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WATER RESOURCES IN

EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA

VVOOLLUUMMEE IIII

CCOOUUNNTTRRYY WWAATTEERR NNOOTTEESS

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2003 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20433, USA Manufactured in the United States of America Second Printing August 2003 This publication is in two volumes: (a) Volume I—Water Resources in Europe and Central Asia: Issues and Strategic Directions; and (b) the present Volume II—Water Resources in Europe and Central Asia: Country Water Notes and Selected Transboundary Basins. The Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development (ECSSD) Department is distributing this report to disseminate findings of work-in-progress and to encourage debate, feedback and exchange of ideas on important issues in the Europe and Central Asia region. The report carries the names of the authors and should be used and cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations and conclusions are the authors’ own and should not be attributed to the World Bank, its Board of Directors, its management, or any member countries. For submission of comments and suggestions, and additional information, including copies of this report, please contact Ms. Rita Cestti at: 1818 H Street N.W. Washington, DC 20433, USA Email: [email protected] Tel: (1-202) 473-3473 Fax: (1-202) 614-0698

Printed on Recycled Paper

TABLE OF CONTENTS Weights and Measures...................................................................................................................ii Acronyms and Abbreviations ......................................................................................................iii Geographic Glossary .....................................................................................................................v Overview........................................................................................................................................vi PART 1: COUNTRY WATER NOTES Albania ..........................................................................................................................................1 Armenia.......................................................................................................................................11 Azerbaijan...................................................................................................................................17 Belarus ........................................................................................................................................25 Bosnia and Herzegovina .............................................................................................................32 ` Bulgaria .......................................................................................................................................42 Croatia .........................................................................................................................................52 Czech Republic ...........................................................................................................................64 Estonia.........................................................................................................................................67 Georgia........................................................................................................................................70 Hungary.......................................................................................................................................77 Kazakhstan..................................................................................................................................81 Kyrgyz Republic .........................................................................................................................87 Latvia ..........................................................................................................................................95 Lithuania .....................................................................................................................................99 Former Yugoslavia Republic of Macedonia .............................................................................103 Moldova ....................................................................................................................................113 Poland........................................................................................................................................121 Romania ....................................................................................................................................124 Russian Federation....................................................................................................................133 Serbia and Montenegro .............................................................................................................143 Slovak Republic ........................................................................................................................164 Slovenia.....................................................................................................................................167 Tajikistan...................................................................................................................................171 Turkey.......................................................................................................................................178 Turkmenistan ............................................................................................................................186 Ukraine......................................................................................................................................191 Uzbekistan.................................................................................................................................200 PART 2: SELECTED TRANSBOUNDARY BASINS AND REGIONAL SEAS Aral Sea.....................................................................................................................................207 Baltic Sea ..................................................................................................................................209 Black Sea/Danube Basins .........................................................................................................211 Caspian Sea ...............................................................................................................................214

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WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

BCM billion cubic meters cm centimeter GW gigawatt GWh gigawatt-hour GWh/year gigawatt-hour per year ha hectare km kilometer km2 square kilometer kW kilowatts l/sec Liters per second lcd Liters per capita per day m meter m3 cubic meter m3/sec cubic meter per second masl meters above sea level MCM million cubic meters mg/l milligrams per liter mm millimeter MW megawatt

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

BVO River Basin Organization BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand CAS Country Assistance Strategy COD Chemical Oxygen Demand DSI State Hydraulic Works EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development ECA Europe and Central Asia ECE Economic Commission for Europe EIB European Investment Bank ESR Environmental Sector Report EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FBiH Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina FY Fiscal Year FYR Former Yugoslav Republic GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environment Facility GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (German

Technical Assistance Agency) HEI Hygiene Epidemiological Institute HELCOM Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission HMI Hydro Meteorological Institute HPP Hydro Power Plant HPS Hydro Power Station HRMEPP Hazards Risk Mitigation and Emergency Preparedness Project IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development IBSFC International Balt ic Sea Fishery Commission I&D Irrigation and Drainage ICPDR International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River ICWC Interstate Commission for Water Coordination IDA International Development Association IDP Internally Displaced Person ICSD Interstate Commission on Sustainable Development ICWC Interstate Commission for Water Coordination IFAS International Fund for the Aral Sea IFI International Financial Institution INWEB International Network of Water-Environment Centers for the

Balkans JSC Joint Stock Company KfW Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (German Project Funding

Agency) LOCP Lake Ohrid Conservation Project MDG Millennium Development Goal MESP Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning

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MAWRPI Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources and Processing Industry

MESP Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning METAP Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance Program MNREP Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection MoAWF Ministry of Agriculture, Water Management and Forestry MoEP Ministry of Environmental Protection MoWEP Ministry of Water and Environmental Protection NEAP National Environmental Action Plan NGO Non Governmental Organization NWC National Water Council O&M Operation and Maintenance PHARE Poland, Hungary Aid for Reconstruction of the Economy

(European Commission) RBA River Basin Agency REC Regional Environment Centre REReP Regional Environment Reconstruction Programme RS Republika Srpska (Bosnian Serb Republic) SAPARD Special Accession Program for Agriculture and Rural

Development SEE South Eastern Europe SCWE State Committee of Water Economy SWD State Water Directorate UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund US United States USD United States Dollar USAID United States Agency for International Development WFD Water Framework Directive WHO World Health Organization WRM Water Resources Management WRMB Water Resources Management Board WSS Water Supply and Sanitation WWF World Wide Fund for Nature WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant

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GEOGRAPHIC GLOSSARY*

Amu Darya Amu Darya River Asi River Orantes River, Orontes River Balkan Peninsula Balkans Peninsula Balkan Mountains Balkans Mountains, Stara Planina Bujana River Buna River Butrint Lagoon Butrinto Lagoon Coruh River Çoruh River, Coroch River, Chorokhi River Cres Island Cres Island, Otak Island Dnieper River Dniepr River Dniester River Nistru River Doiran Lake Dojran Lake Drava River Dráva River, Drau River Drin River Crni Drim River, Drini River, Drim River Krast Kras, Carso Irtysh River Ertix River, Irtysch River, Ertis River, Irtys River Iskur River Iskar River Kura River Mtkvari River, Kuraçay River, Cyrus River Lake Ohrid Ohridsko Lake Maritsa River Maritza River, Meriç River, Marica River, Évros River,

Hebros, Hebrus River Medvednica Mountains Medvenica Mountains Mura River Mur River Nestos River Mesta River, Néstos River Prespa Lake Prispansko Lake, Prespansko Lake Pripyat River Pripiat River Rezvaya River Rezovska River, Rezva River, Mutlu River Skadar Lake Shkodra Lake, Schkodër Lake, Scutari lake, Skadarsko

Lake, Skodra Lake Struma River Strimón River Syr Darya Syr Darya River Tien Shan Tien Shen Timok River Timoc River Tisza River Tisa River, Theiss River Tobol River Tobyl River Vardar River Axius River, Axiós River, Axious River Vijosë River Viosa River, Voyutsa River, Vijose River, Vjosë River,

Vijosa River Yenisey River Yenesei River, Yenisei River Zeravshan River Zeravsan River, Zerafshan River

* This list provides the default names of the key transboundary geographic features that will be used

throughout the report. Other given names of the transboundary geographic feature are also presented in the list.

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OVERVIEW

Volume II of the Water Resources in Europe and Central Asia Report is divided into two parts. Part 1 provides a compendium of Country Water Notes prepared for selected Europe and Central Asia (ECA) countries. These Country Water Notes provide a brief description of the socio-economic and geographical context and development objectives pursued in each country and their implications for water resources management. In addition, they describe the water resources base, trends in water use and management, floods and droughts, institutional issues, transboundary water issues, and key challenges and priorities. A two-page Water Fact Sheet that presents some socio-economic and water-related indicators, such as freshwater availability (total and per capita), water use by sector (agriculture including irrigation, industry, domestic use), hydropower dependency, irrigation trends, storage capacity, water pricing and cost recovery, among other indicators, is included at the end of each Water Country Note. Part 2 includes brief descriptions of selected international river basins and regional seas in the ECA region. Several sources were consulted to assemble the material presented in Volume II of this report. The most widely used references include Environmental Performance Reviews produced by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), National Environmental Action Plans (NEAPs), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) water and population databases (such as AQUASTAT), the 2000 World Development Indicators (online version), the 2001 and 2002 World Hydropower and Dams Atlas and Industry Guide, and WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (online version of country data reports), the among others. Other country-specific references are listed at the end of each Country Water Note.

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ALBANIA Socio-Economic and Geographic Context Albania is situated in the western edge of the Balkan Peninsula. With a total area of 2.9 million hectares (ha), it is the smallest country in Europe. Albania is mainly a hilly and mountainous country, and consists of two distinct geographical regions: highlands above 300 meters (m) which represent about three fourths of the territory, and the coastal flat plains and low hills, which include 476 kilometers (km) of Adriatic and Ionian Seas’ coastline. Albania's climate varies with the topography: hot and dry summers and frequent thunderstorms and wet and mild winters in the coastal plains, while in the mountains there is more summer precipitation and colder, quite severe winters with heavy snow. The average precipitation is 1,485 millimeters (mm). On the coast annual rainfall averages 1,000 mm, but in the mountains it may be as high as 3,000 mm. Most of the precipitation drains into the rivers and flows into the Adriatic Sea. In addition, a large amount of water from neighboring countries drains through Albania. Albania’s population was 3.13 million in 2000. More than half of the population (58%) lives in rural areas. Water resources play a key role in the economy of Albania: about 97% of total electricity production is generated from hydro-power plants, mostly on the Drin, Mati and Bistrice Rivers, and the 50% of the cropland that is irrigated produces about 80% of agricultural output. Water Resource Base For the purpose of water management, Albania is divided into six main hydrographical basins. One-third of their total area is located outside Albania; about 50% of Albania's territory is in international basins shared with Greece, Former Yugoslav Republic (FYR) of Macedonia or Serbia and Montenegro. Surface and groundwater resources. Albania can be considered a water-abundant country. Its overall renewable resources amount to 41.7 billion cubic meters (BCM) or 13,300 cubic meter (m3) per capita, of which about 65% is generated within Albania and the remaining from upstream countries (namely, Serbia and Montenegro and FYR Macedonia). Resources are unevenly distributed throughout the country. The major water resource is surface water, and is found in rivers, lakes, and lagoons. The most important rivers are the Drin, the Mati, the Ishmi, the Erzeni, the Shkumbini, the Semani, the Vijosë, and the Bistrice. The Drin River is the longest river with a stable and constant stream. About one-third of its drainage area is within Albania, and the rest is within the Adriatic portion of the Kosovo watershed, and the catchments areas of the Skadar, Prespa and Ohrid Lakes. Because of the mountainous topography, rivers are torrential with steep slopes. Their year-to-year variability is very high: the annual runoff in dry years is one-tenth of the annual runoff in wet years. Most of the rivers have highly irregular seasonal flow patterns. River flows are the highest in winter or early spring. Nearly all carry less than 10% (and sometime zero) of their winter averages during the summer season. Rivers are difficult to control and non-navigable, with the exception of the Brune. Albania is prone to soil erosion. Although this is a natural

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phenomenon in mountainous countries with heavy rainfall, in the case of Albania it has been exacerbated by human activities (e.g. deforestation) and has resulted in large amounts of sediment ending up in reservoirs, rivers and seas. Lakes cover about 4% of the country’s territory. The largest lakes are Ohrid, Prespa and Skadar. These are transboundary lakes. In addition, there are also 247 smaller lakes. At present, lakes are in oligotrophic stage, except in certain areas where discharges into tributary rivers have increased the concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus. Several reservoirs totaling 5.60 BCM of storage capacity have been built mostly along the Drin, Mati and Devolli Rivers for flood protection, irrigation and production of hydropower. Groundwater resources are also abundant and represent about 23% of the total renewable resources1. They are well distributed throughout the country and are exploited from wells (in valleys and plains) and springs (in mountainous regions). Springs however are vulnerable to becoming dry during the summer seasons (Mati basin aquifer). Groundwater resources are the main source of drinking water. About 70% of the main cities in Albania are supplied by groundwater wells. They are also the major source for irrigation and agriculture in the Skadar and Vlorë areas. Wetlands. Most of the rivers of Albania have formed at their mouth a series of lagoons, swamps and wetlands. During the previous regime, large wetlands along the coast were drained and reclaimed to provide land for agriculture. As a result, valuable wetlands disappeared. Large lagoons along the coastline include Karavasta, Narta and Butrint, which are wetlands of global biodiversity significance. Some of them are Ramsar sites. These natural aquatic ecosystems critical for their high biodiversity value are being threatened by land-based pollution loads and in many cases they are being used for discharging untreated wastewater. Water Quality. Since 1990 the monitoring of water has been much less frequent. As a result the quality of the water resources is not well known. According to available information, the surface waters are highly contaminated as a result of direct discharge of urban and industrial wastewater into surface water bodies. The quality of some rivers is above the maximum European Union standards for river water quality. Many important rivers show signs of high pollution by organic matters, they experience a deficit in dissolved oxygen, with high chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biological oxygen demand (BOD) values. In general, groundwater is of good quality at the source. Its quality, however, is not continuously monitored throughout the country. There are some localities where little is known about it. This strategic water reserve, however, is currently facing some serious water quality problems: intrusion of saline water into the aquifers (in the coastal regions of Skadar, Lezha, Durrës, Lushnjë and Fier), the degradation of water quality as a result of neglecting sanitary protection zones around water wells (Ishmi aquifer which feeds Tirana), and the vulnerability to upstream pollution, particularly in the karstic zones, where untreated discharges filtrate quickly into the ground and reaches the underlying aquifer (Skadar aquifer). 1 At present, not much is known about the availability of groundwater or the potential extraction capacity.

Groundwater monitoring and assessment has been neglected during the past decade.

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Water Use and Management by Sector The lack of an adequate monitoring system, the rapid changes in economic activities, and the continuous movements in population make it difficult to assess the use of water resources. Available data suggest that irrigation and mining rely mostly on surface water, while households and industry rely on groundwater from aquifers. According to the draft Water Strategy, in 1996 total water use was 0.93 BCM, with water for industry and domestic purposes accounting for 28%, and water for irrigation 72%. Although water seems to be plentiful to meet current and future demands, there are certain regions in Albania, particular in areas along the coast -- where water conflicts are very likely to occur in the near future, e.g., in Durrës-Vlorë, conflicts over the use of water will emerge between municipal supply, irrigation and tourism. Drinking Water and Sanitation. Although the piped water supply system covers the whole country and the level of coverage 2 reaches 85%, water supply is intermittent because of the dire condition of Albania’s water infrastructure. In the case of urban areas, water supply is provided on average for 2-4 hours a day, with many households getting no water at all. In addition, the quality of drinking water is often compromised. Often, water is distributed without any preliminary treatment as a result of the lack of adequate treatment and disinfection facilities and unreliable supply of chemicals. Domestic water demand is increasing not only because of population growth but also because of the increase in the level of water losses, estimated to be greater than 50% in all cities. The water situation is rural areas is even worse. In localities with piped water supply networks, drinking water is supposed to be supplied by public taps to groups of houses, but this is not happening because systems are poorly maintained. At the end of 1989, about 75% of the rural population had access to piped water. Today, access has been reduced to 50%. In order to cope with the lack of piped water supply, rural househo lds dig their own wells without any monitoring of the water quality. In some cases, wells are dug on the banks of heavily polluted rivers, whose waters are unsuitable for human consumption. Lack of sanitary protection zones is causing contamination of groundwater sources. A recent investigation has reported that 73% of drinking wells were bacteriologically contaminated. During the past decades, insufficient investments have been made in sewerage or wastewater treatment to keep pace with population growth. As a result, most households in urban areas discharge their wastewater directly into the central sewage systems, which cover about 40% of the population. Poorer neighborhoods without access to sewerage systems at all discharge their wastewater to septic tanks. There is no wastewater treatment in Albania. The untreated wastewater is discharged in an uncontrolled manner. In rural areas, households use septic tanks in their yards. Leaks in septic tanks are also becoming problematic. Irrigation and Drainage. Because less than 21% of the annual precipitation occurs between April and September, irrigation is necessary for agriculture in the drier plain areas. At present,

2 Statistics presented in this report on access to drinking water supply and s ewerage services come mostly

from the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. It should be noted however that this information is not reported consistently by countries/agencies due to the use of different defitions of “coverage.”

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agriculture is the main economic activity in Albania -- it represents 55% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and is the largest water user. About 50% of the arable land is under irrigation and more than half is located in the coastal plains. Irrigation relies mostly on surface waters, river diversions supplemented by over 600 irrigation dams. Although the water is of satisfactory quality for irrigation, mining and industrial effluents are polluting surface waters making them inappropriate for irrigation. Off-season drainage is necessary in order to prevent floods and waterlogging. Massive investments between 1950-1975, expanded the irrigated land from 29,000 ha to 417,000 ha. The development of irrigation was accompanied by flood protection works, drainage and reclamation of marshland below sea level and saline areas (about 280,000 ha). Albania’s drainage schemes are concentrated primarily in the coastal area. Most of the wetlands in the coastal plain (about 100,000 ha) were drained to develop agriculture areas. Today, only 27,000 ha of wetlands remain. Irrigation systems deteriorated during the 1990s. Inadequate budget allocation for irrigation has led to deferred or poor maintenance, system deterioration and unreliable water delivery. By 1994, 269,000 ha were either inoperative or severely damaged, and only 80,000 ha were operating normally. Plans are under way to rehabilitate irrigation schemes. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Food, about 315,000 ha can be potentially rehabilitated. The source also reports that the remaining 100,000 ha should not be rehabilitated because of their low agricultural potential. The rehabilitation of irrigation schemes must be accompanied by watershed management measures to prevent or reduce soil erosion and flash run-off in the upland areas. At present, these are serious problems for irrigation schemes. Neither farmers nor the government can afford the cost to remove eroded materials from canals, reservoirs and drain channels. A more sustainable watershed management approach should be followed when investing in the irrigation sector. Farmers have started private groundwater development, in the form of medium-sized shallow tubewells. About 1,000 ha are irrigated by groundwater, but there seems to be a tendency among farmers to increase the area. The motivations for this tendency are several: the high price of vegetables, easy exploitation of groundwater, and the lack of rehabilitation of gravity channels. This is a well-suited option for small-private farmers located in existing irrigation schemes, non-irrigated lands or land needing drainage, provided the tubewells do not threaten the quality of the aquifer with salinization. Unless environmental concerns are taken into account when restoring the agriculture sector in Albania, wetlands along the coastline may be threatened by investments in the sector as a result of an increase in pollution loads of drainage water. Apart from threatening coastal lagoons of eutrophication, drainage water could also negatively impact drinking water sources. Hydropower: The gross theoretical hydropower potential has been estimated at 40,000 gigawatt-hour per year (GWh/year) and the technically feasible potential at 15,000 GWh/year. The

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economic feasible potential in turn has been estimated at 6,380 GWh/year out of which about 35% has been developed so far on the Drin River. In 2000, hydropower generation represented about 83% of total annual electric generation in the country. Plans are under consideration to develop the hydropower potential of Vijosë and Devolli Rivers. The Energy Strategy calls for the development of new hydro capacity. Floods. Flooding is a frequent problem in Albania, especially from November to March when intense or prolonged rainfall is most probable. The area most likely to be flooded is the western plain where the rivers from Albania’s mountain regions flow into the Adriatic Sea. The western plain is also Albania’s population center: more than 50% of Albanians live there, and the tendency is for the proportion to increase. The plains of the Drin in the north and the Vijosë in the south are especially flood prone. The increased peak discharge and flooding is the result of heavy deforestation. The annual cost of flooding is not established; regular flood monitoring was not carried out before 1949, and the record keeping that began then did not publish the full data. It is known that catastrophic nationwide flooding occurred in 1962-63. That flood was calculated to be a 50-year event. Smaller floods also recur. A flood in November 1992 caused flash floods in six districts. It killed eleven people, damaged roads, bridges and irrigation networks, inundated 17,000 ha of agricultural land, damaged 1330 houses and destroyed 216, damaged the Fierza hydroelectric facility, and carried off food stored for the coming winter. Altogether, it affected 35,000 people. Flooding in September 1995 killed four and affected 1500. The plain of Zadrima is inundated several times per year due to damage done to the drainage system during the transition period. The main drainage channe l of the area is not maintained, and as a result, inundation occurs, creating problems in the agriculture sector in particular. Lezha was flooded in December 1995, September 1996, and again in December 1997. In the latter case, the damage was estimated at USD120,000. Flood control activities are neglected due to shortage of funds. As of June 2000, the institute that formerly designed flood protection systems was closed. The Water Use Directorate that is responsible for maintenance of the flood protection system lacked funds. Water Users’ Associations designated to take over the Directorate’s functions were charged with maintenance of the irrigation system, but not with flood control which appeared to have been orphaned by the new system. A newly created Department of Civil Protection in the Ministry of Local Administration did not yet have any technical experts. Apart from flood protection works, enforcement of regulations on extracting activities can contribute greatly to reduce the damage caused by floods. At present, houses are being built with gravel and sand extracted illegally from nearby riverbeds and beaches. This illegal practice has caused modifications of the river course. As a result, water flows accelerate, causing floodplains to lose their retention function.

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Water Legislation and Policies The main legislation on water resources management is the 1996 Law on Water Resources, which established the National Water Council and its Technical Secretariat. This Law is based on modern principles of water management. In brief, the Law provides for the protection, development and sustainable use of water resources; organizes water resources management by river basin; introduces permits, concessions and authorizations for using water and for discharging wastewater; and calls for the development of a water strategy. Recently, a draft Law on Water Protection has been prepared and is under review. It deals exclusively with reinforcing existing legislation to protect the quality of water bodies in order to protect human health. On the institutional side, the draft Law clarifies the role of the National Water Council and assigns more responsibility to the Ministry of Environment for the protection of water resources. A “National Water Strategy fo r Albania” was prepared in 1997 with the assistance of the European Union. The draft strategy promotes “water resources conservation and the sustainable use of water resources in harmony with the environment and other natural resources.” It clearly identifies the national objectives for water use and management, and suggests changes in the institutional framework for implementing the strategy. It sets radical institutional priorities with the objective of establishing clear lines of policy-decision within the institutional setup including the National Water Council (NWC) and the relevant line ministries, in particular those in charge of environmental protection, irrigation and drinking water supply. At its final state, the strategy met with opposition and as a result it was never adopted. A new Law was adopted in 2002 on the Organization and Functioning of Local Government. This Law assigns full responsibility for the administration, service, investment and regulation of water supply, sewerage and drainage systems as well as flood protection channels to local governments. In order to implement this Law, there is a need to improve the capacity of municipalities on water management and urban planning. Given the large number of dams throughout the country and the concerns for their safety, at present, the Government has taken the first steps towards establishing an institutional and legal framework for dam safety. The following instruments are available for the management of water resources management in Albania: administrative fees for issuing of water abstraction license, abstraction charges for surface and groundwater, user charges for water supply and irrigation, sewerage charges, and non-compliance fines. Application of abstraction charges is not practiced yet since the actual rates have not been set. Water Management Institutions In accordance with the 1996 Law on Water Resources, a new institutional setup for water resources management was established. At the central level, the NWaterC, a policy decision body comprising all Ministers involved in the water sector, headed by the Prime Minister and co-

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chaired by the Minister of Territorial Adjustment and Tourism and the Minister of Transport and Telecommunications; and its Technical Secretariat, the country water administration body attached to the Prime Minister’s office. At the local level, the Law calls for the establishment of water basin authorities. Two important decisions have been made by the NWC. The first decision was for the establishment of a water basin council and an implementing agency for each one of the six basins but it was never implemented. The second decision defined the responsibilities of the water basin councils and water agencies regarding the issuing of abstraction permits. This decision again was not implemented since the water agencies were not in place. Despite its efforts, the NWC has made limited progress in the implementation of the 1996 Law. Evidence for this is the limited progress in the introduction of a water strategy, the lack of an inventory of water resources, and the failure to issue any authorization or permit for the use and discharge of water. Implementation mechanisms are not in place and more importantly, decisions in the water sector are not backed up by the necessary financial resources. Transboundary and International Water Issues Since about 35% of Albania’s renewable resources come from neighboring countries, and about 50% of its territory is within international river basins, transboundary water issues are of particular concern to Albania. In 1994, Albania ratified the UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, and in 2002, the Protocol on Water and Health. Albania is currently implementing several environmental projects in international lakes: Ohrid Lake jointly with the FYR Macedonia, Prespa Lake jointly with Greece and the FYR Macedonia and Skadar Lake jointly with Serbia and Montenegro. So far, no bilateral legal agreement has been conc luded with these neighboring jurisdictions to address transboundary waters issues. With the support of the Regional Environmental Center, a new project is being prepared for the Drin River entitled “Drin River Watershed and Erosion Master Plan,” to be implemented by Albania, Serbia and Montenegro and FYR Macedonia. Key Issues and Challenges Albania is endowed with relatively abundant fresh water resources. Following extensive development of its water resources during the previous regime, Albania is well equipped for hydropower and irrigation development. A drastic reduction of water withdrawal from irrigation and industrial purpose occurred during the past 10 years as a result of the collapse of the industrial sector. The decline in economic activity has also caused a reduction in pollution and improvement in the quality of its water resources. While a serious water crisis is not imminent at present, the fast development of the private sector, the urbanization process, the rehabilitation of irrigation schemes and the plans to expand hydropower capacity may increase the number of localized water crises. In order to avert a water crisis, it is necessary that Albania strengthens its current institutional framework for management of water resources. The following should be considered:

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• Carry out a comprehensive water resource assessment, including inter alia an evaluation of the current institutional setup, water resource and demand inventory, regional water balances and assessment of water quality issues.

• Review and update of the legal instruments (amendments of Law on Water Resource and

Environmental Protection, passing of additional regulations, etc.).

• Institutional/capacity building support for the most urgently needed water administration units, in particular for licensing and enforcement, and preparation of river basin hydrological plans.

• Improve management and enhance protection of groundwater sources.

• Short-term and medium term investments should focus on: dam safety, flood protection,

wetlands conservation and restoration and watershed management. References Government of Albania. 2003. The Albanian Response to the Millennium Development Goals. Tirana, Albania. Report available at: http://www.undp.org/mdg/countryreports.html. United Nations. 2003. The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database. Department of Humanitarian Affairs and EM-DAT. Database available at: http://www. cred.be/emdat/intro.html. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. 2002. Environmental Performance Review of Albania. UNECE. Geneva, Switzerland. WHO/UNICEF. 2001. Access to Improved Sanitation - Albania. WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Geneva, Switzerland. Report available at: http://childinfo.org/eddb/sani/ceecis/albania_sanitation1.pdf. World Bank. 1999. Albania Irrigation Development Project. Project Appraisal Document. Annex 2. Washington, DC, USA. World Bank. 2003. Flood Profile for Albania. Prepared by Lucy Hancock on the basis of a report by Molnar Kolaneci for the World Bank, 2000. Washington, DC, USA.

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ALBANIA: WATER FACT SHEET

SOCIO-ECONOMIC INDICATORS1990 2000 2015 2020

Total Population (in million) 3.29 3.13 3.44 3.57 CHART: TRENDS IN POPULATION, SHOWING Urban population 36% 42% 52% 55% Rural population 64% 58% 48% 45%Source: Aquastat database, FAO (2002).

1998 2000 Goal for 2015Access to piped water supply 65% 67% 84% Urban 85% 90% 93% Rural 50% 50% 75%Note: Goal refers to MDGs.

1998 2000 Goal for 2020Access to sewerage 61% 59% 80% Urban 95% 90% 97% Rural 37% 37% 68%Note: Goal refers to MDGs.

1996Share of poor in rural areas 89%

1990 1995 1999 2000GDP per capita (constant 1995 US$) 841 769 863 914GDP total (billions of 1995 US$) 2.8 2.5 2.9 3.1 Share from agriculture 36% 55% 53% 55% Share from industry 45% 22% 25% 26%

1990 1991 1995 1999 1999Labor force (millions of people) 0.42 0.40 0.34 0.34 #REF! Share in agriculture 55% 24% 78% Share in industry 23% 45%

Average annual growth 1990-97 1998-00

Of GDP -1.4% 7.4% Of population -0.4% -0.1%

1999

Infant mortality rate (per 1,000 live births) 24.3

LAND AND WATER RESOURCES

Land area (millions of ha) 2.88

Land area in international basins (millions of ha) 1.43 Percentage of country in international basins 49.6%Average precipitation (mm) 1,485Average total volume of rainfall (BCM) 1,485

Total internal water resources (BCM) 26.9 Of which surface water (BCM) 23.1 Of which groundwater 6.2

Overlap between surface and groundwater 2.4

Total external water resources (BCM) 14.8 Of which surface water (BCM) 14.8 Of which groundwater (BCM)

Total water resources (BCM) 41.7 Of which total surface water (BCM) 37.9 Of which total groundwater (BCM) 6.2 Overlap between surface and groundwater 2.4Dependency ratio 35%

1990 2000 2015 2020

Per capita water resources (cubic meters/year) 12,679 13,306 12,126 11,697

1987 1990 1995Total annual withdrawals (in BCM) 1.40 1.21 0.93 Agricultural 0.99 1.00 0.67

Domestic and industry 0.41 0.21 0.26

Access to Piped Water Supply

-

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

2000 MDG2015P

op

ula

tion

(in

mill

ion

) Urban Rural

Access to Sewerage

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.41.6

1.8

2.0

2000 MDG2020

Po

pu

latio

n (

in m

illio

n)

Urban Rural

-

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Po

pu

lati

on

(in

mill

ion

)

Urban Pop

Rural Pop

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

1987 1990 1995

Trends of Water Withdrawals (BCM)

Agricultural Domestic and industry

10

WATER QUALITY AND POLLUTIONWastewater produced *Wastewater treated *

1990 1993 1996 1997Annual emissions of BOD per day (Tons) 34.8 12.5 5.8 6.5Annual emissions of BOD per capita (kg) 3.86 1.40 0.67 0.76

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMSWetlands designated as Ramsar sites (2002) In ha 20,000 As % of land area 0.70%

DAMS AND HYDROPOWERReservoir capacity (BCM) 4.56 (630 dams, and 306 >15 m) Irrigation dams 0.56 Hydropower dams 5.04Reservoir capacity in cubic meters per capita 1,455

Gross theoretical hydropower potential (GWh/y) 40,000 Technically feasible (GWh/y) 15,000 Economically feasible (GWh/y) 6,380Current production from hydropower (GWh/y) 5,283 (in 2000)

1990 1995 1998 1999Total electricity production (M KWh) 3,198 4,414 5,068 5,396 Share from hydroelectric 89% 95% 97% 97%

IRRIGATION 1990 1995 1998 1999Irrigated land ('000 ha) 423 340 340 340 Irrigated land per capita (ha) 0.129 0.107 0.108 0.109 Irrigated land as share of cropland 60% 48% 49% 49%

FRESHWATER FISHERY 1990 1995 1998 1999Fishery production (metric tons) 6,836 734 1,102 1,302 Fishery production per capita (kg) 2.08 0.23 0.35 0.42

FINANCING THE WATER SECTORAverage cost recovery: 2002 Irrigation water services 40% O&M costs Municipal water services 30%-40% O&M costs * These are ball park estimates.Average actual water price (US cent/m

3) 2001

Households 11-20 Industry 52-63 Irrigation Wastewater charges (US cent/m3) Households 2.2-3.3 Industry 4.4-7.4

Trends in BOD Emission

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Kg/

capi

ta/y

r

Trends in Irrigated Area (ha)

0

100,000

200,000

300,000

400,000

500,000

1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999

Trend in Fisheries Production (Metric Tons)

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

Trends in Electricity Production(Billion KWh/year)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

OtherHydropower

11

ARMENIA Socio-Economic and Geographic Context Armenia is a small, mountainous, semi-arid country. About 75% of the land area of 2.98 million ha is above 1500 m; 60% of the territory receives less than 600 mm of rain and 20% less than 400 mm. These basic parameters shape water resource use. Irrigation is the main water user. Armenia has an official population of 3.8 million and agriculture accounts for 33% of GDP. About 33% of the population lives in rural areas but even town dwellers have small farms to supplement their incomes. Water resources play a key role in Armenia’s economic development. About 80% of the country’s value crops are irrigated, and hydropower accounts for 20-35% of total electricity production. The country’s largest body of freshwater, Lake Sevan, has been declared an environmental disaster because of the huge water withdrawals that took place between 1947 and 1967 and then again between 1992 and 1995.

Water Resources Base

Available renewable resources in Armenia amount to 10.5 BCM or are about 2,780 cubic meters per capita per year. Although Armenia is not "water-stressed" overall, there are regional imbalances. Water resources are scarce in particular in the densely populated Hrazdan basin in the center of Armenia, where Yerevan is situated, and in the south and northwest of the country. There is significant seasonal and annual variability in river run-off, including frequent droughts with low overall river flow, and risk of flooding in the spring, when about 55% of total annual run-off occurs. Around 80 dams have been built to address this variability with a storage capacity of 1.16 BCM.

Groundwater, generally of good quality, accounts for a substantial share of water use and is the source of 96% of drinking water. Lake Sevan, “The Heart of Armenia,” with a surface area of approximately 0.13 million ha, a volume of approximately 32 BCM, and an average annual volume of water for utilization of over 525 MCM, has a central hydrological role in the country. Apart from providing regulated outflow and additional strategic storage, Lake Sevan offers a number of direct and indirect benefits. Its waters provide a significant amount of hydropower and irrigation to croplands in the Ararat Valley. The lake is very sensitive to changes in climate. Over the past 40 years, Lake Sevan’s level has dropped 19 m and its volume by almost 44%, due partly to average temperature rises and partly to excessive withdrawals for irrigation and electricity generation. While river water quality is generally good, Lake Sevan has suffered from increasing pollution over the last 30 years.

Water Uses and Management

Total water use in Armenia was estimated at 3.9 BCM in 1988, with irrigation accounting for 70%. Following land privatization and the breakup of collective farms, there was widespread deterioration in irrigation infrastructure and potentially irrigated area declined from 330,00-340,000 ha to about 275,000 ha between 1988 and 1998. Area actually irrigated only accounted for 187,000 ha in 1998. Irrigation still accounts for 70% of total water use, with domestic and industrial use accounting for the remainder. In the past, irrigation was heavily dependent on electricity for pumping to lift water to higher systems that could not be reached by gravity

12

conveyance systems. About 42% of the total equipped irrigation area depends on pumping. To lower the cost of operating the irrigation system, a program for pump-to-gravity irrigation conversion has been developed, where such conversion is technically, economically and environmentally feasible. Its implementation is in an early stage.

The increased yields which irrigation provides bring both subsistence and cash incomes. For a land-scarce, relatively labor-abundant country like Armenia (arable land is only 0.13 ha per capita) irrigation provides an opportunity for higher returns. However, drainage problems have developed particularly in the Ararat plain where water tables are high. Irrigation water costs vary by region but farmers pay on average USD0.008 per m3, or 30% of operation and maintenance costs. Because of the lack of clarity in the allocation of responsibilities for the management of the irrigation system, the irrigation sector is characterized by wasteful practices and a high rate of water losses at the level of conveyance infrastructure. Plans are underway to substantially improve the mechanisms for funding of operation and maintenance activities and to create a full set of enabling conditions for effective participatory irrigation management.

Municipal water use has also decreased since independence, as industria l and commercial activity has declined and infrastructure has deteriorated. Recent surveys indicate that poor households are the most affected by poor drinking water supply services. Utility water prices for domestic consumers increased by about 100% in real terms between 1994 and 1999, and households paid in 2001 on average USD0.08 per m3, which represented a fraction of the operation and maintenance costs. Present revenues from water supply services are insufficient to maintain the systems adequately. About 73% of households have indoor taps, 45% in rural areas and 87% in urban areas, but supply is intermittent; this has contributed to contamination and an increase in intestinal infections. Most towns have sewerage systems but they do not operate adequately, and water is generally discharged untreated into rivers. Industrial water accounts for a small proportion of water use but effluent discharges also contribute to pollution. Hydropower accounts for about 20-35% of electricity generation in Armenia, with most hydropower plants installed along two cascades, the Vorotan and Hrazdan. Electricity generation from Hrazdan is tied to irrigation releases from Lake Sevan, so is generated mostly in the summer (when electricity requirements are less). The current policy of the Government is to develop small and micro hydro plants through the private sector, as well as to privatize existing hydro power plants.

There has been overgrazing and deforestation over the last ten years, which has exacerbated soil erosion and has led to more mudflow episodes, as people have turned to fuelwood for heat and to farming for subsistence. A further key environmental issue is wetlands restoration and management, both around Lake Sevan and in the Ararat Valley. Again, there are issues of balance between water and land use for recreation or irrigated agriculture and wetland conservation. Armenia has adopted Soviet guidelines for maintenance of environmental flows in rivers and for streambed protection, which need to be revised and more importantly enforced.

Floods, Mudflows and Droughts

Armenia is more vulnerable to mudslides rather than floods. Floods affect the northern part of the country. Some of 500 mudflow events registered in the country were originated from active

13

snow melting accompanied with rainfall (e.g., mudflow in Mastara water basin on February 14, 1935; in Avazan basin on May 15, 1950; in Zamanlou on April 19, 1960, in Ayriget, Sissian and Vorotan basins on May 13-14, 1967 and April 18, 1968, among others). Sometimes floods and mudflows are formed as a result of reservoir collapses and destruction of barrages against landslides. Mudflows seem to be a more serious problem than floods and there are many areas where mudflow risk is very high. Mudflows regularly cause damages to towns and agricultural areas, residential areas, industrial and construction objects, and communication ways. Their disastrous influence caused tremendous material damage and human victims. According to data from the Emergency Management Administration, average annual damages caused by mudflows in the country ranged between 1.6-1.7 billion drams. However, in 1997 the damage composed 9 billion drams, and in 1998 about 14 billion drams. Mudflow and flood streams have also caused great damage to the rest of the 25 towns and about 100 villages and agricultural lands, which are located in the gullies’ cones and near-bed areas.

Armenia is also very prone to droughts. In 2000 a severe drought affected the northern region of the country, with devastating impacts on the agricultural sector. As a result of the drought, subsistence farmers in the mountainous areas of northern Armenia, who depend on rainfed irrigation, faced tremendous hardships. In addition, water flows in rivers decreased by 40-50%. Available water for irrigation was 31% less than the previous year, causing severe damage to crops. The impacts of the drought were exacerbated by the disrepair of the infrastructure and the high level of water losses; the poor condition of reservoirs, which prevents collection of spring flood flows to be used in periods of shortage; the poorly regulated contractual agreements between water companies and water-consumers groups; and the lack of mechanisms for monitoring drought conditions and impacts, and communicating them early on to decision-makers and water users. Droughts also affect mountainous areas where subsistence farming is done under rainfed agriculture.

Water Policy and Institutional Responsibilities

In May 2001, the Government of Armenia adopted a comprehensive reform program to improve water resources management including the improvement of the financial sustainability of the companies responsible for the provision of drinking water supply/wastewater and irrigation/drainage services (Government Decree No. 440, May 17, 2001). Two new entities were established: a State Committee of Water Economy (SCWE) and a Water Resources Management Board (WRMB) under the Ministry of Environment Protection. The SCWE is responsible for the financial and operational regulatory tasks related to provision of commercially oriented water services. The WRMB in turn is responsibility for the permitting system, which regulate water withdrawal and the water cadastre (which needs updating); the pollution discharge permit system (which is not widely used at present); monitoring, planning and management of the resources base; as well as the protection of water basins.

The 1992 Water Code, which provides guidelines for water management, has been recently updated. The updated Code is coherent, comprehensive and conforms to international practices. It states that water resources and water bodies are the property of the state and their management can be entrusted to private operators and clearly defines the functions and responsibilities of the above-mentioned water entities. The new Code proposes the creation of a Regulatory Commission, to be responsible for controlling operators providing drinking and irrigation water

14

and for setting water tariff policy. The Code also proposes the creation of a National Water Council – a consultative body, to be responsible for development of a National Water Program and a National Water Policy.

Recommendations

Armenia has undertaken key policy and institutional reforms in water management over the last five years, and has begun development of analytical tools to evaluate future options. Recommendations for improving water resources management include:

• Issue necessary regulations for implementation of the new Water Code and implement the consolidate changes of functions among ministries and agencies.

• Build capacity and new skills among water institutions to implement the new Water Code effectively and develop technical capacity to promote integrated water resources management.

• Continue with the rehabilitation of existing infrastructure and reduction of water losses.

• Minimize competition between sectors and design programs to balance water demands for drinking, irrigation, hydropower and environmental use with full participation of stakeholders.

• Conduct careful evaluation of impacts of the pump-to-gravity conversion program, to assure the program will not lead to deterioration of water resources or ecosystems.

• Improve knowledge and management of groundwater sources.

• Use economic instruments to manage demand.

• Increase private sector participation and local stakeholder responsibility for system operation.

• Promote adequate watershed management.

References

Caucasus Environmental NGO Network (CENN). 2002. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Legislation and Practices in the Caucasus Countries. Proceedings of the CENN Regional Seminar. Kobuleti, Georgia, September 18-22, 2002.

World Bank. 2003. Flood Profile for Armenia. Prepared by Lucy Hancock on the basis of a report by Zourab Torosyan for the World Bank in 2000. Washington, DC, USA.

World Bank. 2002. Armenia: Towards Integrated Water Resources Management. ECSSD Working Paper No. 35. Washington, DC, USA.

15

ARMENIA: WATER FACT SHEET


Total Population (millions of people) 3.55 3.79 3.81 3.79 CHART: TRENDS IN POPULATION, SHOWING Urban population 67% 67% 70% 71%Rural population 33% 33% 30% 29%Source: Aquastat database, FAO (2002).

1990 2000 Goal for 2015Access to piped water supply n.a. 73% 87% Urban n.a. 87% 94% Rural n.a. 45% 73%Note: Goal refers to MDGs.

1990 2000 Goal for 2020Access to sewage n.a. 67% 84% Urban n.a. n.a. n.a. Rural n.a. n.a. n.a.Note: Goal refers to MDGs.

1998-9 2001Share of poor in rural areas 42% 47.9%


1990 1995 1999 2000Labor force (millions of people) 1.56 1.60 1.68 1.70 Share in agriculture 18% Share in industry 43%

Average annual growth 1991-1997 1998-2000 Of GDP -5.8% 5.5% Of population 0.9% 0.4%

1999

Infant mortality rate (per 1,000 live births) 14.3


Land area (millions of ha) 2.98

Land area in international basins (millions of ha) 2.98 Percentage of country in international basins 100.0%Average precipitation (mm) 526Average total volume of rainfall (BCM) 16

Total internal water resources (BCM) 9.07 Of which surface water (BCM) 6.27 Of which groundwater 4.20 Overlap between surface and groundwater 1.40

Total external water resources (BCM) 1.46 Of which surface water (BCM) 1.46 Of which groundwater (BCM) 0.00

Total water resources (BCM) 10.53 Of which total surface water (BCM) 7.73 Of which total groundwater (BCM) 4.20

Overlap between surface and groundwater 1.40Dependency ratio 13.8%

1990 2000 2015 2020

Per capita water resources (cubic meters/year) 2,970 2,780 2,765 2,779

1988 1995 1998Total annual withdrawals (in BCM) 3.9 2.6 2.0 Irrigation 2.7 1.6 1.5 Domestic and municipal 0.8 0.6 0.5 Industrial (self-supplied) 0.4 0.4 0.1

-

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Po

pu

lati

on

(in

mill

ion

)

Urban Pop

Rural Pop


-

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

2.0

2.4

2.8

2000 MDG2015

Po

pu

lati

on

(in

mill

ion

) Urban Rural

Access to Sewage

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

2000 MGD2020

Pop

ulat

ion

(mill

ion)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

1988 1995 1998

Trends of Water Withdrawal (BCM)

Irrigation Domestic and municipal Industrial (self-supplied)

16

WATER QUALITY AND POLLUTIONWastewater produced in 1994 (BCM) 0.82Wastewater treated in 1994 (BCM) 0.42

1990 1996 1997 1998Annual emissions of BOD per day (M Tons) 37.9 12.9 10.0 10.0Annual emissions of BOD per capita (kg) 3.90 1.24 0.96 0.96

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMSWetlands designated as Ramsar sites (2002) In ha 492239 As % of land area 16.5%

DAMS AND HYDROPOWERReservoir capacity as of 1995 (BCM) 1.16 Irrigation dams Hydropower damsReservoir capacity in cubic meters per capita 305 (in 2000)

Gross theoretical hydropower potential (GWh/y) 21800 Technically feasible (GWh/y) 7500 Economically feasible (GWh/y) 6000Currrent production from hydropower (GWh/y) 1500 (in 2000)

1990 1995 1998 1999Total electricity production (GWh/year) 10362 5561 6191 5717 Share from hydroelectric 15% 35% 25% 21%

IRRIGATION 1990 1995 1998 1999Irrigated land ('000 ha) 320 286 274 274 Irrigated land per capita (ha) 0.090 0.076 0.072 0.072 Irrigated land as share of cropland n.a. 51% 51% 51%

FRESHWATER FISHERY 1992 1995 1998 1999Fishery production (metric ton) 4450 1941 1135 877 Fishery production per capita (kg) 1.2 0.5 0.3 0.2

FINANCING THE WATER SECTOR 2000 2002Average cost recovery: Irrigation water services 25% 30% O&M costs Municipal water services 40%-50% O&M costs plus dep.* These are ball park estimates.

Average actual water price (US cent/m3) 1999

Irrigation 0.80 Municipal 8.00 Wastewater 2.00

Trends in BOD Emission

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998

Kg/

capi

ta/y

r


0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

350,000

1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999

EquippedActual Irrigated

Trend in Fisheries Production (MT)

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Trends in Electricity Production (Billion KWh/year)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Other

Hydropower

17

AZERBAIJAN Socio-Economic and Geographic Context Azerbaijan except for its Caspian Sea coastline is ringed by mountains. About 43% of its area is situated above 1,000 above sea level and its climate varies from subtropical and dry in central and eastern parts of the country to subtropical and humid in the southeast. Although the average precipitation is 540 mm per year, it is mostly concentrated in the highest elevation of the Caucasus, where the average rainfall is 1,800 mm, and the Lenkoran lowlands in southeast, where the average precipitation exceeds 1,000 mm. The rest of the country receives scant rainfall ranging between 152 mm to 252 mm annually. Because of this, agriculture areas require irrigation. Azerbaijan has an official population of 8 million and agriculture accounts for 19% of GDP. About half of the population lives in rural areas.

Azerbaijan’s real GDP contracted by almost 60% from 1990-1995, but the country began a period of steady growth in the latter half of the 1990s, fueled by foreign investments in the country’s oil and gas sectors. Current GDP per capita is around USD660. Water resources play a key role in its economic development: about 73% of the cropland is irrigated, around 60-70% of agriculture output is derived from irrigated crop production, hydropower accounts for around 10% of total electricity production, and fishery – particularly caviar, ranks second behind fossil fuel as Azerbaijan’s most valuable natural resource.

Water Resources Base

Average renewable resources in Azerbaijan amounts to 32.1 BCM per year, but they fall to 23-28 BCM during dry years. On a per capita basis, available water resources in Azerbaijan are estimated at 3,800 m3. The largest rivers, the Kura (which rises in the Kars upland in northeast Turkey, flows into Georgia and then crosses the border to Azerbaijan in the northwest) and Araks (which rises in the northeast of Turkey, forms the borders with the riparian countries and flows into Azerbaijan in the east of the country) account for 80% of total resources. The Samur River provides 7.5% of reliable yield. Fresh groundwater resources are estimated at 4.2 BCM, of which about 24-30% are derived from filtration of surface waters. Groundwater aquifers account for 12.5% of the overall water resources. Although Azerbaijan is not "water-stressed" overall, there are regional imbalances. Per capita water resources availability is the lowest in the regions fed by the Araks River, the Apsheron Peninsula and the Lenkoran-Astara zone. Azerbaijan also has a high dependency ratio: about 73% of its resources come from bordering flows and 70% of its territory is located in international basins.

There is significant seasonal and annual variability in river run-off, including frequent droughts with low overall river flow, and risk of flooding. There has been extensive development of reservoirs to address this variability. Total storage capacity of dams is about 21.6 BCM or 2,670 m3/capita, making it one of the countries with the highest storage capacity per capita in the region. Annual run-off changes dramatically from year to year. The volume of the Mingechaur reservoir, which is fed by the Kura-Araks River dropped in 2000-01 to the lowest level since its construction in the 1950s, in contrast floods occurred during the spring of 2002, when all reservoirs in the Kura River were filled.

18

Pollution of main rivers was a serious concern in Azerbaijan during the 1960s. The largest sources of point-pollution were the industries and municipalities in Georgia and Armenia as well as those within Azerbaijan. With the reduction of industrial production, the volume of wastewater declined. However, since most of the wastewater treatment facilities are not working, less wastewater is treated. At present, untreated municipal wastewater is the largest point source of pollution. Industrial pollution still remains significant. Concentrations of phenols and oil products in the Kura River have declined during the past decade to level below those prevailing in mid-1970s. In general, pollution concentrations are highly seasonal. They are particularly recorded during summer when there is less water in the rivers and their dilution capacity is low. Rivers also receive considerable pollution from non-point agriculture runoff. Although the use of pesticides and agrochemicals have declined during the 1990s, their application still remain inefficient, which results in about 50% losses into the soil and water.

Groundwater sources are generally of adequate quality, with the exception of the highly polluted Sumgayit area of the Apsheron Peninsula. In some coastal areas, the rise of the Caspian Sea has increased the salinity of aquifers. Groundwater sources are utilized mainly for industrial and domestic purposes, although some land is irrigated with them.

Water Use and Management About two-thirds of available resources are withdrawn annually for various uses mostly from surface sources (90%). In 2002, total water use in Azerbaijan was estimated at 17.1 BCM, with agriculture including irrigation accounting for 81%. Most of the irrigation infrastructure built during the Soviet period is in poor condition, and there has been inadequate public investment and maintenance since independence. As a result, irrigation use is experiencing a steady decline. Domestic and industrial uses account for 7% and 12% of total water use, respectively. Industrial water use has also experienced a steady decline as a result of the contraction of the industrial activity.

Azerbaijan relies heavily upon irrigated agriculture: during the 1990s, between 72%-75% of the total cropped area was irrigated. Between the 1950s and 1990, irrigated area doubled: from 0.71 million ha to 1.4 million ha. Since then, the command areas of irrigation system have remained constant at around 1.45 million ha. The percentage of command area actually irrigated dropped from 85% to under 75% between 1990 and 1999, and reached 100% in 2001. Surface water is the primary source for irrigation, and about 0.6 million ha are dependent on reservoirs.

A total area of about 610,000 ha has drainage systems. Drainage for agriculture has eliminated many wetlands. From the 1950s to date, the wetlands along the Caspian Sea shore and those in the lowland areas of the Kura River basin have declined from about 80,000 ha to 22,000 ha. Overall more than 100,000 ha of wetlands have been drained. Pollution and increased agricultural runoff are threatening the remaining wetlands. Apart from providing migratory and wintering grounds to important population of waterfowls such as flamingo, geese, pelican and cormorant, wetlands also provide highly productive fishing grounds for the Azeri population. They offer spawning ground for large quantity of fish such as sturgeon, which yield caviar.

19

The increasing water use for agriculture, industry, and household purposes during the last three decades has resulted in less water being allocated to fisheries, environmental flows, and navigation, particularly in the Kura River. About 9 BCM of water are required to maintain the biological regime of the river and remain suitable for fish spawning and water transport. At present, the Kura River does not receive this amount of water. As a result, aquatic and other ecosystems are under considerable stress. According to estimates available, around 76% of all households have access to an improved drinking water sources – 93% in urban areas and 58% in rural areas. The remaining of the population is supplied from unsafe sources such as irrigation and even drainage channel. Coverage with centralized water supply system is about 58% -- 84% in urban areas and 28% in rural areas. Despite the high coverage in urban areas, the reliability and safety of water services is unsatisfactory. Losses are high – about 60% of overall withdrawals. A recent survey in Baku reveals that about 28% of the samples failed to meet bacteriological standards and 68% failed the test of turbidity.

Wastewater network is limited to urban areas: 78% in Baku, and 67% in other large urban areas. Towns and villages outside Greater Baku within the Apsheron Peninsula have no proper sewerage and virtually no wastewater treatment facilities. Sewage is usually discharged into the nearest water body. Sewage systems are in poor condition, leading to groundwater contamination and pollution of water supply systems.

Hydropower accounts fo r about 10% of electricity generation in Azerbaijan, with a large share of hydropower capacity installed in the Mingechaur Reservoir, which also provides water for irrigation of the Kura-Araks plain. About 89% of the hydropower resources are concentrated in the Kura River basin, and the remaining 11% being in the basins of the rivers flowing to the Caspian Sea. About 13% of the technically feasible hydropower potential has been developed so far.

The increasing water use for agriculture, industry and households during the last three decades has resulted in less water being allocated to fisheries, environmental flows and navigation. Water discharge in the Kura and Araks Rivers has declined from 414 m3/sec to 195 m3/sec, which has led to considerable stress of important aquatic ecosystems.

Floods and Droughts Set in a region of high relief, active geology, and naturally extremely irregular river discharge, Azerbaijan is at risk of inundations that range along a continuum from landslides to mudflows, flooding and the overall sinking of some near-Caspian areas relative to the water table. Soil erosion, aggravated by deforestation on mountain slopes, is an additional point within that continuum, both cause and result in flooding and mudflow, as is erosion of the banks of reservoirs. Much of Azerbaijan’s economically important area is at some degree of risk. Annual damage from floods over 1980-1990 was estimated at USD20 million. Annual damage from mudflows is currently estimated at USD80 million. The total area that has been damaged by floods is estimated at 1.2 million ha; damaged by mudflows, 600,000 ha. At present, the value of business assets at risk from flooding and/or mudflow is about USD3.7 billion.

20

The 20th century saw a systematic effort to reduce the risk of inundation through construction of flood control structures in the most dangerous areas. While the Kura and Araks Rivers have catastrophically inundated settlements on their banks in the past, today they are regulated, and a large reservoir controls the discharge of each. Numerous other measures have been taken as well. However, difficulties remain. Areas especially at risk are the basins of the small rivers in the slopes of the mountain ranges. At lower elevations there are flood risks and at higher elevations there exist mudflow risks. Risk is particularly high in the river basins of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic and in the basins of the small rivers on the southern slope of the Main Caucasus Range and Small Caucasus Range. The rising of the Caspian Sea (sinking of the Apsheron peninsula) affects important areas. The snowmelt season, spring to summer, is especially risky.

Damage done by flooding and mudflows over the last century caused the death of hundreds of people as well as the destruction of villages and towns, railways, highways, agricultural land, and dams and other facilities. Sheki has undergone several catastrophic mudflows and is continually threatened. The railway line from Alati-Nakhchivan is often damaged, and railway bridges are frequently washed out. A general scheme of anti-mudflow, anti- flood, anti- landslide, anti-erosion actions initiated in 1989 was suspended in 1992; funds budgeted for construction of protective facilities are now at about 10% of their pre-transition level. Consequently, flood risk is increasing as equipment deteriorates. This is especially alarming in the case of the large reservoirs. A particular risk is the possible eventual failure of the Mingechaur reservoir, built in 1953 for flood protection on the Kura River. The reservoir contains about 16.1 billion m3 of water. Its potential flood area is 800,000 ha, inhabited by 3.5 million people. The reservoir has been eroding its banks systematically, and the bank has retreated 100 meters so far. Parts of the reservoir require concrete reinforcement.

Droughts are also common in Azerbaijan, particularly in the Kura-Araks lowland, which receives very low precipitation. The extremely dry summers of 1998 and 2000 caused significant economic losses to agriculture and fishery. The extremely low flows of the Kura and Araks Rivers during the 2000 drought cost the fishery sector several years.

Trends in Main Water Uses and Management and Key Water Issues Water problems in Azerbaijan are not caused by water quality or quantity issues. Azerbaijan has abundant resources overall, but has distribution problems. Key identified issues are:

• Regular flooding and droughts. • Competition between sectors, namely between hydropower and irrigation. • Poor operation of reservoirs, namely high releases of sediment water in the Kura leading

to silting of river delta, which is affecting sturgeon breeding. • Although river quality not a major problem, there are some pollution problems,

particularly in coastal areas. • Huge irrigation and drainage infrastructure stock is now crumbling. Most schemes are

considered probably economically viable. • Agriculture strategic priority sector for the economy. It is the second largest economic

sector, and is beginning to recover. It provides good safety net for the poor. However, it

21

uses water inefficiently. Presently, there is an institutional vacuum for tertiary irrigation and drainage systems.

• Sharing and joint management of the Kura and Araks Rivers and of the Caspian Sea to prevent further pollution are also issues of critical importance.

Water Policy and Institutional Issues There are several pieces of legislation that regulate water resources management. The most significant are the Water Code and the Regulation on Payment for Water Use. The Water Code stipulates that the state is the owner of most of the major infrastructure, although rights of tenancy may be assigned to either a municipality or a person for upto 25 years. Furthermore, the Code states that water use is to be based upon plans that consider the needs of all sectors of the economy and water rights may be suspended, prohibited or restricted for reasons such as failure to pay charges as violation of agreed norms. The Regulation on Payment for Water Use stipulates that all users are to pay for water. Payments are to be calculated separately for each district on the basis of either metering or control measurements. Users are supposed to pay 40% for the cost of monthly water use in advance.

Plans for integrated basin management were created in the 1970s for the Kura and Araks Rivers and other areas, but they were not implemented. Water resources development was focused upon separate sectors, and no formal procedures for integrated planning was enforced.

Azerbaijan faces major institutional problems. There is a highly centralized decision-making and little inter-agency coordination. At present, while the State Committee for Ecology and Natural Resources is in charge of natural resources utilization, and is responsible for the country’s water resources at national and regional levels; the Committee of Land Improvement and Water Economy is in charge of land improvement activities and the operation and maintenance of hydraulic infrastructure.

There are powerful vested interests in the water sector, and limited public participation and citizen involvement in the decision-making process. Although water institutions are technically strong, they are managerially weak. At present, there is a brain drain from civil service, which is impacting considerably on water sector. Current monitoring programs of water quantity and quality are inadequate, and reliable data for post-soviet period is lacking.

Recommendations The focus in the future should be in clearly defined areas for institutional change, namely:

• Improve inter-agency coordination in limited areas. • Improve coordination of agriculture and hydropower regarding releases from Mingechaur

reservoir. • Improve management of minimum flows. • Integrated river basin management agencies not feasible in short term but activities could

be initiated at the planning level. • Make farmers responsible for managing tertiary irrigation and drainage. • Amend law and pass implementing legislation.

22

• Make the State Committee on Irrigation an autonomous company that provides services. • Develop some model WUAs to demonstrate benefits of owner operation.

In the area of investments, efforts should be focused on the following:

• Rehabilitation of key irrigation systems. As a priority, concentrate on water deficit areas with high agricultural productivity, the plains and the Apsheron peninsula, where Baku is located (faced with a large number of people and a severe water deficit).

• Improve productivity of existing major hydraulic infrastructure and efficiency of irrigation and water supply systems.

• In the case of the irrigation sector, focus on tertiary structures where the need is greatest, and where it is possible to demonstrate tangible benefits.

• Continue with the rehabilitation of exisiting drinking water supply infrastructure and expand coverage in rural areas.

References AQUASTAT. 1997. Azerbaijan Country Profile. FAO, Land and Water Development Division. Azerbaijan State Committee on Ecology and Control of Natural Resources Utilization. 1998. National Environmental Action Plan. Baku, Azerbaijan. GRID-Tbilisi, United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP). 2002. Caucasus Environmental Outlook (CEO) 2002. Tbilisi, Georgia. WHO/UNICEF. 2001. Access to Improved Sanitation - Azerbaijan. WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Geneva, Switzerland. Report available at: http://childinfo.org/eddb/sani/ceecis/azerbaijan_sanitation1.pdf. World Bank. 2003. Flood Profile for Azerbaijan. Prepared by Lucy Hancock on the basis of a report by Gaibali Gadjiametov for the World Bank in 2000. Washington, DC, USA. World Bank. 2003. Towards a Water Resources Management Strategy for Azerbaijan (forthcoming). ECSSD Working Paper. Washington, DC, USA.

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AZERBAIJAN: WATER FACT SHEET


Total Population (millions of people) 7.175 8.04 8.73 8.94 CHART: TRENDS IN POPULATION, SHOWING Urban population 54% 52% 54% 56%Rural population 46% 48% 46% 44%Source: Aquastat database, FAO (2002).

1990 2000 Goal for 2015Access to piped water supply n.a 57% 79% Urban n.a 84% 92% Rural n.a 28% 64%Note: Goal refers to MDGs.

1990 2000 Goal for 2020Access to sewage n.a 31% 66% Urban n.a 60% 80% Rural n.a 0% 50%Note: Goal refers to MDGs.

1999Share of poor in rural areas 84%


1990 1995 1998 1999Labor force (millions of people) 3.0 3.3 3.5 3.5 Share in agriculture 31% 31% 29% na Share in industry 23% 18% 14% na

Average annual growth 1991-19971998-2000

Of GDP -9.3% 9.5% Of population 1.3% 0.9%

1990 1995 1999 2000Infant mortality rate (per 1,000 live births) 23.0 23.3 14.9 12.8


Land area (millions of ha) 8.66Land area in international basins (millions of ha) 6.04 Percentage of country in international basins 69.7%Average precipitation (mm) 541Average total volume of rainfall (BCM) 47

Total internal water resources (BCM) 8.1 Of which surface water (BCM) 6.0 Of which groundwater 6.5 Overlap between surface and groundwater 4.4

Total external water resources (BCM) 22.2 Of which surface water (BCM) 22.2 Of which groundwater (BCM) 0.0

Total water resources (BCM) 30.3 Of which total surface water (BCM) 28.1 Of which total groundwater (BCM) 2.2 Overlap between surface and groundwater 4.4Dependency ratio 73.2%

1990 2000 2015 2020Per capita water resources (cubic meters/year) 4,220 3,765 3,470 3,388

1985 1996 1999 2000Total annual withdrawals (in BCM) 16.9 17.3 17.4 17.1 Agricultural 13.8 13.9 13.9 13.9 Industrial 2.4 2.5 2.4 2.0 Domestic 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.2


-

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.02.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.55.0

2000 MDG2015P

op

ula

tio

n (

in m

illio

n)

Urban Rural

-

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

1990 2000 2010 2020

Po

pu

lati

on

(in

mill

ion

)

Urban Pop

Rural Pop

Access to Sewage

-0.51.01.52.02.53.03.54.04.55.0

1990 MGD2020

Po

pu

lati

on

(in

mill

ion

) Urban Rural

Trends in Water Withdrawals

-

2.04.06.0

8.010.0

12.014.0

16.018.0

20.0

1985 1996 1999 2000

Wit

hd

raw

als

(in

BC

M)

Agricultural Industrial Domestic

24

WATER QUALITY AND POLLUTION 1995Wastewater produced (BCM) 0.6Wastewater treated (BCM) 0.1 or 18%

1990 1992 1993 1994Annual emissions of BOD per day (M Tons) 53.3 50.6 46.6 45.0Annual emissions of BOD per capita (kg) 2.7 2.5 2.3 2.2

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMSWetlands designated as Ramsar sites (2002) In ha 99,560 As % of land area 1.1%

DAMS AND HYDROPOWER 2002Reservoir capacity (BCM) 21.60 Irrigation dams n.a Hydropower dams n.aReservoir capacity per capita (cubic meters) 2,686 (in 2002)

Gross theoretical hydropower potential (GWh/y) 43,500 Technically feasible (GWh/y) 16,000 Economically feasible (GWh/y) 7,000Currrent production from hydropower (GWh/y) 2,050 (in 2000)

1990 1995 1998 1999Total electricity production (GWh/year) 23,200 17,044 17,998 18,177 Share from hydroelectric 3% 9% 11% 8%

IRRIGATION 1992 1995 1998 1999Irrigated land ('000 ha) 1,370 1,453 1,455 1,455 Irrigated land per capita (ha) 0.19 0.19 0.18 0.18Irrigated land as share of cropland 72% 75% 74% 73%

FRESHWATER FISHERY 1992 1995 1998 1999Fishery production (MT) 31,963 10,821 4,828 4,855 Fishery production per capita (kg) 4.33 1.41 0.61 0.61

FINANCING THE WATER SECTORAverage cost recovery: Irrigation water services 10-15% O&M costs Municipal water services < 100% O&M costs (low collection) * These are ball park estimates.Average water tariff (US cent/m3) 2000-01 Irrigation 0.06 Domestic 4 Budget organizations 17 Commercial 112 Industry 47 Industry using water as key raw material 896 Untreated water 14

Trends in BOD Emissions

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

Kg

/cap

ita/

year


0

300,000

600,000

900,000

1,200,000

1,500,000

1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Trend in Fisheries Production (MT)

0

5,00010,00015,00020,00025,00030,000

35,000

1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Trends in Electricity Production(Billion KWh/year)

0

5

10

15

20

25

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998

Other

Hydropower

25

BELARUS Socio-Economic and Geographic Context Belarus, situated in Eastern Europe, is a landlocked country with a total surface area of 20.8 million ha. It is bordered by the Russian Federation, Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania and Latvia. The country is covered with young glacial formations. The marshy land of the Polessye – marsh lakes, water meadows and peat bogs in the south of the country – is the largest swamped area in Europe. This area was subject to intense drainage during the 1950s. The climate is continental in the central and eastern parts of the country and maritime in the rest of the country. The average precipitation is about 700 mm, and varies between 550 mm in the southeast to 800 mm in the elevated areas of the central part of the country. More than two-thirds of the precipitation falls during the summer months. In 2000, its population reached about 20.2 million, of whom about 71% where living in urban areas.

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