ensi*ely on "he !lace of "heacade#y as one of "he few and increasin(ly !recarious s!aces for de#ocra"ic deliera"ion and ar(ued "he necessi"y for !ulicin"ellec"uals i##ured fro# "he seduc"ions of !ower.1 efendin( "he FS acade#y as one of "he las" re#ainin( u"o!ian s!aces, "he

one !ulic s!ace a*ailale "o real al"erna"i*e in"ellec"ual !rac"ices& no o"her ins"i"u"ion like i" on such a scale e:is"s anywhere else in"he world "odayQ15, and laudin( "he re#arkale cri"ical "heore"ical and his"orical work of #any acade#ic in"ellec"uals in a lo" of hiswork, Said also co#!lains "ha" "he A#erican Fni*ersi"y, wi"h i"s #unificence, u"o!ian sanc"uary, and re#arkale di*ersi"y, has

defan(ed 0in"ellec"uals3Q1E. The #os" serious "hrea" "o "he in"ellec"ual *oca"ionQ, he ar(ues, is !rofessionalis#Q

and #oun"s a !oin"ed a""ack on "he !rolifera"ion of s!ecialia"ionsQ and "he cul" of e:!er"iseQ wi"h "heir focus on

rela"i*ely narrow areas of knowled(eQ, "echnical for#alis#Q, i#!ersonal "heories and#e"hodolo(iesQ, and#os" worriso#e of all, "heir aili"y andwillin(ness "o e seduced b$ power.12 Said#en"ions in "his con"e:" "he fundin( of acade#ic !ro(ra##es and research which ca#e ou" of "he e:i(encies of "he Cold 9ar1, an

area in which "here was considerale "raffic of !oli"ical scien"is"s 0lar(ely "rained as ? and co#!ara"i*e !oli"ics scholars3 wi"hins"i"u"ions of !olicy8#akin(. Dookin( a" *arious influen"ial FS acade#ics as or(anic in"ellec"ualsQ in*ol*ed in a dialec"icalrela"ionshi! wi"h forei(n !olicy8#akers and e:a#inin( "he ins"i"u"ional rela"ionshi!s a" and a#on( nu#erous "hink "anks anduni*ersi"ies "ha" crea"e con*er(en" !ers!ec"i*es and in"eres"s, Chris"o!her Cle#en" has s"udied FS in"er*en"ion in "he Third 9orld

o"h durin( and af"er "he Cold 9ar #ade !ossile and )us"ified "hrou(h *arious for#s of in"ellec"ual ar"icula"ionQ.1 This is no"

si#!ly a #a""er of scholars workin( for "he s"a"e, u" indeed a lar(er >ues"ion of intellectual

orientation. " is no" unco##on for ? scholars "o feel "he need "o for#ula"e "heir scholarly

conclusions in "er#s of i"s rele*ance for (loal !oli"ics, where rele*anceQ is #easured en"irely in "er#s of !olicy

wisdo#. dward SaidQs searin( indic"#en" of FS in"ellec"uals L !olicy8e:!er"s and /iddle as"

e:!er"s 8 in "he con"e:" of "he firs" Nulf 9ar67 is cer"ainly e*en #ore resonan" in "he con"e#!orary con"e:"

!recedin( and followin( "he 677; in*asion of ra>. The s!ace for a cri"ical a!!raisal of "he #o"i*a"ions and conduc" of "his war

has een consideraly di#inished y "he e:!er"ise8fra#ed na"ional dea"ewhereincer"ain kinds of ethical questions

irreducible to formulaic 0for or against+ and 0costs and benefits+ anal$sis can si#!ly

not be raised. n effec", wha" Said ar(ues for, and ? scholars need "o !ay !ar"icular heed "o, is an

unders"andin( of in"ellec"ual rele*anceQ "ha" is lar(er and #ore wor"hwhile, "ha" is aou" "he

!osin( of cri"ical , his"orical, e"hical and !erha!s unanswerale >ues"ions ra"her "han "he offerin( of

reci!es and solu"ions, "ha" is aou" !oli"ics 0ra"her "han "echno8e:!er"ise3 in "he #os" funda#en"al andi#!or"an" senses of "he *oca"ion.61

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1NCegemon$Pfeffer ev sa$s 2regional conflicts are more probable than all"out war3 ' concede

it4 no ris! of !ad or prolif impacts

Can+t solve 2islanding3 5.S. militar$ installations in 6oudermil! ' aff is e7clusivel$offshore

8rid is resilient and sustainable

Clar!1&, /A candida"e L n"elli(ence S"udies @ A#erican /ili"ary Fni*ersi"y, senior analys" L Chene(a Gederal Sys"e#s,'6'Q16 0Paul, The ?isk of isru!"ion or es"ruc"ion of Cri"ical F.S. nfras"ruc"ure y an $ffensi*e Cyer A""ack,% A#erican/ili"ary Fni*ersi"y3

An a""ack a(ains" "he elec"rical (rid is a reasonale "hrea" scenario since !ower sys"e#s are a hi(h !riori"y "ar(e" for #ili"ary andinsur(en"s and "here has een a "rend "owards u"iliin( co##ercial sof"ware and in"e(ra"in( u"ili"ies in"o "he !ulic n"erne" "ha"

has increased *ulneraili"y across "he oard 0Dewis 67173. He" "he increasedvulnerabilitiesare mitigated b$anincreased detection and deterrent capabilit$ that has been 9honed over man$ $earsof !rac"ical a!!lica"ion now "ha" !ower sys"e#s are usin( s"andard, ra"her "han !ro!rie"ary and s!ecialied, a!!lica"ions and

co#!onen"s 0Dei"a and acier 67163. The securit$ of the electrical grid isalso enhanced b$increased awarenessaf"er a s#ar"8(rid hackin( de#ons"ra"ion in 677 and "he iden"ifica"ion of "he S"u:ne" #alware in6717& as a resul" the public and private sector are wor!ing together in an 9unprecedentedeffort9 toestablish robust securit$ guidelines and c$ber securit$ measures0Nohn and9heelock 67173. n 677;, a si#!le !hysical reakdown occurredL "rees shor"ed a !ower line and caused a faul" L"ha" had a cascadin( effec"and caused a !ower lackou" across "he uickly as !ossile. The #os" *isile of "hese!olicies is "he in"ers"a"e #er(ency /ana(e#en"Assis"ance Co#!ac", a le(ally indin(Ra(ree#en"allowin( co#ined resources "o e >uickly de!loyed in res!onse "oa ca"as"ro!hicR disas"er such as!ower ou"a(esfollowin( a se*ere hurricane 0Ia!ucu, Au(us"in and Naraye*R6773.RThe elec"rical (rid suffers

ser*ice in"erru!"ions re(ularly, i" is a lar(e and co#!le: sys"e#Rsu!!or"in( "he lar(es" econo#y in "he world, and ye"co##erce does no" colla!se 0Dewis 67173.Res!i"e liards, ear"h>uakes , fires, and hurricanes"ha" causelackou"s, the econom$isRaffec"ed u" does not collapseand e*en af"er #assi*e da#a(elike "ha" causedy KurricaneRIa"rina, national securit$ is not affectedecause F.S. #ili"ary ca!aili"y is no" de(raded 0DewisR67173.RCyer8securi"y is an e*er8increasin( concernin an increasin(ly elec"ronic andRin"erconnec"ed world.Cyer8securi"y is a hi(h !riori"y econo#ic and na"ional securi"yR challen(e% 0

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e!ar"#en" ofR Ko#eland Securi"y ud(e"for cyer8securi"y has een si(nifican"ly increased0F.S.Sena"eRCo##i""ee on Ko#eland Securi"y and No*ern#en"al Affairs 67163.

uences of anarchy, !roducin( a #ore !eaceful world. F.S. securi"y(uaran"ees de"er a((ressors, reassure allies, and da#!en securi"y dile##as 0!. ;3. By su!!lyin( reassurance, de"errence, and

ac"i*e #ana(e#en",% Brooks e" al. wri"e, !ri#acy reduces securi"y co#!e"i"ion and does so in a way "ha" slows "he diffusion of

!ower away fro# "he Fni"ed S"a"es% 0!!. ;L73. There are "hree reasons "o re)ec" "his lo(ic& securit$

competition is declining anyway= if co#!e"i"ion increases, primac$ will have difficult$

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stopping it= and e*en if co#!e"i"ion occurred, i" would pose little threat"o "he Fni"ed S"a"es. An

ncreasin(ly Peaceful 9orldAn array of research, so#e ofwhich Brooks e" al. ci"e , indica"es "ha" fac"ors

o"her "han F.S. !ower are di#inishin( in"ers"a"ewar and securi"y co#!e"i"ion.6 These fac"orsco#ine "o

#ake "he cos"s of #ili"ary a((ression *ery hi(h, and i"s enefi"s low.; A #a)or reason for !eace is "ha"

con>ues" has (rown #ore cos"ly. Nuclear weapons ma!e it nearl$ suicidal in so#e cases. Asia, "here(ion where fu"ure (rea" !ower co#!e"i"ion is #os" likely, has a (eo(ra!hy of !eace%& i"s #ari"i#e and #oun"ainous re(ions are

for#idale arriers "o conflic".5 [nd Pa(e 1- Con>ues" also yields lower econo#ic re"urns "han in "he !as".Pos"8indus"rial econo#ies "ha" rely hea*ily on hu#an ca!i"al and infor#a"ion are#ore difficult

to e7ploit .E Co##unica"ions and "rans!or" "echnolo(ies aid na"ionalis# and o"her iden"i"y !oli"ics "ha" #ake forei(ners

harder "o #ana(e. The lowering of trade barriers li#i"s"he re"urnsfro# "heir forcile o!enin(.2 Al"hou(hs"a"es are slow learners, "hey increasin(ly a!!recia"e "hese "rends. Tha" should no" sur!rise s"ruc"ural realis"s. Throu(h "wo world

wars, "he in"erna"ional sys"e# selec"ed a(ains"% hy!era((ressi*e s"a"es and de#ons"ra"ed e*en "o *ic"ors "he cos"s of #a)or war.

$"hers ada!" "o "he chan(ed calculus of #ili"ary a((ression "hrou(h socialia"ion. /ana(in( ?e*isionis" S"a"es Brooks e" al.

cau"ion a(ains" e""in( on "hese !osi"i*e "rends. Theyworry "ha" if s"a"es eha*e "he way offensi*e realis#

!redic"s, "hen securi"y co#!e"i"ion will e fiercee*en if i"s cos"s are hi(h. $r, if nonsecuri"y !references such as

!res"i(e, s"a"us, or (lory #o"i*a"e s"a"es, e*en secure s"a"es #ay eco#e a((ressi*e 0!!. ;EL;23. These scenarios, howe*er,

are abigger problem for primac$ "hanfor res"rain". $ffensi*e realis" securi"y !aranoia s"e#s

fro#s"a"esQ uncer"ain"yaou" in"en"ions= such s"a"es see alliances as "e#!orary e:!edien"s of las" resor", and F.S.

#ili"ary co##i"#en"s are unlikely "o co#for" or de"er "he#.17 uickly uild u! i"s #ili"ary and de*elo! nuclear wea!ons.A disen(a(ed

Fni"ed S"a"es would ha*e ample warning and time to form alliances or regenerate

forces efore China realies such *as" a#i"ions. Brooks e" al. warn "ha" a *arie"y of s"a"es

would de*elo! nuclear wea!onsasen" F.S. !ro"ec"ion. 9e a(ree "ha" a !rolifera"ion cascade would crea"e dan(er and

"ha" res"rain" #ay cause so#e new s"a"es "o seek nuclear wea!ons. Prolif era"ion cascades arenone"heless an

uncon*incin( ra"ionale for !ri#acy. Primac$likely causes more prolif eration among

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adversaries than it prevents among allies. S"a"escrosswise wi"h "he Fni"ed S"a"es realie "ha"

nuclear arsenals de"er F.S. a""ack and di#inish i"s coerci*e !ower. F.S. !ro"ec"ion, #eanwhile, does

no" relialy s"o! allied and friendly s"a"es fro# uildin( nuclear wea!ons. 9i"ness Bri"ish, Grench, andsraeli decision#akin(. Prolifera"ion cascades were fre>uen"ly !redic"ed u" ne*er realied durin( "he Cold 9ar, when securi"y was

scarcer.15 uire "he o#.1E Ginally, even if proliferationcascades occur4 the$ do not threaten 5.S. securit$. Gew, if any, s"a"es would e irra"ional

enou(h "o cour" des"ruc"ion a" "he hands of "he F.S. nuclear arsenal, es!ecially if "he Fni"ed S"a"esis no" en#eshed in "heir conflic"s.

S$ria4 ?emen4 Pa!istan4 /raq4 fghanistan4 North @orea4 *ietnam4 /srael"

Palestine4 recent Chinese balancing4 ,ussian rctic claims4 and 5!raine prove

hegemon$ doesn+t wor!

>raming issue ' CA proves the aff onl$ increases militar$ hegemon$ ' magnifiesthe lin!

egemon$ fails and destabilies regional powers ' no impact to the transition '

turns case ' disregard their fearmongering

Posen1B[Barry, Gord n"erna"ional Professor of Poli"ical Science a" /T and "he direc"or of /T4s Securi"y S"udies Pro(ra#,June 6, ?es"rain" & A

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*en if "he connec"ions are !lausile, howe*er, it is unli!el$ given the inherent 5.S. securit$

position "ha" "he Fni"ed S"a"es need !ro! u! "he firs" do#ino. " has "he lu:ury ofwaiting for

information and choosing the dominos it wishes to shore up, if any.

Second , !ro!onen"sof Dieral Ke(e#ony of"en elide "he difference e"ween "hose enefi"s of "he

s"ra"e(y "ha" flow "o o"hers, and "hose "ha" flow "o "he Fni"ed S"a"es. ndi*idually, i" is surely "rue "ha"

chea!8riders and reckless8dri*ers like "he curren" si"ua"ion ecause of "he welfare, securi"y, or!ower (ains "ha" accrue "o "he#.Fni"ed S"a"es co##i"#en"s #ay #ake "he in"erna"ional !oli"ics of so#e re(ions less

e:ci"in( "han would o"herwise e "he case. The 5ni"ed S"a"es, howe*er, pa$s a significant price and

assumes significant ris!s "o !ro*ide "heseenefi"s "o o"hers, while "he gains to the 5ni"ed

S"a"es are e7aggeratedecause "he Fni"ed S"a"es is inheren"ly >ui"e secure.

Third, Dieral Ke(e#onis"s ar(ue "ha" F.S. co##i"#en"s reduce "he in"ensi"y of re(ional

securi"y co#!e"i"ions, li#i" "he s!read of nuclear wea!onry, and lower "he(eneral odds of conflic",

and "ha" "hishel!s kee! "he Fni"ed S"a"es ou" of wars "ha" would e#er(e in "hese uns"ale re(ions.

This chain of in"erconnec"ed enefi"s is not self"evident. Fni"ed S"a"es ac"i*is# does chan(e "he

na"ure of re(ional co#!e"i"ions= it does not necessaril$ suppress them. Gor e:a#!le,

where F.S. commitments encouragefree"riding,% this attracts coercion4 which the

5ni"ed S"a"es must"hen do more to deter.9here "he Fni"ed S"a"es encoura(esreckless dri*in(,% i"

produces regional instabilit$. Fni"ed S"a"es ac"i*is#!roaly helps causeso#e nuclear

prolifera"ion,ecauseso#e s"a"eswillwan"nuclear wea!ons "o de"er an ac"i*is" Fni"ed S"a"es.9hen "he

Fni"ed S"a"es #akes e:"ended de"errence co##i"#en"s "o discoura(e !rolifera"ion, theF.S. militar$

is encouraged to adoptcon*en"ional and nuclear #ili"ary strategies that are"he#sel*esdestabiliing .Ginally, as is clear fro# "he e*idence of "he las" "wen"y years, the 5ni"ed S"a"es ends

up in regional wars in an$ case.

Gour"h, one key se" of in"erconnec"ions !osi"ed y Dieral Ke(e#onis"s is "ha" e"ween F.S.

securi"y !ro*ision, free "rade, and F.S. !ros!eri"y.This is a !rescri!"i*e e:"ension of he(e#onic s"aili"y "heory,de*elo!ed y econo#is" Charles Iindleer(er fro# a close s"udy of "he colla!se of (loal li>uidi"y in 1;1 and "he ensuin( (rea"de!ression. 165 Professor Iindleer(er concluded fro# "his one case "ha" a (loal sys"e# of free "rade and finance would #ore

easily sur*i*e crises if "here was a leader,% a he(e#on wi"h sufficien" econo#ic !ower such "ha" i"s !olicies could sa*e% a sys"e# incrisis, which would also ha*e "he in"eres" and "he will "o do so, !recisely ecause i" was so s"ron(. 16E Suse>uen" "heoris"s, such as

?oer" Nil!in, e:"ended "his "o "he idea "ha" a (loal econo#ic and securi"y he(e#on would e e*en e""er. 162 ?oer" Ieohane, andla"er John kenerry, added "o "his "heory "he no"ion "ha" a lieral% he(e#on would e s"ill e""er, ecause i" would (raf""rans!aren" and le(i"i#a"e rules on"o "he he(e#onic sys"e#, which would #ake i" #ore acce!"ale "o "he su)ec"s% and hence less

cos"ly "o run. 16 A co#!rehensi*e reu""al of he(e#onic s"aili"y "heory is eyond "he sco!e of "his ook. Bu" this theor$

has fallen into desuetudein "he s"udy of in"erna"ional !oli"ics in "he las" "wen"y years. Pro!onen"s did no"

!roduce a clear, consolida"ed*ersion of "he "heory "ha" in"e(ra"ed econo#ics, securi"y, and

ins"i"u"ional*ariales in a sys"e#a"ic way "ha" (i*es us a sense of "heirrela"i*e i#!or"ance and

in"erde!endence, and how "hey work in !rac"ice. The theor$ is difficult to testecause "here

are only "wo cases& nine"een"h8 and early "wen"ie"h8cen"ury Bri"ain, and !os"L9orld 9ar Fni"ed S"a"es, and "hey

o!era"ed in *ery differen" ways under *ery differen" condi"ions .Ginally, testingof narrow *ersions of

the theor$ did not show compelling results.16 These !role#s should ma!e usso#ewha"

s!eptical aou" #akin( "he "heory "he asis for F.S. (rand s"ra"e(y.

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ha*e ar(ued in "his cha!"er "ha" F.S. #ili"ary ca!aili"ies should e sied for "he #ili"ary ac"ions "ha"

could e necessary "o protect"hese interests and respond toi##inen" threats. Dar(e F.S.

(round forces !lay a di#inished role in"he ?es"rain"Nrand S"ra"e(y and would e cu" sus"an"ially.

?es"rain" eschews in"er*en"ion in"o "he in"ernal !oli"ics of o"her s"a"es, and "hus"he (round

forces "ha" su!!or" lar(ecoun"erinsur(ency ca#!ai(ns are unnecessary. ?es"rain" ai#s "o ener(ie

o"her ad*anced indus"rial s"a"e s in"o i#!ro*in( "heir own ca!aili"ies"o defend "he#sel*es, so"he

(arrisonsof (round forces, whose !eace"i#e !ur!ose see#s "o e #ainly di!lo#a"ic, and whose war"i#e #issions see# easily

carried y "he na"ions where "hey ha*e een ased, can re"urn ho#e and furl "heir colors.

A #ari"i#e s"ra"e(y hel!s "o avoid the problems of recent $ears. A #ari"i#e s"ra"e(y is

res!onsi*e "o "he *ola"ili"y of iden"i"y !oli"icsin an era of ra!id social, econo#ic, and !oli"ical chan(e. " reduces

F.S. #ili"ary !resencearoad in a way "ha"lowers "he F.S. !oli"ical !rofile, and "hus diminishesinchoa"e u"

s"ill dan(erous local political antipathies"o "he Fni"ed S"a"es. A" "he sa#e "i#e, reduc"ions of forces aroad

should energieso#e F.S. allies todo #ore "o defend themselves and cau"ions o"hers "o do

fewer of "he "hin(s "ha" "hey do "ha" are ini#ical "o F.S. in"eres"s.

?es"rain" will sa*e a (rea" deal of #oney.Personnel le*els fall y rou(hly 67 !ercen", and force s"ruc"ure #easured asan a*era(e of reduc"ions in ar#y ri(ades, fi(h"er s>uadrons, carrier "ask (rou!s, and #arine di*ision'win(s falls y rou(hly ;7

!ercen". ?ecen" his"ory su((es"s "ha"wi"hsuch lar(e force s"ruc"ure reduc"ions, "he "o"al e!ar"#en" of efenseBud(e" could fallin rou(h !ro!or"ion, which #eans "ha" s!endin( could decreasey!erha!s 67 !ercen"in real "er#sfro# !resen" le*els. 5 f "he cu"s were acco#!lished o*er fi*e years, "his could soon "ake "he $Qs share of NP down "o 6.5

!ercen". Presu#in( "ha" "he econo#y con"inues "o (row, defense #ana(ers could "hen seek modest real

increases in defense s!endin( "o sus"ain "he new force s"ruc"urewithout increasing the

burden on the econom$. The #oney sa*ed y ?es"rain" canei"her assis" in long"term deficit

reduction or e di*er"ed "o o"her na"ional needs.

No ris!s of rearmtheir current low level of capabilities proves

>ettweis11[Chris"o!her, Professor of Poli"ical Science a" Tulane Fni*ersi"y, Gree ?idin( or ?es"rain"O :a#inin( uro!eanNrand S"ra"e(y,% #omparati%e Strate", Mol. ;7

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Fni"ed S"a"es. ?es"rain" is a ra"ional res!onse "o a low8"hrea" in"erna"ional securi"y en*iron#en" .

Thus "he roo" cause of allied de#ili"aria"ion is no" a #ys"ery& The (rea" !owersof uro!e do no"

!ercei*e #uch "hrea" in "he in"erna"ional sys"e#.The firs" line of "he 677; uro!ean Securi"y S"ra"e(y reads "ha"uro!e has ne*er een so !ros!erous, so secure nor so free.%1 The o!enin( sen"ence of "he F.S. 8induced dou" aou" "he u"ili"y of #a"erial

!redo#inance, a dou" redolen" of "he !os"8Mie"na# #ood. n re"ros!ec", #any assess#en"s of F.S. econo#ic and

"echnolo(ical !rowess fro# "he 17s were o*erly o!"i#is"ic= y "he ne:" decade i#!or"an" !o"en"ial

*ulneraili"ies were e*iden". n !ar"icular, chronically i#alanced do#es"ic finances and

accelera"in( !ulic de" con*inced so#e analys"s "ha" "he F ni"ed S "a"es once a(ain confron"ed a

co#!e"i"i*eness crisis.6; f concerns con"inue "o #oun", "his will coun" as "he four"h such crisis since

15= "he firs" "hree occurred durin( "he 157s 0S!u"nik3, "he 127s 0Mie"na# and s"a(fla"ion3, and "he 17s 0"he So*ie" "hrea" and

Ja!an4s challen(e3.

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"hose 12 cases, all se*en of "he !ro)ec"s"ha" were launchedin earnes"efore 127 succeeded.66 Theira*era(e "i#e "o "he firs" nuclear "es" 0or in "he case of srael, "he direc" induc"ion of o!era"ional wea!ons wi"hou" a "es"3 was aou" 2

years. By con"ras", only "hree of "he "endedica"ed nuclear wea!ons !ro)ec"s "ha" were launched since 127 ha*e

succeeded.6;And e*en"hose ul"i#a"ely successful cases needed aou" 12 years on a*era(e "o do so.

Tha" is, "hey needed a full decade lon(er "han "he earlier (rou!. Perha!s "he #os" i#!or"an" reason for "his

slowdown has een"he poor management of"he #ore recen" !ro)ec"s.

A (ood e:a#!leof "he con"e#!orary reali"y of dysfunc"ional nuclear wea!ons !ro)ec"s is ui*alen" "o a o#,since "he en(ineers "ell us "ha" an e:!losi*e nuclear "es" is no" s"ric"ly "echnically necessary in order "o o"ain a workale nuclearwea!on.

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wea!onsin !ar"ecause i" has no o"her answer "o F.S. #ili"ary su!eriori"y. ran !ursuesnear

nuclear wea!ons% s"a"us "o i#!ro*e i"s !ower in "he Persian Nulf, a re(ion "he Fni"ed S"a"es has

s"ra"e(ically do#ina"e dsince "he end of "he Cold 9ar. China has "aken ranQs !ar" in i"s dis!u"e wi"h "he

Fni"ed S"a"es o*er i"s effor"s "o #as"er "he "echnolo(y "ha" would !er#i" i" "o uild a"o#ic wea!ons. Bo"h ,ussia and

China have sold advanced weaponr$ to /ran.

China is workin(*ery hard "o i#!ro*e "he >uali"y of i"s #ili"ary forces, "echnolo(ically and !rofessionally.Aside fro# i"s i#!or"s fro# ?ussia, i"s do#es"ic ar#s indus"ry s"ri*es "o !roduce #ore in"erna"ionally co#!e"i"i*e wea!ons, and

)ud(in( fro# a!!earances i" is ha*in( so#e success. China is also de*elo!in( s"ra"e(ic #a"erials and ener(y

s"ock!iles, !resu#aly "o allow i" "o ride ou" a F.S. lockade, enaled y F.S. co##and of "he sea. 6; $n a s#aller

scale, /ran"oo has tried to develop a capable independent arms industr$.Thou(h i"s !roduc"s

are #uch less ad*anced "han "hose of "he "o! !roducers, "heysee# "o ha*e #ade i#!or"an" !ro(ress, es!ecially in

"heir aili"y "o !roduce un(uided and (uided rocke"s and #issiles.There is also so#e e*idence "ha" "hey are!roducin( ni(h" *ision de*ices, !or"ale surface "o air #issiles, and si(nals in"elli(ence (ear. 6 The !erfor#ance of "heir clien"s,

es!ecially Kiollah in i"s 677E war wi"h srael, and "he so8called s!ecial (rou!s% in ra>, o"h su((es" so#e i#!ressi*e skills inranQs #ili"ary. The "rade in e:!er"ise is likely "wo way= ran "eaches o"hers so#e "echni>ues u" i"self !rofi"s fro# "he co#a"e:!erience of i"s friends. 65

Thus far "he co#ina"ion of sof" and hard, e:"ernal and in"ernal alancin( encoun"ered y "he Fni"ed S"a"es has een incon*enien",

u" no" deadly. The di!lo#a"ic resis"ance "o "he Fni"ed S"a"es o*er ra> cast a shadow over the 5.S.effort, #akin( i" harder for so#e allies "o si(n u! and easier for "he# "o lea*e. " alsohel!ed sha!e

"he ackdro! of !oli"ics across "he Ara world, legitimat ing assistance to /raqi insurgentso!!osed "o "he Fni"ed S"a"es. 9e canno" #easure "his, howe*er, and "he ac"ual i#!ac" #ay e sli(h", (i*en "he e:!ec"ed !a"rio"ico!!osi"ion of a" leas" so#e Ara ra>is "o "he Fni"ed S"a"es, and "he !ar"icular o!!osi"ion of Sunni Ara ra>is, whose hold on !ower

"he Fni"ed S"a"es roke. n "he world of hard alancin(, ChinaQs in"ernal i#!ro*e#en"s are "he #os" decisi*e . "so*erall econo#ic !ro(ress, howe*er, canno" e a""riu"ed "o a desire "o alance "he Fni"ed S"a"es !er se, u" ra"her "o a lar(er desire

"o uild ChinaQs weal"h and !ros!eri"y. As #any ha*e oser*ed, ChinaQs e:!or"8led (row"h s"ra"e(y de!ends in

!ar" on "he lieral in"erna"ional econo#y "ha" F.S. he(e#ony ai#s "o sus"ain and !ro"ec". A" "he sa#e

"i#e, howe*er, China is wor!ings"eadily to improve its militar$ power.And i" is hard "o see

any i##edia"e o)ec" of "his uildu! o"her "han "he Fni"ed S"a"es. Fni"ed S"a"es s"ra"e(ic !lanners ha*e "aken

no"e. China is #akin( i" *ery difficul" for "he F.S. #ili"ary "o reach "heAsia n li""orals. The dea"e

on

an"i8access area denial ca!aili"ies% in "he F.S. defense co##uni"y,

and "he e#er(ence of"he

air8seaa""le% conce!", wi"h i"s conco#i"an" re>uire#en" for si(nifican" e:!endi"ures on "he #os" ad*anced offensi*e ca!aili"ies,

"es"ifies "o "he #ili"ary !ro(ress China has already #ade and is e:!ec"ed "o #ake. 6EAs China

i#!ro*es i"s li""oral warfare ca!aili"ies, 5.S. pro(ection assets ma$ simpl$be pushed

awa$. e:!ec" "his "o occur, u" only af"er "he Fni"ed S"a"es s!ends a (rea" deal of #oney "ryin( "o !re*en" i".

Nuclear leadership fails ' Sanders assumes new proliferators are part of the NPT

' CA proves states wouldn+t (oin in the first place

S=,s are low"grade uranium ' leadership can+t stop enrichment programs in

other nations and attempts would force those programs into secrec$ ' turns theadvantage

8lennon is awful scholarship

. Overloo!s deterrence"based bargaining shifts that incentivied cooperation

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%. n$"ris! logic is absurd in this conte7t ' deterrence wor!s on a perceived 1F

ris! of war that negates the actual chance of war

C. ssumes either vague4 none7istent irrational actors that would pre"emptivel$

use nu!es or terrorists stealing a weapon ' CA proves it+s impossible

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1NCSolvenc$No solvenc$ ' N,C regulation and accidents

#elloc!1;0Tho#as 9ellock,

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Girs", S/?s are less susce!"ile "o !o"en"ial a""ack. 9hen "hey are !laced under(round, S/?s ha*e an addi"ional layer of !ro"ec"ion"ha" in"ruders #us" !ene"ra"e efore (ainin( access "o "he si"e. Fnder(round #odules are also #ore difficul" "o "ar(e" fro# "he air.Second, ecause S/?s are su#er(ed underwa"er, "hey are e""er !ro"ec"ed fro# na"ural disas"ers es!ecially ear"h>uakes

ecause "he wa"er can asor seis#ic forces and shakin(. The au"hors ar(ue "ha" S/?s would no" suffer "he ca"as"ro!hic safe"y

failures "ha" occurred a" "he Gukushi#a ai8ichi Plan" in /arch of 6711. Bu" can "hese S/?s co#!e"e econo#ically

wi"h al"erna"i*e (reen "echnolo(ies and wi"h low na"ural (as !ricesO ?osner and Nolder( asser" "ha" "hey

can, u" only under !ar"icular econo#ic and re(ula"ory condi"ions. S/? !lan"s ha*e "wo #a)or cos"ad*an"a(es o*er al"erna"i*e ener(ies& "hey can e uil" one #odule a" a "i#e, "herey reducin( u!8fron" ca!i"al cos"s, and "hey can

"ake ad*an"a(e of e:is"in( nuclear infras"ruc"ure such as co#!onen" and e>ui!#en" facili"ies. Dar(e8scale reac"ors are cons"ruc"edon8si"e fro# scra"ch. As a resul", each si"e re>uires e:!ensi*e ca!i"al in*es"#en"s and is s"affed y a no*ice local workforce "ha" #us"learn y doin(= cos"ly delays are co##on due "o s#all errors. n con"ras", !roduc"ion of S/?s in a #anufac"urin( facili"y wouldenefi" fro# an e:!erienced workforce and #achine8con"rolled !recision and could crea"e econo#ies of scale. Fnder "hesecondi"ions, S/?s would no" only e co#!e"i"i*e wi"h caron8ased ener(y, u" would ha*e lower uni"8ener(y !rices "han o"her

al"erna"i*e ener(y o!"ions, such as wind, solar !ho"o*ol"aic, solar "her#al, and (eo"her#al, which are less efficien" and less reliale

and suffer fro# hi(h ca!i"al cos"s. Kowe*er, al"erna"i*e ener(ies do no" face "he sa#e re(ula"ory challen(es

as nuclear !ower .n order "o fur"her decrease "he cos"s of S/?s "o a co#!e"i"i*e le*el, "he

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