RES - Task1 - Erasmus 2012 2013.pdf

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Task1:Overview

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UniverzavLjubljani

FacultyofMechanicalEngineering

Erasmus

Stu

dents

2012-2

013

REN

EWABLEENERGY

SOURCES

COURSE LEADERS:

PROF.SAO MEDVEDASSIST. PROF.CIRIL ARKAR

AUTHORS:

J ORGE CUBELOS ORDSJ AVIER ESTEFANELL ALSJ ORGE SANZMUSTIELESJ AVIER GAVILN MORENO

MACARENA RAMREZ PRADOSFRANCISCO CORREIA DA FONSECAJ ORGE RODRGUEZ LARRADADRIN FERNNDEZ GARCA


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About The AuthorsJorge Cubelos Ords

Birth: 17/07/1990, Madrid (Spain)Hobbies: My professional interests are related with energies and petroleum in

general. My personal interests are sports (basketball, football), going out with

my friends and girlfriend and going to the movies.

Javier Estefanell Als

Birth: 29/10/1990, Barcelona (Spain)

Hobbies: In my free time I practice sports like ski and tennis, I go out with my

friends and I like visiting other countries. I also work as a ski coach with kids in a

competition ski club.

Jorge Sanz Mustieles

Birth: 02/10/1990, Madrid (Spain)

Hobbies: In my free time I like to practice sports, listen to music, go to the cinema

and spend time with my friends and family. I also enjoy travelling and reading.

Javier Gaviln Moreno


Hobbies: I like sports, specially football, horse riding and fitness. I usually go to play

football with my friends and I go to the gym almost every day. I have a horse and I

usually go twice a week to ride it. I also like to spend my weekends with my friends

and go to the cinema or shopping.

Macarena Ramrez Prados


Hobbies: I like to go out with my friends and listen to music; and I also like to read,

chiefly Ken Follett and Agatha Christies books. I love to visit new cities and learn

about other cultures. I like to walk and skate around my town.

Francisco Correia da Fonseca

Birth: 20/05/1989, Lisbon (Portugal)

Hobbies: My professional interests are aerodynamics and thermodynamics in

general. In my free time I practice Surf but Im always up for any team sports. I like

to spend time with friends, to travel and meet new people and cultures.

Jorge Rodrguez Larrad

Birth: 25/02/1989, Oviedo (Spain)

Hobbies: My professional interests are Energy and Power Engineering, Thermal

Engineering, Fluids and installations. My private interests are sports, movies, TV

series and reading.

Adrin Fernndez Garca

Birth: 12/02/1987, Gijn (Spain)

Hobbies: I love surfing, ride a motorbike in my village, make fitness, play some

football and climb. On the other hand, I'm interesting in all kind of sciences or

engineering jobs and in engineering documentaries and magazines.


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Renewable Energy Sources

Task 1: Overview and Targets

IndexABOUTTHE AUTHORS IINDEX IIINTRODUCTION 1SOLAR ENERGY 3

INTRODUCTION 3SOLAR PASSIVE TECHNOLOGIES 3

SOLAR ARCHITECTURE 3AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE 3

SOLAR LIGHTNING 4SOLAR ACTIVE TECHNOLOGIES 5

SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY 5SOLAR POWER 6SOLAR CHEMICAL 8SOLAR VEHICLES 9

POTENTIAL IN THE EUROPEAN UNION AND IN SPAIN 10SOLAR POWER IN SPAIN 10CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER PLANTS (CSP) 10LOW TEMPERATURE SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS 14

THE 2020TARGET, A MATTER OF CHOICE 19PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) 19THE PVINDUSTRY IN SPAIN 22SPAINS LARGEST PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV)POWER PLANTS 23

THE PVINDUSTRY IN THE EUROPEAN UNION 23INDEX OF FIGURES SOLAR ENERGY 25

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 26INTRODUCTION 26POWER PLANTS 27

DRY STEAM POWER PLANT 27

FLASH STEAM POWER PLANT 28BYNARY CYCLE POWER PLANT 29ADVANTAGES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 30DISADVANTAGES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 30GEOTHERMAL HEATING AND COOLING 31

GEOTHERMAL HEATING 31GEOTHERMAL COOLING 31HOW DOES THE PROCESS OF COOLING AND HEATING TAKES PLACE ? 32

COSTS OF GEOTHERMAL POWER 33INDEX OF FIGURES GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 34


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TRENDS SHAPING THE SOLID BIOMASS SECTOR 71BIOMASS CO-FIRIG: AN ALTERNATIVE TO ALL COAL 72IS SOLID BIOMASS EQUAL TO THE EUS AMBITION? 74

INDEX OF FIGURES BIOMASS ENERGY 77BIOFUELS 80

BIOALCOHOL 81ETHANOL 82USING PURE ETHANOL 82BIODIESEL 83BIOFUELS IN EUROPEAN UNION 84BIOFUELS POTENTIAL IN EUROPE 86BIOFUELS IN PORTUGAL 86POLICIES 86INDEX OF FIGURES BIOFUEL ENERGY 88

HYDRO POWER ENERGY 89

INTRODUCTION 89GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF A HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT 92

HYDRO POWER CURRENTLY 94IN SPAIN 95IN THE EUROPEAN UNION 100

THE FUTURE OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER 103INDEX OF FIGURES HYDRO ENERGY 105

PRINCIPAL SOURCES 106


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IntroductionRenewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides,

waves and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). About 16% of global final

energy consumption comes from renewable, with 10% coming from traditional biomass, which is

mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from hydroelectricity. New renewable (small hydro, modern

biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) accounted for another 3% and are growing very

rapidly.[1] The share of renewable in electricity generation is around 19%, with 16% of global

electricity coming from hydroelectricity and 3% from new renewable.

The use of wind power is increasing at an annual rate of 20%, with a worldwide installed capacity of

238,000 megawatts (MW) at the end of 2011, and is widely used in Europe, Asia, and the United

States. Since 2004, photovoltaics passed wind as the fastest growing energy source, and since 2007

have more than doubled every two years. At the end of 2011 the photovoltaic (PV) capacity

worldwide was 67,000 MW, and PV power stations are popular in Germany and Italy. Solar thermal

power stations operate in the USA and Spain, and the largest of these is the 354 MW SEGS power

plant in the Mojave Desert. The world's largest geothermal power installation is the Geysers in

California, with a rated capacity of 750 MW. Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs

in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugarcane, and ethanol now provides 18% of

the country's automotive fuel. Ethanol fuel is also widely available in the USA.

While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to

rural and remote areas, where energy is often crucial in human development. As of 2011, small solar

PV systems provide electricity to a few million households, and micro-hydro configured into mini-

grids serves many more. Over 44 million households use biogas made in household-scale digesters

for lighting and/or cooking, and more than 166 million households rely on a new generation of more-

efficient biomass cook stoves. United Nations' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that

renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. Carbon

neutral and negative fuels can store and transport renewable energy through existing natural gas

pipelines and be used with existing transportation infrastructure, displacing fossil fuels, and reducing

greenhouse gases.

Climate change concerns, coupled with high oil prices, peak oil, and increasing government support,

are driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization. New

government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather the global financial crisis

better than many other sectors. According to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency,

solar power generators may produce most of the worlds electricity within 50 years, dramatically

reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases that harm the environment.

2010 was momentous for the evolution of the renewable energy market in Europe; were adopted by

Member States to implement the Renewable Energy Directive and the first results can now be seen,

despite the difficult economic climate. Renewable energy production in the EU grew by +11,3%

between 2009 and 2010. The year 2010 also marks the first anniversary of the adoption of the use of

energy produced from renewable sources that sets the mandatory target of a 20% share of energy

from renewable sources in the EU gross final energy consumption by 2020.


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Solar Energy

Introduction

Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient

times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include solar

heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity and solar architecture, which can make

considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces.

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the

way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of

photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques

include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light

dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable, inexhaustible andclean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries energy

security through reliance on an inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource,

enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil

fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the

incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely

spent and need to be widely shared".

It would be irrational not attempt to exploit, by all means technically possible, this free energy source

clean and renewable, which can give us the freedom from dependence on oil or other unsafe

alternatives contaminants or simply exhaustible.

Solar passive technologies

Solar Architecture

Solar architecture is the integration ofsolar panel technology with modern building techniques. The

use of flexible thin film photovoltaic modules provides fluid integration with steel roofing

Initial development of solar architecture has been limited by the rigidity and weight of standard solar

power panels. The continued development of photovoltaic (PV) thin film solar has provided a

lightweight yet robust vehicle to harness

profiles

that enhances the building's design. Orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with

favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate

air also constitute as solar architecture.

solar energy

Agriculture and Horticulture

to reduce a building's impact on the

environment.

Agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to optimize the

productivity of plants. Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation, staggered

heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_heatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_heatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_photovoltaicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_thermal_electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_solarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_solarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_thermal_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventilation_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Energy_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_panelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_modulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roofinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roofinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_modulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_panelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Energy_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventilation_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_thermal_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_solarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_solarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_thermal_electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_photovoltaicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_heatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_heatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light


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Applications of solar energy in agriculture aside from growing crops include pumping water, drying

crops, brooding chicks and drying chicken manure.

A greenhouse is a structural building withdifferent types of covering materials, such as

a

More recently the technology has been embraced

by vinters, who use the energy generated by

solar panels to power grape presses.

glass or plastic roof and frequently glass or

plastic walls; it heats up because incoming

visible solar radiation (for which the glass is

transparent) from the sun is absorbed by

plants, soil, and other things inside the building.

Air warmed by the heat from hot interior

surfaces is retained in the building by the roof

and wall. The primary heating mechanism of a greenhouse is

Solar Lightning

convection. Thus, the glass used for a

greenhouse works as a barrier to air flow, and its effect is to trap energy within the

greenhouse.Greenhouses convert solar light to heat, enabling year-round production and the growth

(in enclosed environments) of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to the local

climate.

Day lighting systems collect and distribute sunlight to

provide interior illumination. This passive technology

directly offsets energy use by replacing artificial lighting,

and indirectly offsets non-solar energy use by reducing

the need for air-conditioning. Day lighting design implies

careful selection of window types, sizes and orientation;

exterior shading devices may be considered as well.

Individual features include saw tooth roofs, clerestory

windows, light shelves, skylights and light tubes. They

may be incorporated into existing structures, but are

most effective when integrated into a solar design package that accounts for factors such as glare,

heat flux and

Hybrid solar lighting

time-of-use. When day lighting features are properly implemented they can reduce

lighting-related energy requirements by 25%.

is an active solar method of providing interior illumination. HSL systems collect

sunlight using focusing mirrors that attacks the sun and use

Solar lights that charge during the day and light up at dusk are a common sight along walkways.

optical fibers to transmit it inside the

building to supplement conventional lighting. In single-story applications these systems are able to

transmit 50% of the direct sunlight received.

Solar-charged lanterns have become popular in developing countries where they provide a safer and

cheaper alternative to kerosene lamps.


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Solar active technologies

Solar thermal energy

Solar thermal energy (STE) is an innovative technology for harnessing solar energy for thermal

energy (heat). Solar thermal collectors are classified as low-, medium-, or high-temperature

collectors. Low-temperature collectors are flat plates generally used to heat swimming pools.

Medium-temperature collectors are also usually flat plates but are used for heating water or air for

residential and commercial use. High-temperature collectors concentrate sunlight using

mirrors or lenses and are generally used for electric power production. STE is different from and

much more efficient than photovoltaic, which

converts solar energy directly into electricity.

Water heating: solar hot water systems usesunlight to heat water. In low geographical

latitudes (below 40 degrees) from 60 to 70% of

the domestic hot water use with temperatures

up to 60 C can be provided by solar heating

systems. The most common types of solar

water heaters are evacuated tube collectors

(44%) and glazed flat plate collectors (34%)

generally used for domestic hot water; and

unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly to

heat swimming pools.

Heating, cooling and ventilation: Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat

from the Sun in the case of solar energy. Common thermal mass materials include stone, cement

and water. Historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep

buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler

atmosphere at night. However they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as

well. The size and placement of thermal mass depend on several factors such as climate, day

lighting and shading conditions. When properly incorporated, thermal mass maintains space

temperatures in a comfortable range and reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling

equipment.

A solar chimney (or thermal chimney) is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a verticalshaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building. As the chimney warms, the air inside is

heated causing an updraft that pulls air through the building. Performance can be improved by

using glazing and thermal mass materials

Process heat: solar concentrating technologies suchas parabolic dish, trough and Scheffler reflectors can

provide process heat for commercial and industrial

applications. The first commercial system was

the

.

Solar Total Energy Project (STEP) in Shenandoah,

Georgia, USA where a field of 114 parabolic dishes
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provided 50% of the process heating, air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing

factory. This grid-connected cogeneration system provided 400 kW of electricity plus thermal

energy in the form of 401 kW steam and 468 kW chilled water, and had a one hour peak load

thermal storage.

Parabolic through Scheffler reflectors

Solar Power

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or

indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking

systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. PV converts light into electric current

using the photoelectric effect.

Commercial CSP plants were first developed in the 1980s. Since 1985 the eventually 354

MW SEGS CSP installations, in the Mojave Desert of California, is the largest solar power plant in the

world. Other large CSP plants include the 150 MW Solnova Solar Power Station and the 100

MW Andasol solar power station, both in Spain. The 247 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project, in the

United States, and the 214 MW Charanka Solar Park in India, are the worlds largest photovoltaic

plants. Solar projects exceeding 1 GW are being developed, but most of the deployed photovoltaics

are in small rooftop arrays of less than 5kW, which are grid, connected using either net metering or

feed-in tariff (or both).

Concentrated solar power: concentrating Solar Power(CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking

systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small

beam. The concentrated heat is then used as a heat

source for a conventional power plant. A wide range

of concentrating technologies exists; the most

developed are the parabolic trough, the

concentrating linear Fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish

and the solar power tower. Various techniques are

used to track the Sun and focus light. In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the

concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage. New different

types of CSP technology:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentrated_solar_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Energy_Generating_Systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solnova_Solar_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andasol_solar_power_stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agua_Caliente_Solar_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarat_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_photovoltaic_power_stationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_photovoltaic_power_stationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarat_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agua_Caliente_Solar_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andasol_solar_power_stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solnova_Solar_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Energy_Generating_Systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentrated_solar_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity


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Fernel linear collector technology: Europeis also working with Fresnel linear collector

technology, which is a variant on parabolic

trough technology, in that instead of using

parabolic trough mirrors; deploy sets of

small flat mirrors arranged in parallel,

longitudinally. It also differs in that the

absorber tube that concentrates the rays is

stationary while the mirrors incline to

follow the suns course. In Europe, the first

commercial power plant to use this technology, Puerto Errado II, was commissioned in

January 2012 and has a 30 MW capacity.

Dish Stirling technology: Doesnt produce steam to turn a turbine but uses a trough-shaped

mirror concentrator to deflect the suns light on a receptor at a focal point of the dish. Thedevice, which follows the suns light, can heat gas (helium or hydrogen) to temperatures in

excess of 600C that drive a Stirling motor to produce electricity.

Photovoltaics: A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into electriccurrent using the photoelectric effect. The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the

1880s.

In 1931 a German engineer, Dr Bruno Lange, developed a photo cell using silver

selenide in place of copper oxide. Although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1%

of incident light into electricity, both Ernst Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell

recognized the importance of this discovery. Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s,

researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the

Photovoltaics are best known as a method

for generating electric power by using solar

cells to convert energy from the sun into a

flow of electrons. The

silicon solar cell in

1954.These early solar cells cost 286 USD/watt and reached efficiencies of 4.56%.

photovoltaic

effect refers to photons of light exciting

electrons into a higher state of energy,

allowing them to act as charge carriers for an

electric current. The term photovoltaic

denotes the unbiased operating mode of

a photodiode

Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sun light, which can be used to power

equipment or to

in which current through the

device is entirely due to the transduced light

energy. Virtually all photovoltaic devices are some type of photodiode.

recharge a battery. The first practical application of photovoltaics was to power

orbiting satellites and other spacecraft, but today the majority ofphotovoltaic modules are usedfor grid connected power generation. In this case an inverter is required to convert the DC to AC.
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There is a smaller market for off-grid power for remote dwellings, boats, recreational vehicles,

electric cars, roadside emergency telephones, remote sensing, and cathodic

protection ofpipelines.

Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number ofsolar

cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for photovoltaics

include monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride,

and copper indium gallium selenide/sulfide. Due to the growing demand for renewable

energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays

Cells require protection from the environment and are usually packaged tightly behind a glass

sheet. When more power is required than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically connected

together to form photovoltaic modules, or solar panels. A single module is enough to power an

emergency telephone, but for a house or a power plant the modules must be arranged inmultiples as

has advanced

considerably in recent years.

arrays.

Photovoltaic power capacity is measured as maximum power output under standardized test

conditions (STC) in "Wp" (Watts peak). The actual power output at a particular point in time may

be less than or greater than this standardized, or "rated," value, depending on geographical

location, time of day, weather conditions, and other factors. Solar photovoltaic array capacity

factors

A significant market has emerged in off-grid locations for solar-power-charged storage-battery

based solutions. These often provide the only electricity available.

are typically under 25%, which is lower than many other industrial sources of electricity.

The first commercial

installation of this kind was in 1966 on Ogami Island in Japan to transition Ogami Lighthouse from

gas torch to fully self-sufficient electrical power.

Solar Chemical

Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical reactions. These processes offset energy

that would otherwise come from a fossil fuel source and can also convert solar energy into storable

and transportable fuels. Solar induced chemical reactions can be divided into thermochemical

or photochemical. A variety of fuels can be produced by artificial photosynthesis. The multielectroncatalytic chemistry involved in making carbon-based fuels (such as methanol) from reduction

ofcarbon dioxide is challenging; a feasible alternative is hydrogen production from protons, though

use of water as the source of electrons (as plants do) requires mastering the multielectron oxidation

of two water molecules to molecular oxygen. Some have envisaged working solar fuel plants in

coastal metropolitan areas by 2050- the splitting of sea water providing hydrogen to be run through

adjacent fuel-cell electric power plants and the pure water by-product going directly into the

municipal water system.

Hydrogen production technologies have been a significant area of solar chemical research since the

1970s. Aside from electrolysis driven by photovoltaic or photochemical cells, several thermochemicalprocesses have also been explored. One such route uses concentrators to split water into oxygen and
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hydrogen at high temperatures (2300-2600 C). Another approach uses the heat from solar

concentrators to drive the steam reformation of natural gas thereby increasing the overall hydrogen

yield compared to conventional reforming methods.

Solar Vehicles

Development of a solar powered car has been an

engineering goal since the 1980s. The World Solar

Challenge is a biannual solar-powered car race, where

teams from universities and enterprises compete over

3,021 kilometers (1,877 mi) across central Australia from

Darwin to

Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power, such as for air conditioning, to keep the interior

cool, thus reducing fuel consumption.

Adelaide. In 1987, when it was founded, the

winner's average speed was 67 kilometers per hour

(42 mph) and by 2007 the winner's average speed had

improved to 90.87 kilometers per hour (56.46 mph).

In 1975, the first practical solar boat was constructed in

England. By 1995, passenger boats incorporating PV

panels began appearing and are now used extensively. In

1996, Kenichi Horie made the first solar powered crossing

of the Pacific Ocean, and the sun21

In 1974, the unmanned

catamaran made the

first solar powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in thewinter of 20062007. There are plans to circumnavigate

the globe in 2010.

AstroFlight Sunrise plane made the first solar flight. On 29 April 1979,

the Solar Riser made the first flight in a solar powered, fully controlled, man carrying flying machine,

reaching an altitude of 40 feet (12 m). In 1980, the Gossamer Penguin made the first piloted flights

powered solely by photovoltaics. This was quickly followed by the Solar Challenger which crossed the

English Channel in July 1981.

Developments then turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV).The Zephyr, developed by BAE

Systems, is the latest in a line of record-breaking solar aircraft, making a 54-hour flight in 2007, and

month-long flights are envisioned by 2010.
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A solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air. As sunlight shines on the balloon, the

air inside is heated and expands causing an upward buoyancy force, much like an artificially

heated hot air balloon. Some solar balloons are large enough for human flight, but usage is generally

limited to the toy market as the surface-area to payload-weight ratio is relatively high.

Potential in the European Union and in Spain

Solar power in Spain

Spain is one of the most advanced countries in the development ofsolar energy, and it is one of the

European countries with the most hours of sunshine. In 2008 the Spanish government committed to

achieving a target of 12 percent of primary energy from renewable energy by 2010 and by 2020

expects the installed solar generating capacity of 10,000 megawatts (MW). Spain is the fourth largest

manufacturer in the world of power technology and exports 80 percent of this output to Germany.

Spain added a record 2.6 GW of solar power in 2008, increasing capacity to 3.5 GW. Total solarpower in Spain was 3.859 GW by the end of 2010 and solar energy produced 6.9 terawatt-

hours

Through a ministerial ruling in March 2004, the Spanish government removed economic barriers to

the connection of renewable energy technologies to the electricity grid. The Royal Decree 436/2004

equalized conditions for large-scale

(TWh), covering 2.7% of the electricity demand in 2010. By the end of 2011, 4.214 GW had

been installed, and that year 7.912 TWh of electricity was produced.

solar thermal and photovoltaic plants and guaranteed feed-in

tariffs. In the wake of the 2008 financial crisis, the Spanish government drastically cut its subsidies for

solar power and capped future increases in capacity at 500 MW per year, with effects upon the

industry worldwide.

Concentrated Solar Power Plants (CSP)

Evolution of CSP plants in Spain and Europe

There are four types of concentrated solar

power plants. Parabolic trough technology is

the most widespread accounting for 22 out

of the 25 commercial CSP operations in the

European Union at the end of 2011. Theremaining three commercial plants are

tower plants. They use heliostats huge,

almost flat mirrors with a surface area of

over 100m2

arranged in their hundreds to

concentrate the suns rays on a point at the

top of the tower. All of them are in Spain:

PS10 (2006), PS20 (2008) and Gemasolar

(2011).
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In Spain a small demonstration plant based on Dish Stirling was commissioned in Casa de los Pinos.

Spain still the only European Union country to have developed a large-scale sector and at the end of

2011 concentrated all of Europes commercial CSP operations within its borders with 1151,4 MW of

installed capacity. If we had the capacity of the four prototypes commissioned in the European

Union: Archimede, Puerto Errado I, La Seyne-sur-Mer and Augustin Fresnel I, total European Unioncapacity was 1157,2 MW at the end of 2011.


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Nine commercial CSP operations went on stream in 2011 (a combined capacity of 420 MW), all of

them in Spain. Eight of them are of the parabolic trough type each with a unit capacity of 50 MW,

while the ninth is a 20 MW capacity tower plant called Gemasolar.

The electricity output of all of Spains CSP plants has been metered, according to REE (Red Elctrica

Espaola) at 2029 GWh in 2011 (692 GWh in 2010), which represents a 194,3% gain on 2010. Theinstallation pace should be steady in the forthcoming months.

In the first quarter of the year, four new power plants (Helioenergy 2, Solacor 1, Solacor 2 and Puerto

Errado II) were commissioned adding 180 MW of capacity to the Spanish grid, with another 18 under

construction (for 872,5 MW). The construction of 13 other power plants is confirmed (for 271,4 MW)

as they are in the pre-allocation register and have escaped the moratorium, which since January 1st

Data published by Protermo Solar (the Spanish CSP association), puts the theoretical output of these

61 power plants (with a combined capacity of 2475,3 MW) at 6649 GWh, namely 2-3% of the

countrys electricity output. The main industrialists involved in constructing these power plants are

the Spanish groups Abengoa Solar, Acciona Solar Power and Cobra Group, while the main parabolic

trough mirror suppliers are Rioglass of Spain and Flabeg of Germany.

2012, has cut off all financial aid to renewable energy-sourced power plants.


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Prospects for Europes CSP plants in 2020

The fallout from the economic crisis that

has besieged Europe for the past three

years is affecting CSP plant projectdevelopments. Most countries that have

set CSP plant targets in their National

Renewable Energies Action Plans are

drifting off course. The Spanish

government, which had the highest

ambitions, has asked CSP sector operators

to slow down their plant installation pace.

Achieving the 2015 target (3048 MW) no

longer appears to be a priority and the

government will have to lift its moratorium

if it is to achieve its 2020 target of 5079

MW. The Portuguese program has not even

kicked off and is unlikely to meet its 180 MW target in 2015 (500 MW in 2020).

While over the long term the prospect for growth are still good, except for Spain, the other European

Union countries have yet to pass the demonstrator stage if they are to envisage installing

commercially-viable CSP plants. Competition from

ground-based PV farms, whose production costs have

been slashed by its very broad industrialization and

the billions of euros the PV sector has spent, is

another factor that could stunt sector growth. A

Swiss Bank Sarasin survey: Solar industry: survival of

the fittest in a fiercely competitive market place

reckons that in 2011 photovoltaic plants

(polycrystalline or CdTe) will cost 0,13 /kWh

compare to 0,16 /kWh for parabolic trough plants.

These cost differences should be put into perspective

as the CSP industrys adventure is only just beginning,

with only one GW installed in Europe, compare to 51

GW by photovoltaic. It still needs support to continue

expanding, and so far, the politicians have not let it

down.

The technology has advantages for grid integration because it offers hybridization opportunities with

thermal fuels (fossil or biomass) and energy storage possibilities, which are two major assets. They

are capped by the fact that most CSP plant components are made in Europe and that the sunshine-

rich countries, which are bound to host the future CSP plants, have good worth prospects worldwide.


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Low-temperature solar thermal systems

The European solar thermal markets bad patch is not over, but tangible improvements are already

being felt. The hot-water and heating-dedicated solar thermal market only contracted by 1,9% in

2011.

In the European Union, 3,7 million m2

of solar thermal collectors were installed in 2011, compared to

just under 3,8 million2

m in 2010. Nonetheless, the market is a long way off its 2008 level when 4,6

million m2

of collectors were installed.


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The performance of the main European Union markets varies considerably. On the positive side, the

German market is returning to growth, the Polish market is building up and the Greek market is

holding up well. On the downside, the Spanish, Italian, French, Austrian and Czech markets are

shrinking. The same factors are to blame for the current solar thermal market difficulties as in the

past two years. The financial crash of 2008 and subsequent recession continue to hurt the

construction sector, particularly in Southern Europe, so the tightening of its technical standards has

yet to make a decisive impact on the Spanish, Italian and even

French markets. Another reason mentioned is the end of

gas/oil price linkage, which makes gas very competitive with

solar energy. Competition is even stiffer between solar

thermal and conventional heating systems other than oil-fired,

as most European countries, being cash-strapped have slashed

their solar thermal incentive subsidies. Lastly, solar thermal

technology has had to contend with another photovoltaic

market boom.

Consumers perceive PV as much more profitable than solar

thermal. If we look at the technology spread, the market is

dominated by glazed flat place collectors with an 84,3% share

in 2011, even though the vacuum tube collectors market share

has picked up slightly (11,7%). Unglazed collectors, generally used for heating pools, have struggled

to make 4% of the newly installed surface area.


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A collector base of 39,4 millions m2 in 2011

Estimating the total solar collector installation surface area in the European Union is difficult because

every year part of the base either not in service or is replaced by new systems. The surface area of

the solar of the solar thermal collectors in service in the European Union is approximately 39,4million m

2, which means a capacity of 27545 MWth. Germany, Austria and Greece have had the

biggest collector bases for many years. However, if we consider per capita surface, Cyprus sets the

European benchmarkwith 0,869 m2/inhab, ahead of Austria (0,567 m

2/inhab) and Greece (0,362

m2/inhab).

Ways out of the crisis

The solutions that can solve this crisis have already been

identified, but implementing them is quite another matter. ESTIF (the European Solar Thermal

Industry Federation) says that the industry can no longer afford to wait for significant gas or heating

oil prices hikes. It will have to increase its costs reducing efforts throughout the value chain if its to

rebuild its competitive edge over conventional heating solutions. The systems must be simpler to

install to bring down overpriced installation costs, while more development work must be devoting

to concentrating on less expensive yet innovative materials. At the same time, the industry needs to


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forge closer links with its construction counterparts, promote integrated system solutions and

become pro-active in developing low-energy housing.

The sector also proposes a change to the current incentive system, which tends to offer installation

subsidies, by redirecting it to installation performance rating and creating a production subsidy along

the lines of the feed-in tariff. Depending on the application and solar fraction, the rate could varybetween 0,05 and 0,15/kWhth, which would compensate for the advantage enjoyed by the market

price of gas and ensure that investors make earnings of 6%. Werner Weiss, the director of the

Austrian research institute AEE Intec, has presented a model enabling the cost of 1 kWh of solar

thermal heat to be calculated in line with the systems design solar fraction. If a solar fraction of 15%

is considered, the Weiss model determines a 0,06-0,08/kWhth difference compared to the price of

gas. The difference rises to 0,15-0,20/kWhth when the solar fraction is 60%.

News from the solar thermal sector

There are two classes of operators in the European solar thermal industry the independent

specialist companies and the major generalist heating and heat marketing groups. The formerincludes the two major players, which happen to be the two leading collector and solar thermal

system manufacturers Bosch Termotechnik and Viessmann; they are followed by BDR Thermea

Group, Vaillant Group and Ariston Thermo Group. Companies specialised in solat thermal are much

more numerous: GreenOneTec, Solvis, Thermosolar, or Ritter gives a non-exhaustive list of European

manufacturers whose collector or solar thermal system output it upwards of 100000 m2.

In 2011 GreenOneTec, the Austrian company, held onto its position as the leading solar thermal

collector manufacturer despite significantly cutting back production. It claims to have a 25% share of

the European market and exports 85% of its output. It announced a collector output figure of 700000

m2 for 2011 (800000 m2 in 2010), which is far below its capacity estimated at 1,6 million m 2. Thecompany has recently commissioned its new automated FK 9000 production line capable of

producing 60 collectors per hour to reduce its costs, which will produce its new generation of

aluminium collectors, FK 9250, to be marketed from the second half of 2012. The FK 9250 is designed

to reduce installation time by integrating a higher number of pre-installed components and tool-free

connection with the hydraulic circuit. Since April 2011 the production line has also been given a new

bending machine that can produce 80 copper serpentine coils per hour.

Tisun, another Austrian company, has pushed back the automation boundaries further still. In

October 2011, it installed a new fully-automated machine, called the Pulsspeed Bender that

manufactures an absorber in a single step, bending the pipe into the serpentine coils, cutting theabsorber plates and laser welding them together. The machine was developed in conjunction with

mechanical engineering firm DTEC. It is recalled that Tisun was the first company to use laser welding

on copper-aluminium to manufacture absorbers.

Some manufacturers have pushed technology in new directions using bonding instead of welding

techniques. One example is the German manufacturer Schco International, which has developed a

process to encapsulate the copper pipe in an aluminium clip that is bonded to the absorber. The

advantage of the bonded link is that it avoids thermal stress that could deform the absorber plate,

resulting from a rigid link between an aluminium absorber and the copper pipe (due to the different

dilatation coefficients presented by these materials). The other advantage is that there is much more


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contact surface between the copper pipe and the absorber than would be provided by a laser weld,

which according to the manufactures enhances panel efficiency by 2-3%.

The 2020 target, a matter of choice

We have to accept the idea that the recession is far from over and that it is an obstacle to the solar

thermal markets development. The sector has and is still making major efforts to pare down costsbut the key lies in developing large-scale manufacturing. Cost reduction by economies of scale is the

magic formula adopted by the Chinese to achieve grid parity for PV plants. But todays economic

conditions are not ripe for large-scale solar thermal system development. The price of gas is still too

low while solar thermal technology is not competitive enough with the alternative hot water and

heat production methods.

This said, the markets current impetus indicates that a return to moderate market growth in 2012 is

possible. The governments have to qualms about informing the population that energy prices are

bound to rise in coming years, so consumers are increasingly factoring in this parameter when

making their investments. The impending adoption of the new Eco-Design directive (probably at theend of 2012) and rules for hot-water

production systems and storage tank energy

labeling are encouraging, for only solar

systems can achieve the A+++ standard, which

will hand the sector a competitive advantage.

The extended crisis and the solar thermal

markets recovery pains have let us to lower

our projections, which are now based on a

forecast mean annual growth rate of 10% until2020. It suggests that by that deadline, the

local collector surface will be about 85,6

million m2

(equating to 59,9 GWth of capacity),

or an output of 3481 ktoe. The figure will thus

be much lower than the current NREAP targets

of the 27 member countries.

The governments have a decisive role to play in supporting the solar thermal sector in the current

context. The gradual introduction of the new thermal regulations that either oblige or strongly

promote the installation of eco-friendly heating methods is a step in the right direction, but itsimpact is still very weak. In the first place, the construction sector has slumped and secondly, the

regulations only affect 1% of the housing base. The key to large-scale development will be for these

new regulations to apply to the entire housing base. The idea is beginning to take root in Germany as

part of the new renewable energies heat act, but the economic situation is hampering decision-

making.

Photovoltaic (PV)

The global photovoltaic market has continued to expand despite the economic and financial crisis.

Capacity in excess of 29000 MWp more than in 2011, which is roughly 12200 MWp more than in

2010. The European Union is still the main hive of installation activity. It added more than 21500additional MWp of capacity to the grid last year, while outside the European Union, the surging


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Chinese, American and Japanese markets vouch for the enormous growth potential offered by solar

power worldwide.

The sector leads on electricity capacity

Yet again the PV power sector was the

leading electricity generating capacityinstaller in the European Union, as

21528,9 MWp went on grid from

photovoltaic power plants during 2011,

bringing the EUs capacity to date to

51357,4 MWp. The European Wind

Energy Association (EWEA) indicated that

is also double the additional capacity

installed via new gas-fired power plants

(9718 MW), while it dwarfs the capacity

of new coal-fired (2200 MW), oil-fired

(700 MW) and nuclear power plants (331

MW). All renewable energies taken

together account for more than 70% of

the newly-connected capacity in the EU,

and thus consolidate the trend started in

2008.


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Growth comes at a high price

Despite of implementation of increasingly complex

incentive systems that are intended to take market

dynamics into account, the soaring growth of the

PV market again caught the public authorities off

guard. Not a single government has counted on the

continuing and accelerating downward slide in the

price of PV modules. The drop completely outpaced

the feed-in tariffs and led a new rush on

installations as investors tried to make the most of

the differential between feed-in tariffs and the real

cost of the PV kWh. In the second quarter of 2011 a

root-and-branch review of the incentive systems

was initiated to regain very firm control of the

European market. It is particularly aimed at large PVsystems.


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The PV industry in Spain

Solar photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity and many solar photovoltaic power

stations have been built in Spain. As of November 2010, the largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants in

Spain are the Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park (60 MW), Puertollano Photovoltaic Park (47.6 MW), Planta

Solar La Magascona & La Magasquila (34.5 MW), Arnedo Solar Plant (34 MW) and Planta Solar

Dulcinea (31.8 MW).

BP Solar begun constructing a new solar photovoltaic cell manufacturing plant at its European

headquarters in Tres Cantos, Madrid. For phase one of the Madrid expansion, BP Solar aimed to

expand its annual cell capacity from 55 MW to around 300 MW. Construction of this facility was

underway, with the first manufacturing line expected to be fully operational in 2009.[]

Since the beginning of 2007,

The new cell

lines would use innovative screen-printing technology. By fully automating wafer handling, the

manufacturing lines would be able to handle the very thinnest of wafers available and ensure the

highest quality. Thin wafers are of particular importance since there has been a silicon shortage in

recent years. However, after the new national law limiting installed power by year, in April 2009 BP

Solar is closing its factories.

Aleo Solar

Spain's largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants

AG has also been manufacturing high-quality solar modules

for the Spanish market at its own factory in Santa Maria de Palautordera near Barcelona.

Name of Plant Peak Power (MW) GWh/year Capacity

Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park 60 85 0.16

Puertollano Photovoltaic Park 47Planta Solar La Magascona 34.5

Planta Solar Dulcinea[12]

31.8

Merida/Don Alvaro Solar Park 30

Planta Solar Ose de la Vega 30

Arnedo Solar Plant 30

Merida/Don Alvaro Solar Park 30
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_stationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_stationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmedilla_Photovoltaic_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puertollano_Photovoltaic_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_Solar_La_Magascona_%26_La_Magasquilahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_Solar_La_Magascona_%26_La_Magasquilahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnedo_Solar_Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_Solar_Dulcineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_Solar_Dulcineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BP_Solarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madridhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_Spain#cite_note-BP-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_Spain#cite_note-BP-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_Spain#cite_note-BP-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleo_Solarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmedilla_Photovoltaic_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmedilla_Photovoltaic_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puertollano_Photovoltaic_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puertollano_Photovoltaic_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_Solar_Dulcineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_Solar_Dulcineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_Solar_Dulcineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merida/Don_Alvaro_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merida/Don_Alvaro_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_Solar_Ose_de_la_Vegahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_Solar_Ose_de_la_Vegahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnedo_Solar_Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnedo_Solar_Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merida/Don_Alvaro_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merida/Don_Alvaro_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merida/Don_Alvaro_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnedo_Solar_Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_Solar_Ose_de_la_Vegahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merida/Don_Alvaro_Solar_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_Solar_Dulcineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_Solar_Dulcineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puertollano_Photovoltaic_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmedilla_Photovoltaic_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleo_Solarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_Spain#cite_note-BP-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madridhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BP_Solarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_Solar_Dulcineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_Solar_Dulcineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnedo_Solar_Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_Solar_La_Magascona_%26_La_Magasquilahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_Solar_La_Magascona_%26_La_Magasquilahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puertollano_Photovoltaic_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmedilla_Photovoltaic_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_stationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_stations


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The PV industry in the European Union

In 2011, more than 69 GW were

installed at the global level,

producing 85 TWh of electricity

every year. This energy volume is

sufficient to power annually the

supply needs of over 20 million

households. In terms of global

cumulative installed capacity,

according to the latest report of

the European Photovoltaic Industry

Association, Europe still leads the

way with more than 51 GW (i.e.

about 75% of the worlds total solar

photovoltaic cumulativecapacity).

PV is now a significant part of Europe's electricity mix, producing 2% of the demand in the EU and

roughly 4% of peak demand.

In 2011, solar

photovoltaic continued its growth

trend and Italy was the top market

for the year, with 9.3 GW

connected, followed by Germany

(7.5 GW). These two markets were

followed by France (1.7 GW) and the

United Kingdom (784 MW). In

terms of cumulative capacity,

Germany with more than 24 GW, is

the leading country in Europe.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Photovoltaic_Industry_Associationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Photovoltaic_Industry_Associationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy_in_the_European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy_in_the_European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Photovoltaic_Industry_Associationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Photovoltaic_Industry_Association


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Index of Figures Solar Energy

FIGURE 1(PP.4)GOOGLE IMAGES

FIGURE 2(PP.4)HTTP://INHABITAT.COM/SOLAR-TUBE/

FIGURE 3(PP.5)HTTP://WWW.EMERALDENERGYNC.COM/SOLAR-WATER-HEATING.PHP

FIGURE 4(PP.5)HTTP://WWW.RADIOLOCMAN.COM/REVIEW/ARTICLE.HTML?DI=68277

FIGURE 5(PP.6)HTTP://WWW.NREL.GOV/CSP/TROUGHNET/SOLAR_FIELD.HTML

FIGURE 6(PP.6)HTTP://WWW.TERRA.ORG/ARTICULOS/ART00582.HTML

FIGURE 7(PP.6)HTTP://WWW.ATISSUN.COM/BLOG/15114/CONCENTRATED-SOLAR-POWER-WITH-THERMAL-ENERGY-STORAGE-CAN-HELP-UTILITIES/



FIGURE 10(PP .9)HTTP://INHABITAT.COM/TRANSPORTATION-TUESDAY-THE-SOLAR-POWERED-BLUE-CAR/

FIGURE 11(PP .9)

HTTP://WWW.ENERGEX.COM.AU/SWITCHED_ON/POWER_UP/POWER_UP_SOLAR.HTMLFIGURE 12(PP .9)HTTP://WWW.YOURSUNYOURENERGY.COM/SOLAR-PLANES.HTM#

FIGURES 13-35 (PP .10-24)EUROBSERV BILANS: HTTP://WWW.EUROBSERV-ER.ORG/
http://www.eurobserv-er.org/http://www.eurobserv-er.org/http://www.eurobserv-er.org/http://www.eurobserv-er.org/http://www.eurobserv-er.org/http://www.eurobserv-er.org/http://www.eurobserv-er.org/http://www.eurobserv-er.org/http://www.eurobserv-er.org/http://www.eurobserv-er.org/http://www.eurobserv-er.org/


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Geothermal EnergyIntroductionGeothermal energy is the heat energy that occurs naturally in the earth. This thermal energy is

contained in the rock and fluids beneath Earth's crust. It can be found from shallow ground to several

miles below the surface, and even farther down to the extremely hot molten rock called magma. In

nature, geothermal heat shows up in the form of volcanoes, hot springs and geysers. The heat itself

is derived from radioactive decay beneath the earth's surface. When it is above 150 degree Celsius, it

is considered hot enough to be used to generate electricity and heat.

Geothermal energy has been used for thousands of years in some countries for cooking and heating.

The production of electricity from geothermal energy sources can be a highly efficient means of

delivering clean and renewable electricity to many people. Location is of key importance for thedevelopment of an efficient geothermal power station and therefore, economically viable levels of

electricity can only be generated in certain areas of the world. Regions that have well-developed

geothermal systems are located in geologically active areas. These regions have continuous,

concentrated heat flow to the surface. The western United States has the best geothermal regions in

the country, whiles Iceland, New Zealand, the Philippines, and South America, are some of the more

prominent global "hot spots." In Iceland, geothermal energy, caused by the constant movement of

geologic plates coupled with the volcanic nature of the island, is used to heat 90% of all homes.


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These underground reservoirs of steam and hot water can be tapped to generate electricity or to

heat and cool buildings directly. A geothermal heat pump system can take advantage of the constant

temperature of the upper ten feet (three meters) of the Earth's surface to heat a home in the winter,

while extracting heat from the building and transferring it back to the relatively cooler ground in thesummer.

Power Plants

Power plants use steam produced from geothermal reservoirs to generate electricity. There are three

geothermal power plant technologies being used to convert hydrothermal fluids to electricity: dry

steam, flash steam and binary cycle. The type of conversion used (selected in development) depends

on the state of the fluid (steam or water) and its temperature.

Dry Steam Power Plant

Dry steam plants use hydrothermal fluids

that are primarily steam. The steam travels

directly to a turbine, which drives a

generator that produces electricity. The

steam eliminates the need to burn fossil

fuels to run the turbine (also eliminating

the need to transport and store fuels).

These plants emit only excess steam and

very minor amounts of gases.

Dry steam power plants systems were the

first type of geothermal power generation

plants built (they were first used at

Lardarello in Italy in 1904). Steam

technology is still effective today at currently in use at The Geysers in northern California, the world's

largest single source of geothermal power.


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Flash Steam Power PlantFlash steam plants are the most common

type of geothermal power generation

plants in operation today. Fluid at

temperatures greater than 360F (182C) is

pumped under high pressure into a tank at

the surface held at a much lower pressure,

causing some of the fluid to rapidly

vaporize, or "flash." The vapor then drives

a turbine, which drives a generator. If any

liquid remains in the tank, it can be flashed

again in a second tank to extract even

more energy.

Flash power plants can be distinguished in

single flash and multiple flash plants. The presence of non-condensable gases in the geothermal

steam, which accumulate in the condenser, requires the installation of a gas extraction system, which

will in smaller quantities emit GHG such as NO2 and CO2 (but in very small quantities only compared

to a fossil fired power plant).


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Advantages of geothermal energy

Significant Cost Saving : Geothermal energy generally involves low running costs since it saves

80% costs over fossil fuels and no fuel is used to generate the power. Since, no fuel is require so

costs for purchasing, transporting and cleaning up plants is quite low.

Reduce Reliance on Fossil Fuels: Dependence on fossil fuels decreases with the increase in the

use of geothermal energy. With the sky-rocketing prices of oil, many countries are pushing

companies to adopt these clean sources of energy. Burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse

gases which are responsible for global warming.

No Pollution: This is one of the main advantages of using geothermal energy since it does not

create any pollution and help in creating clean environment. Being the renewable source of

energy, geothermal energy has helped in reducing global warming and pollution. Moreover,

Geothermal systems does not create any pollution as it releases some gases from deep within

the earth which are not very harmful to the environment.

Job Creation and Economic Benefits: Government of various countries are investing hugely in

creation of geothermal energy which on other hand has created more jobs for the local people.

Direct Use: Since ancient times, people having been using this source of energy for taking bath,

heating homes, preparing food and today this is also used for direct heating of homes and

offices. This makes geothermal energy cheaper and affordable. Although the initial investment is

quite steep but in the long run with huge cost saving it proves quite useful.

Disadvantages of geothermal energy

Not Widespread Source of Energy: Since this type of energy is not widely used therefore the

unavailability of equipment, staff, infrastructure and training pose hindrance to the installation

of geothermal plants across the globe. Not enough skilled manpower and availability of suitable

build location pose serious problem in adopting geothermal energy globally.

Can Run Out Of Steam : Geothermal sites can run out of steam over a period of time due to drop

in temperature or if too much water is injected to cool the rocks and this may result huge loss for

the companies which have invested heavily in these plants. Due to this factor, companies have todo extensive initial research before setting up the plant.

Suited To Particular Region: It is only suitable for regions which have hot rocks below the earth

and can produce steam over a long period of time. For this great research is required which is

done by the companies before setting up the plant and this initial cost runs up the bill in setting

up the geothermal power plant. Some of these regions are near hilly areas or high up in

mountains.

Transportation: Geothermal Energy cannot be easily transported. Once the tapped energy is

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or oil can be transported to residential areas but this is not a case with geothermal energy.

Also, there is a fear of toxic substances getting released into the atmosphere.

High Installation Costs: To get geothermal energy, requires installation of power plants, to get

steam from deep within the earth and this require huge one time investment and require hiring a

certified installer and skilled staff needs to be recruited and relocated to plant location.

Moreover, electricity towers, stations need to set up to move the power from geothermal plant

to consumer.

Geothermal heating and cooling

The benefits of geothermal energy in the form of heating and cooling has been discovered by

thousands of people worldwide who swear by the comfort it provides and the simplicity of its

operation. Geothermal energy has proven themselves over the decades and several manufacturers

and many contractors provide the competition you need to ensure quality installation and service at

a fair price.

Geothermal heating

A geothermal heat pump is used to harness geothermal energy from inside the earth to heap our

homes or to use that heat for industrial purposes. Geothermal heat pumps are built on the same

basic premise as regular heat pumps. The difference is that the geothermal type draws heat from the

earth instead of from outdoor air. The heat from the earth is considered to be stable and even. In

addition to providing heating for your home, this type of energy can also provide air conditioning and

in most cases, hot water.

In the winter, this process is reversed. The heat pump extracts heat from the relatively warm ground,

usually warmer than the outdoor cold air, and pumps this heat into the conditioned space. This

natural form of heating can also help improve humidity control by maintaining about 50% relative

indoor humidity, making geothermal heat pumps very helpful in humid climates.

Geothermal cooling

Geothermal cooling is a process by which shallow ground is utilized within a system to regulatetemperature. By creating an earth loop of piping through the area outside your home, under the
http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/Advantages_GeothermalEnergy.phphttp://www.conserve-energy-future.com/GeothermalEnergy.phphttp://www.conserve-energy-future.com/GeothermalHeatPumps.phphttp://www.conserve-energy-future.com/GeothermalHeatPumps.phphttp://www.conserve-energy-future.com/GeothermalEnergy.phphttp://www.conserve-energy-future.com/Advantages_GeothermalEnergy.php


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frost line, you can use this for cooling your home. During the summer you will remove the heat

from your home and distribute it back into the earth loop outside your home.

In the summer, the heat pump extracts heat from the conditioned space and sends it out to the earth

loop to warm the relatively cool ground, or pond. This stable temperature is harnessed, using a

geothermal device, to draw heat energy out of a system and thus transfer the cool temperatures intoa warmer area.

The main advantage of geothermal heating and cooling is that it does not use fuel or chemicals to

regulate the temperature. Central air conditioning devices use materials that can be harmful to the

environment. They also create carbon emissions that pollute the atmosphere.

How does the process of cooling and heating takes place?

The temperature of the earth remains

constant around 58 to 60 degrees. Tunnels

dug five to six feet deep or up to four

hundred feet long can help us in driving

the energy and a noticeable decrease of

70% in electric bills occurs. The setup of

these tunnels is quite expensive but if the

process starts then the effective cost

becomes very less in a short period of

time. Actually no matter how much is the

temperature outside, the temperaturedeep down would always be in 50 degrees;

which is very near to the ideal.

It is possible to maintain your home

temperature without spending much

money. The thermostat needs not to be turned up very high or very low in summers and winters

respectively. This geothermal source saves almost 40% of what is spent on other cooling and heating

systems.
http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/Advantages_GeothermalEnergy.phphttp://www.conserve-energy-future.com/Advantages_GeothermalEnergy.php


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Costs of geothermal power

Wells can be drilled a mile or more deep into underground reservoirs to tap steam and very hot

water that drive turbines and electric generators. Because of economies of scale in resource

development and power generation, geothermal power plants supply electricity directly to the grid,

typically operating as base load plants with capacity factors above 90%.


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How does a wind turbine work?

A wind turbine is a machine made up of two or three

propeller-like blades called the rotor. The rotor is

attached to the top of a tall tower. As the wind blows it

spins the rotor. As the rotor spins the energy of the

movement of the propellers gives power

Because winds are stronger higher up off the ground,

wind turbine towers are about 30 meters tall to allow

the rotor to catch more wind energy. The turbines are

built with a device that turns the rotor so that it always

faces into the wind. Just one wind turbine can generate

enough electricity for a single house or the electrical

energy to pump water or to power a mill which grinds

grain. The electrical energy can also be stored in

batteries.

to a

generator. There are some magnets and a lot of copper

wire inside the generator that make electricity.

Wind farmsWind farms are places where many wind turbines are

clustered together. They are built in places where it is

nearly always windy. The electricity that is generated at a

wind farm is sold to electricity companies that provide the

electricity to people living in cities and towns.
http://www.kidcyber.com.au/topics/windenerg.htmhttp://www.kidcyber.com.au/topics/windenerg.htm


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What are the advantages of wind turbines?

They are pollution free.

The energy they generate is renewable. This means that as long as the winds blow there is power

to turn the blades of the rotor. (Another form of renewable energy comes from the Sun. Energy

from the Sun is called solar energy)

Using wind energy means that less fossil fuel (coal and oil) needs to be burned to make

electricity. Burning fossil fuel pollutes the atmosphere and adds greenhouse gases to it. This

pollution is a cause ofglobal warming.

What are the disadvantages of wind turbines?

Some people don't like the look of the turbines. They say that they spoil the look of the natural

environment.

Wind turbines make noise.

Turbines kill birds that fly into them. However collisions are rare and there are reports from

Denmark saying that some falcons had built nests on the top of turbine towers. To protect birds

however, it is important that wind farms be built away from bird sanctuaries and from the

pathways of migratory birds. (Migratory birds are those that fly from cold places in winter to

warmer parts of the world).

Alternative Energy

Offshore Wind Energy Resources

Offshore wind turbines are being used in a number of countries to harness the energy of the

moving air over the oceans and convert it to electricity. Offshore winds tend to flow at higher speeds

than onshore winds, thus allowing turbines to produce more electricity. Much of this potential

energy is near major population (and energy load) centers

Because the potential energy produced from the wind is directly proportional to the cube of the wind

speed, increased wind speeds of only a few miles per hour can produce a significantly larger amount

of electricity. For instance, a turbine at a

where energy costs are high and land-

based wind development opportunities are limited.

site with an average wind speed of 16 mph would produce

50% more electricity than at a site with the same turbine and average wind speeds of 14 mph.
http://www.kidcyber.com.au/topics/solar.htmhttp://www.kidcyber.com.au/topics/climatechange.htmhttp://ocsenergy.anl.gov/guide/wind/index.cfmhttp://ocsenergy.anl.gov/guide/wind/index.cfmhttp://www.kidcyber.com.au/topics/climatechange.htmhttp://www.kidcyber.com.au/topics/solar.htm


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Offshore Commercial Wind Energy Generation

Many offshore areas have ideal wind conditions for wind facilities. Denmark and the United Kingdom

have installed large offshore wind facilities to take advantage of consistent winds. Today, just more

than 600 MW of offshore wind

energy is installed worldwide, all

in shallow waters (


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World and continents capacity

Global capacity

Below you will find the development of global wind energy production capacity:

Year Capacity (MW) Growth (MW) Growth (%)1995 4,800 - -

1996 6,100 1,300 27.1

1997 7,482 1,382 22.7

1998 9,670 2,188 29.3

1999 13,699 4,029 64.3

2000 18,040 4,341 31.7

2001 24,318 6,279 34.9

2002 31,184 6,866 28.3

2003 41,353 10,170 32.7

2004 49,461 8,109 19.7

2005 59,135 9,674 19.62006 74,176 15,041 25.5

2007 93,959 19,783 26.7

2008 121,247 27,289 29.1

2009 157,910 36,664 30.3

2010 194,560 36,650 23.3

2011 236,874 42,315 21.8


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Spain

Production capacities

Current situation about wind energy in Spain

The development of wind energy in Spain is regarded as a

model due to many different circumstances; one of them

is the fact that the installed capacity at the beginning of

2011 of 20,676 MW is only exceeded by three countries:

China, United States and Germany, of much larger

population and area. New 1,515.95 MW were installed in

2010, which were the highest increase across the

European Union. This development has been steady and

regular over the last twelve years thanks to the firm

commitment made during the last two decades both by the Government and by a large business

sector.

The fact that wind power covered 16.6 percent of the electricity demand in 2010 becomes very

important to our country as it is practically an electrical island with a very low interconnection

level. The effort made by the industry, along with the System Operator to integrate into the grid

overcoming some sensitive issues such as the adaptation of the turbines to voltage dips, and

achieving that high level of penetration has no comparison in the world and has become a reference.

But, undoubtedly, the most important feature is that the development of wind energy in Spain has

been accompanied by the creation of a solid industrial basewith more than seven hundred

companies - from large world leaders multinationals to small and medium family businesses-

covering the entire value chain, from components and wind turbine manufacturing, engineering and

consulting companies to those that provide all services to the farms already in operation.

End 1997: 427 MW

End 1998: 834 MW (+95.4 %)

End 1999: 1,542 MW (+84.9 %)

End 2000: 2,535 MW (+64.4 %)

End 2001: 3,337 MW (+31.7 %)

End 2002: 4,830 MW (+44.8 %)

End 2003: 6,202 MW (+28.5 %)

End 2004: 8,263 MW (+33.3 %)

End 2005: 10,028 MW (+21.4 %)

End 2006: 11,630 MW (+16 %)

End 2007: 15,145 MW (+30.3 %)

End 2008: 16,740 MW (+10.6 %)

End 2009: 19,149 MW (+14.4 %)

End 2010: 20,623 MW (+7.7 %)

End 2011: 21,673 MW (+5.1 %)


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The value chain of the wind energy industry can be divided into four big subsectors:

Wind farm developers /energy producers,

Wind turbine manufacturers,

Specific components manufacturers (bearings, gear boxes)

Other attached ser

RES - Task1 - Erasmus 2012 2013.pdf

Documents

Transcript of RES - Task1 - Erasmus 2012 2013.pdf