Profesional Landscaper

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EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 7/22/2012 1:02 PM via UNIVERSIDAD DE MONTEMORELOS9788189940058 ; Stewart, Jerry.; Professional Landscaper : A Complete CourseAccount: lib

First Edition, 2007 ISBN 978 81 89940 05 8 © All rights reserved. Published by: Global Media 1819, Bhagirath Palace, Chandni Chowk, Delhi-110 006 Email: [email protected]



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Table of Contents

1. Basic Principles of Landscape Design

2. Design Methods for Landscape Architecture and Garden Design

3. Planning the Home Landscape

4. Landscape Construction

5. Landscape Engineering

6. Hard Landscape Materials



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Basic Principles of Landscape Design Landscaping combines elements of art and science to create a functional, aesthetically pleasing extension of indoor living to the outdoors. One initial purpose of landscape design is to blend man’s technology (house or building) into the natural surroundings. To work toward a desirable landscape design, the landscape horticulturist must have a working knowledge of art elements and design principles. This publication is intended for the commercial landscaper with little or no training in the use of these basic principles. This publication is not a complete landscape design text.

ELEMENTS OF ART Elements of art include but are not limited to color, line, form, texture and scale. These elements are never independent of each other, but we will discuss their individual natures before considering the interactions.

Color variation can best be explained by use of a color wheel ( Figure 1 ). Primary colors are red, blue and yellow. Orange, green and violet are called secondary colors because they are combinations of two primary colors. For example, yellow and red are combined to yield orange. Tertiary colors are the fusion of one primary and one secondary color. These colors would be between primary and secondary colors.

Figure 1.



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Tint refers to a light value and is accomplished by adding white to the pure color on the color wheel, while shade is a dark value and is created by adding black to the pure color on the color wheel. Black, white and grey are neutrals and are compatible with any color. Light colors and tints tend to attract attention as do bright, vivid colors.

Colors are combined into color schemes for practical applications. Three basic color schemes are monochromatic, analogous and complementary. A monochromatic color scheme consists of different tints and shades of one color and is seldom achieved in its pure form in the landscape. An example of an incomplete monochromatic color scheme would include white and pink flowers with a background of a dark pink and red brick house.

Analogous color schemes combine colors which are adjacent or side-by-side on the color wheel. An analogous color scheme could include green, blue-green, green-blue, blue and violet blue. This color scheme could be achieved by varying the foliage color from green to blue-green or by using pyracantha with orange-red berries against a red brick house.

Complementary color schemes combine colors directly across the color wheel. For example, red and green would be complementary colors. A complementary color scheme may be achieved by using plants with green foliage against a red brick house.

It is possible to have varying color schemes in one area of the landscape as the seasons change. White and pink azaleas flowers can yield a monochromatic color scheme with a red brick house. The green azalea foliage would produce a complementary color for the red brick during the summer. Pyracantha berries would be an analogous color to the red brick in the fall. The landscape designer should



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consider the color changes throughout the year when developing a landscape plan.

Colors can be used to visually change distance perspective. Warm colors and light tints like red, orange, yellow and white advance an object or area toward the observer. These colors and tints placed near the foundation of a house would make the house appear closer to the street. Cool colors and deep shades like blue, green and black recede and can be used to make the house appear farther from the street. Cool colors are restful while warm colors express action and are best used in filtered light or against a green or dark background.

Color can be used to direct attention in the landscape. Due to this strong characteristic, color should be used carefully. When color is used for this purpose, consideration must be given to year-round color not just to seasonal color. Consideration may also be given to the time of day when this color will be enjoyed. White or light tints could be used to create interest on a patio. Dark colors would add little to family enjoyment of this area as the daylight hours passed.

Line is related to eye movement or flow. The concept and creation of line depends upon the purpose of the design and existing patterns. In the overall landscape, line is inferred by bed arrangement and the way these beds fit or flow together ( Figure 2 ). Line is also created vertically by changes in plant height and the height of tree and shrub canopies. Line in a small area such as an entrance or privacy garden is created by branching habits of plants, arrangement of leaves and/or sequence of plant materials.



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Figure 2. Straight lines tend to be forceful, structural and stable and direct the observer’s eye to a point faster than curved lines. Curved or free-flowing lines are sometimes described as smooth, graceful or gentle and create a relaxing, progressive, moving and natural feeling.

Form and line are closely related. Line is considered usually in terms of the outline or edge of objects, whereas form is more encompassing. The concept of form is related also to the size of an object or area. Form can be discussed in terms of individual plant growth habits or as the planting arrangement in a landscape.

Plant forms include upright, oval, columnar, spreading, broad spreading, weeping, etc. ( Figure 3 ). Form is basically the shape and structure of a plant or mass of plants. Structures also have form and should be considered as such when designing the area around them.

Figure 3. Texture describes the surface quality of an object than can be seen or felt. Surfaces in the landscape includes buildings, walks, patios, groundcovers and plants. The texture of plants differs as the relationships between the leaves, twigs and branches differ ( Figure 4 ). Coarse, medium or fine could be used to describe texture but so could smooth, rough, glossy or dull.



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Figure 4. Scale refers to the size of an object or objects in relation to the surroundings. Size refers to definite measurements while scale describes the size relationship between adjacent objects. The size of plantings and buildings compared on the human scale must be considered ( Figure 5 ).

Figure 5.

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN Color, line, form, texture and scale are tools which are used in combinations to adjust design principles. Design principles include unity, balance, transition, focalization, proportion, rhythm, repetition and simplicity. All these principles interact to yield the intended design.

Unity is obtained by the effective use of components in a design to express a main idea through consistent style. Unity is emphasized by consistency of character between units in the landscape. Use of elements to express a specific theme within units creates harmony. Unity can be achieved by using mass planting and repetition.

Unity means that all parts of the composition or landscape go together; they fit. A natural feeling evolves when each activity area belongs to and blends with the entire landscape. Everything selected for a landscape must



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complement the central scheme and must, above all, serve some functional purpose.

Balance in design refers to the equilibrium or equality of visual attraction ( Figure 6 ). Symmetrical balance is achieved when one side of the design is a mirror image of the other side. There is a distinct dividing line between the two sides. Equal lines, forms, textures or colors are on each side of a symmetrical design.

Figure 6. Asymmetrical balance uses different forms, colors and textures to obtain balance of visual attraction. These opposing compositions on either side of the central axis create equal attraction. For example, mass may be opposed by color or linear dimension by height.

The landscape designer must skillfully manipulate the design elements to create asymmetrical balance. The central axis must be predetermined and then developed by the elements of art and other principles of design discussed in this publication.

Transition is gradual change. Transition in color can be illustrated by the radial sequence on the color wheel (monochromatic color scheme) previously discussed. Transition can be obtained by the arrangement of objects with varying textures, forms, or sizes in a logical sequential order. For example, coarse to medium to fine textures, round to oval to linear structural forms, or cylindrical to globular to prostrate plants. An unlimited number of schemes exist by combining elements of various size, form,



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texture and color to create transition ( Figure 7 ). Remember, transition refers to the 3-dimensional perspective of composition, not just the flat or facial view.

Figure 7. It is possible to use transition to extend visual dimensions beyond actual dimensions. For example, radical lines in the private area of the landscape can be used to enframe and/or focalize a lake scene. Transition of plant materials along these lines can make the scene become a part of the landscape ( Figure 8 ). Transition from taller to shorter plants with textural changes from coarse to fine along focal lines emphasizes the beauty of a lake scene. Transition from shorter to taller plants and from fine to coarse textures would enframe the scene and make it appear closer, like a painting on a wall. Generally, transition assists in the gradual movement of a viewer’s eye to the design and within it.

Figure 8. Proportion refers to the size of parts of the design in relation to each other and to the design as a whole. One large towering oak may compliment an office building but would probably dwarf a single story residence ( Figure 9 ). A three-foot pool would be lost in a large open lawn but would fit beautifully into a small private area. And of course, a colossal fountain would dominate a private garden but could enhance a large city plaza.



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Figure 9. Proportion in landscape design usually relates to people and their activities. The desired size relationships of components in a design should pose little problem for the designer who considers this principle routinely in systematic thought processes.

Rhythm is achieved when the elements of a design create a feeling of motion which leads the viewer’s eye through or even beyond the designed area. Tools like color schemes, line and form can be repeated to attain rhythm in landscape design. Rhythm reduces confusion in the design.

Focalization involves the leading of visual observation toward a feature by placement of this feature at the vanishing point between radial or approaching lines. Straight radial lines as in Figure 10 create a strong focalization when compared to curved lines. The viewer’s eye is quickly forced along straight lines to a focal point. Generally, weaker or flowing lines of focalization are desirable in the residential landscape. Transition of plants or other objects along these lines can strengthen or weaken the focalization. Curved lines are stronger when curved toward each other than when curved outward. Indirect focalization is created by lines curved in the same direction. Focalization can be adjusted by plant materials along the lines to create symmetrical or asymmetrical focalization. Asymmetrical focalization is indirect while symmetrical focalization is more direct, creating stronger focalization.



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Figure 10. Since focalization can be used to direct attention to a point, traffic in an area is usually directed to that point. Therefore, focalization could be used to direct traffic in a garden area. Guidance of view toward features of commercial, aesthetic or cultural value may attract the eye of the unaware without conscious effort.

Repetition refers to the repeated use of features like plants with identical shape, line, form, texture and/or color. Too much repetition creates monotony but when used effectively can lead to rhythm, focalization or emphasis. Unity can be achieved better by no other means than repetition. Think of repetition as not having too much variety in the design which creates a cluttered or busy appearance.

Simplicity goes hand-in-hand with repetition and can be achieved by elimination of unnecessary detail. Too much variety or detail creates confusion of perception. Simplicity is the reduction of a design to its simplest, functional form, which avoids unnecessary cost and maintenance.



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Design methods for landscape architecture and garden design Design methods

Technology affects most aspects of our lives, including birth, death, marriage and design methodology. Some of the influences are welcome and others, like pollution, are not. Onthe influence of digital techniques on design methods, and we are optimists. The paper will attempt to set current methods in a broad-brush historical perspective.

1. Pre-1800 design methods Before the industrial revolution, most production was the result of craft evolution. Designers, who were also builders and manufacturers, commonly worked by making an endless series of evolutionary adaptations. The etymology of manufacture (‘made by hand’) reminds us of this history. It was a ‘dirty hands’ approach and craftsmen did not have an academic training. Le Notre was unusual in that he attended an art school in Paris. Capability Brown, like most pre-1800, garden designers learned their trade as apprentices in gardens. They learned to dig and plant before they learned to design and draw.

2. 1800-1900 design methods As a consequence of post-renaissance scientific modernism, there was a shift to the use of drawing boards, calculation and a ‘clean hands’ methodology. James Watt employed this method in the design of steam engines and was excluded from the craft guild, despite his great manual skill. His peers did not see that a man with clean hands could be a ‘master’ of his trade. At a later date it became accepted that the producers of ‘master’ plans required clean hands, and that their drawings would be sent for fabrication by less educated people with dirty hands. We still speak of ‘master bakers’ and ‘master brewers’ and most professions require a ‘masters degree’, conferred by universities on clean-handed scholars. In the built environment professions this led to the production of ‘master plans’. In engineering terms, a master plan is an assembly drawing which explains how components are put together. In the landscape, planning and architecture professions it is a long term development plan, perhaps for a university campus or a new town. Many architects, and some garden designers, served apprenticeships in design offices - not on construction sites.



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3. 1900-1972 design methods Modernists used to say that ‘form follows function’. It was a partial truth. Form is also consequent upon beliefs, technology, social structures and design methods. In the last century, when architecture began to extend its concern beyond ‘churches and mansions’, modernist designers sought to learn from industrial techniques. They hoped to find a new social relevance, to become masters of the built environment and to produce ‘machines for living’. Their drawing-board based design method contributed to the blankness of totalitarian modernism. Jane Jacobs, Charles Jencks and Prince Charles have criticized the results of this approach with regard to planning and architecture. Its consequences for landscape design and planning have received less attention but are even more disturbing. Ugly buildings affect the eye of the beholder. Badly planned and designed landscapes affect the sustainability of urban life. The twentieth century produced too many landscapes with no regard for history, craftsmanship, ecology or the ways in which humans interact with outdoor space. Each decade of the second half of the twentieth century produced blank ‘concrete deserts’ which can be espied from Greenwich Park: the South Bank (1950s), the Barbican (1960s), South Thamesmead (1970s), the Isle of Dogs (1980s) and the Greenwich Peninsula (1990s). All these places have been ‘master planned’, admittedly with diminishing enthusiasm, and no one who visits them can wish the procedure to be repeated. Historic Greenwich is an island of pre-1800 quality in a mudgy sea of urban sprawl. It is no coincidence that these projects were the result of a pseudo-scientific, clean-hands, drawing-board-rooted design method. For landscape architects it was the Survey-Analysis-Design (or SAD) Method. One conducted a semi-scientific Survey; one analysed the results (usually on drawings with jagged lines and arrows); then one performed a creative leap and produced a design. More often than not the design had little relationship to the survey and analysis. The method was not a success.

4. Post-1972 design methods According to Charles Jencks’ joke-date, the post-modern era began at 3.32pm on 15 July 1972. Pruitt-Igoe, which might have been detonated at that moment, was an award-winning example of totalitarian modernism. New architectural styles have developed since then. But there have been few related developments in master planning or landscape architecture. Unaware of being dressed in the concrete jacket of modernism, practitioners have been unable to move forward. The 1990s business parks, retail parks and housing estates within sight of Greenwich Park show post-modern architecture in a modernist structure of geometrical roads, lawns, shrub beds, and underground



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drainage pipes. If one travels to Paris one can find examples of architectural post-modernism applied to park design, but not examples of un-master-planned, post-modern, post-industrial environments. Parc de la Villette is a significant example. Bernard Tschumi made much of his structuralist, deconstructed, layered, approach. But the layers are abstract constructivist geometry. They are not digital layers and they do not reflect an intelligent set of landscape structures. Parc de Bercy takes a step forward, with its use of historical layers, but it shows little inventiveness with regard to natural process or social process layers. As Holden remarks, ‘the functions of the Parc de Bercy are those of the traditional municipal parc… there is not even a café’. But in post-1972 projects we also see the begining of a multi-layered computer-aided approach to design. Hence the death of the master plan and the birth of digitial creativity. Kathryn Gustafson summarized her design method as ‘Words-Diagrams-Models’. The Diagrams and the Models could well be produced digitally.

Digital creativity

Wishing that master-planning had died in 1972, we must hope that digital techniques do as much for outdoor design as dynamite did for modernist architecture. Computers can:

1. Abolish 2-dimensional master-planning 2. Make 3-dimensional design the norm 3. Encourage 4-dimensional design, by simulating changes through time 4. Supply designers with a wealth of factual information 5. Incorporate a full range of values into the design process 6. Impart post-modern structures to the design process, employing intellectual

structures from natural science, social science, the arts and the humanities 7. Facilitate the environmental assessment of projects from many points of view,

including the motorist, the cyclist, the pedestrian, the local resident, the frog, the hedgehog and the buttercup.

Highway design provides a useful example. To begin with everything was done according to the sciences of bearing capacity, frictional resistance, design speeds, horizontal and vertical curves. McHarg wrote a brilliant criticism of this approach, lampooning the responsible engineers as ‘highwayman’. His solution was to introduce a vast range of additional information: on wildlife, hydrology, scenic quality and everything else. But what he ended up with was the path of least resistance. He found the highway route which caused the least damage but not the route which created the most value. His method could never have led to the design of the Champs Elysee, which is



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perhaps the most creative urban design project realized in Europe. Its creative influence has already continued for 300 years. Nor could McHarg’s approach have produced Gold Street in Shaftesbury or the Shambles in York. These wonderful streets were the result of craft evolution. They respond to the knowledge, ideas and habits of generations. Bearing the Champs Elysee and Gold Street in mind, we can see that McHarg is a white-coat modernist. In part, this explains his wide recognition outside the landscape profession. The men and women of science could recognize him as a kindred spirit, integrating their knowledge and applying it to the making of a better world.

Carl Steinitz has developed the McHarg method, as its originator proposed, with the aid of digital Geographical Information Systems. We are doubtful as to whether this gets over the above of criticism McHarg and believe that the different planning contexts of the UK and USA may require different approaches. In the South East of England, there is a great demand for housing land. Government policy and public opinion favour the development of ‘brownfield’ land instead of ‘greenfield’ land and this is a major influence on land allocations. The South East Thames Region will be subject to rapid urbanization. It has much brownfield land of this type and a major a major transport project: the Channel Tunnel Rail Link. The question, therefore, is not so much which land to develop as how it should be developed. We believe that digital techniques have a major role to play and will give examples of the approaches discussed above.

3-Dimensional design

Two-dimensional design-on-paper was a great advance in its time. Use of scales, dividers, rulers and, above all, mathematics, enabled vast projects to be successfully completed. But the method is obsolete. The original jet aircraft were designed on paper but the safety and efficiency of a modern plane could not be achieved without computer-aided 3-dimensional modeling. Digital approaches also enable us to design better buildings and better landscapes. This point can be illustrated but it need not be laboured.

4-Dimensional design

Engineering and architectural design can be distinguished from landscape and urban design by the fact that post-construction completed changes are unlikely to be anticipated during the design process. Urban and rural landscapes, by contrast, are subject to constant evolution. Designers can look to the future but cannot control the future. So the best



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course of action is to use the animation capability of digital techniques to simulate possible future developments.

Information-rich design

As students, most of learned to apply a Survey-Analysis-Design procedure which began with land survey plans. It was a classic social science approach, adapting the methodology which has had such apparent success in the natural sciences. But the information-inputs were thin. We tended to survey the existing site (geology, soils, artifacts etc) and make suppositions about ‘user needs’. Today, the information age is presenting us with a richer harvest of data: textual, numerical and graphical.

Value-rich design

The Survey stage of Survey-Analysis-Design was often limited by the geographical extent of the site. After data-assembly one was expected to make a ‘creative leap’. Image-editing techniques encourage the use of other information resources. Colin Rowe discussed the role of collage in urban design. The technique can be used to assemble ideas from books, from one’s travels and from the whole history of art.

Layered design (& GIS)

A layered approach to design has become popular, for several reasons. First, a concern for the environment, which tends to be analyzed in layers. Second, a response to the philosophy of structuralism. Roland Barthes wrote that:

We know now that a text consists not of a line of words, releasing a single ‘theological’ meaning (the ‘message’ of the Author-God), but of a multi-dimensional space in which are married and contested several writings, none of which is original: the text is a fabric of quotations, resulting



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from a thousand sources of culture.

Third, Jellicoe advised us to consider the ‘transparencies’ of the hunter, the settler and the voyager. Fourth, many computer programmes, including image-editing, CAD and GIS use layered data structures.

Environmental assessment/design

The logic of environmental impact assessment, upon which McHarg was a significant influence, invites us to review the impact of a development on the every social, physical and biological aspect of the environment. This requires a reviews of the environment from many disparate stand points. Layered data can be made available via web-based GIS and interest groups can assess the impacts of development projects from their own points of view. Instead of development projects being assessed only by white, male, middle-class planners, we can embrace the views of ethnic minorities, the young, the old, the dispossessed and every other group. It is a more democratic procedure.

Pattern-assisted design

Kythryn Gustafson summarized her approach to design as ‘words, diagrams, then models’. This lends itself to digitization. Words can be drawn from databases. Diagrams and models gain enormously from digital techniques because it is easy to make the endless minor adjustments which produce good results - in a manner not unlike pre-industrial craft evolution. Turner made a case for pattern-assisted design in City as landscape and two recent books have given further consideration to the use of patterns in design. The Kaplans, in With people in mind advise on the creation of restorative places through the use of Alexander-type patterns. Bell, in Landscape, pattern, perception and process considers the role of social, human and natural patterns in creative design. We believe that digital techniques will, in due course, allow a fully-developed pattern-assisted design procedure.

Conclusion

Let us bid farewell to master planning and the twentieth century with one wave. Both were responsible for some glories and many disasters. Designers can look forward to exploiting the rich information resources which are now available to each desk. Alone,



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the information could make our task more difficult. With computing technology to process the digital information we can put the resources to creative use.



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Planning the Home Landscape

Extension Landscape Horticulturist

A well-designed landscape is a pleasure to the family, enhances a community and adds to the property’s resale value. Landscape design involves much more than placing trees, shrubs and other plants on the property. It is an art which deals with conscious arrangement or organization of outdoor space for human satisfaction and enjoyment. Some of its major goals include:

• Organizing and developing the site for maximum use and pleasure. • Creating a visual relationship between the house and the site. • Reducing landscape maintenance to a practical level. Americans spend tremendous amounts of money “landscaping” their businesses, homes, streets, parks, schools, etc. Much of this money is wasted, however, because of little or no planning. People cannot understand how to landscape until they know why they landscape. There are several reasons why people “landscape”: some think it improves the appearance of their place; others like to grow plants; still others just want their place to look pretty. Too often these landscapes dominate rather than serve. Masses of plants or other materials in the landscape may take up a large portion of the space and leave little room for people.

Then how does the designer arrange space so that people will find it useful, beautiful, meaningful and functional? His methods include:

• Observing and analyzing the habits of the people who will be using the space, including their needs, desires and how much space each of their activities requires.



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• Studying past methods. • Surveying available materials to solve design requirements. • Analyzing the environment of the site including the view in and around the site.

The ecology of the site should be carefully analyzed since it is an important design determinant.

Not all landscaping improves the appearance of a building. The work of an insensitive designer can subdue a building, conceal important features or contradict the architect’s intent. Good landscape design can significantly improve the building’s appearance by adding warmth, liveability and personality. It can also relate a building to its site and environment and give it the desired degree of dominance.

Growth and change separate landscape designs from other arts. Most works of art such as architecture, sculpture and painting look their best when new. Landscape designs, however, are at their worst when new and improve with age. A well-designed landscape will seldom look the same any two months of the year.

The temptation to begin planting immediately is almost overwhelming. Whether you are landscaping a newly-built home or redesigning an existing landscape, the results will be much more satisfying if you plan first. Ideally, you should consult a professional landscape architect on planning, but you can produce good results if you follow these steps.

• Base Plan • Needs • Site • Diagram • Materials • Plants • Landscape Construction • Accessories

Needs List your needs. Observe and consult each family member and consider them in your plans. These needs may include a driveway and turnaround space, off-street parking, play space for children, an outdoor living area, a vegetable garden, privacy from certain areas, windbreaks, etc. There are usually several ways of satisfying every need, and you must decide on the



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most appropriate one for you. The most satisfying landscapes are both practical and beautiful.

Site Study your site. The piece of land you live on is generally referred to as the site. Ideally the selection of the site, placement and design of the house and the landscape development should all be done at the same time. Selecting a site without having some idea of the type of house and landscape development you want would be difficult.



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Go back to the base plan you prepared in step one. Look closely at the problems and opportunities of your particular site. Tape a piece of tracing paper over the plot and prepare a rough sketch:

• Indicate major views from the inside looking out as well as the view on the site itself. Determine whether they are good or bad (for example: a direct view of the neighbor’s trash or an open field of wildflowers).

• Show exposure to summer breezes as well as winter winds. Also, indicate where you need shade.

• Indicate drainage patterns and slope of the land. Also, note any problems such as areas where water stands or needs to be redirected.

• Note the soil type and approximate depth, and have your soil tested. (For further information on soil testing procedures, contact your county Extension office.)

• Remove your tracing paper rough sketch and record this information as neatly as possible on your base plan.

Diagram



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Diagram and place space needs. Again, tape tracing paper over your plot plan and go back to your list of needs from step two. Place needs and activities where they can serve best and provide enough space for each need. (For example: and outdoor living area should be of sufficient size for the use it will receive.) Rather than decide upon the shape of a lawn, terrace or parking area at the beginning, let these forms develop from and reflect the needs listed in the beginning.

The following areas are frequently found in the home landscape. Develop each according to your family’s needs and priorities.



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Work or Service Area. The work or service area can be convenient, orderly and attractive. Lawnmowers, wheelbarrows, tools, insecticides and fertilizers all need to be stored in a dry convenient location. If tool

and equipment space is not already provided, plan for one. Since many service areas are most convenient when adjacent to the garage or carport, consider adding your storage area to an existing wall.

Garbage storage and clotheslines should be near the kitchen and laundry rooms. Allow at least four feet around the clotheslines to keep clothes from rubbing against fences, plants and walls. If only used occasionally, retractable or folding clotheslines may be the most practical.

Service areas can also contain a compost pile or space for cutting flowers and vegetables.

Consider screening the service area from view with either structures or plants to make it an attractive as well as functional part of the landscape.

Recreation or Active Sports Area. Features such as a swimming pool, shuffle board and tennis courts require considerable space and investment. A tennis court is normally 120 x 60 feet and a badminton court is 22 x 44 feet; swimming pools vary in size.



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If some of these facilities are on your list of needs but not practical for immediate installation, you may consider leaving open turf areas that can

be used for badminton, other games and play.

Outdoor Living and Entertaining Areas. Terraces and patios are an integral part of many Texas homes and should be located, if possible, where

they will receive summer breezes and afternoon shade. If sun is a problem, add trees of overhead shading structures.

Outdoor living areas are usually adjacent to living areas of the house where they can easily be served and seen from inside. With the cost of interior floor space at an all-time high, outdoor living areas can economically add entertaining and living space. Even when not in use, well-planned, attractive decks and terraces adjacent to the house give a feeling of added space to interior rooms. Attractive, long-lasting outdoor furniture and accessories (such as water features, sculpture and container plants) can be useful and enrich outdoor living areas.

Some families have several outdoor living areas. Small terraces adjacent to bedrooms, bath areas and dining rooms are becoming more popular. A terrace may be placed away from the home to take advantage of a striking view. good breezes or the shade of an unusually beautiful tree.

Public and Entrance Areas. A large front yard is often a questionable use of land and resources. The parklike expanses found in some of our older



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subdivisions are pleasant but of little practical value. If your lot is small and building codes allow, consider developing the entrance area as a courtyard providing more use area for the family. If street parking is a problem use part of this area for off-street parking. Parking and enclosed front courts can be both attractive and functional.

Provide shade where it will most benefit your home’s energy conservation. Keep plantings simple with shrub masses, groundcovers and flowering trees used to serve real purposes.

Build walks and drives well and have them as direct and convenient as possible. Walks should be a minimum of 3 ½ feet and preferably 4 feet wide. Provide a larger paved area at the entrance, if possible, since people tend to congregate there.

A few container plants, small flowering trees or specimen shrubs help to make the home’s entrance a focal point. Other features which focalize the entrance include architectural accessories such as attractive light fixtures,

street numbers and front doors.

Children’s Play Area. Locate the play area where someone inside the house can easily see it. A sand pile and swing sets are popular as well as paved areas for riding toys, play houses and tree houses. Keep the designs simple and easy to maintain and consider how

the area might be used after the children are grown.



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Materials Referring back to the diagram of space needs, begin finalizing the plan by refining the spaces into definite shapes. Now you are ready to choose materials. Try to choose materials that satisfy as many of your need as possible.

Sometimes non-living materials such as fences are a better choice than living materials such as a hedge. Both materials should provide privacy, but the hedge may require considerable time to grow where the fence provides immediate privacy. Also, if space is limited a fence may be the best solution. Maintenance is also frequently a concern. Usually non-living materials (brick, wood, etc.) require less maintenance than living materials which may require watering, trimming, etc.



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One of the major objectives of good landscaping is to create a visual relationship between the house and the site. If your house is already constructed, you can still do a fine job of relating it to the site. Some of the ways this relationship between house and site may be achieved are:

• Use plants that are found growing naturally on or near the site. • Repeat architectural lines of the house in the landscape - either with plants or

construction such as walls, fences, etc. • Use building materials that blend well in the natural environment or may be found

there (for example: a wood shingle roof for a home on a wooded site or stone retaining walls in an area where the stone is found naturally).

Landscape design cannot be reduced to a series of rules. It may, however, be helpful for the homeowner to keep the following design concepts in mind as the design develops.

• Group plants for emphasis. Group the same plants rather than alternating shrubs or using many individual plants spotted about the property to provide a sense of unity and order.



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• Plant trees for shade. Trees of appropriate mature size should be used so that they will be neither too large nor too small for the house. Deciduous trees can usually be planted closer to the home than evergreens.

• Complement the structure. Do not separate the house from its site by a ring of plants or foundation planting. Plants should compliment the lines of the structure, not set it apart from the site.

• Provide privacy. Instead of planting all the way around the property lines of your site, place screen plantings where they will provide privacy to exposed traffic and neighborhood activity. Use screening materials only where necessary.



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• Soften walks and drives. Walks and drives in most cases serve only as aids in circulating people. When they are lined with hedges, border grass or other materials, they may become too prominent. Use enough materials to soften large areas of paving but allow the lawn grass to meet the pavements in most areas.

• Allow space for ultimate growth. Space shrubs in relation to buildings to allow for natural growth. Generally, no shrub should be placed closer than three feet from the building unless it is a groundcover or a plant which uses the wall for support. Do not be fooled by small plants in the nursery. Know the mature size of all plants you are using and space them accordingly. Plants should compliment, not cover a house. Select plants that require less maintenance.



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• Screen service areas. Service areas should require small amounts of the site. Clothes lines, garbage containers, tool storage, etc. should be placed in a convenient area and screened from the living and viewing areas of the landscape.

• Use native plants. They frequently withstand weather extremes and are usually more resistant to insects and diseases. Native plants can also be important relating a structure to its site.



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Plants Living trees, shrubs, vines, groundcovers, annuals and perennials are usually the most important materials in landscaping. Their selection, placement and maintenance are the main criteria the layman uses to evaluate landscape work. It is extremely important, therefore, to select plants that will serve the function as dependably as possible. For every landscape need there are numerous plants to choose from.

Native Plants. Native plants are rightfully gaining a prominent place in the landscape. Although we have seen an increase in planting and preserving native plant species, we are still a long way from maximizing their potential. Often the native plants are more resistant to drought, insects and disease. If species are selected that are native to the immediate vicinity of the home, there is an additional bonus of visually relating the new landscape to the natural environment.

Unusual challenges for landscaping with native plants can be found in some of our more densely populated areas. Subdivisions around Austin and San Antonio, for instance, are often located in hilly areas to take advantage of views. The ecology of these sites is very delicate with a thin



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soil layer over rock supporting a few small trees such as Texas persimmon (Diospyros texana), live oak (Quercus virginiana), agarita (Mahonia trifoliolata) and sumac (Rhus lanceolata).

If the property owner has a stereotyped concept that landscaping should consist of planting various broadleafed evergreen trees and flowering shrubs, he may clear the site of all the “brush.” Then, after spending considerable time and money trying to provide topsoil, irrigate adequately and reduce soil pH as well as deal with insect and disease problems, the property owner wonders why maintaining the landscape is such a big and expensive job.

With some careful thinning, pruning, transplanting and a few well-placed groundcover areas, the property owners could have an attractive and functional landscape. Builders, developers and homeowners need to evaluate natural growth on the site before destroying it.

Diverse temperatures, topography, soil and rainfall in Texas give every part of the state its own unique character. We can develop more functional and attractive home landscapes by utilizing native plants.

Plant Grouping. Plants are basically used as specimens, in lines, in groups or in masses. Each method creates a different effect. Most landscapes will use all four types of groupings.



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• Specimen or accent: Using plants as specimens is a good way to emphasize a character shrub or an unusually beautiful tree. If used sparingly, accent plants create interest and contrast. Too many specimens, however, result in visual chaos. Flowering trees such as crape myrtles, dogwood and redbuds are often used for accent. Using a specimen plant or small tree near the entrance can help focalize on that area. Container plant specimens are another good possibility for accent if plants and container are scaled to the area.

• Line: Lines of trees, shrubs and other plants can effectively carry the home’s architectural lines into the landscape. Straight or curved lines of tree plantings can shade parking or play areas or serve as a windbreak. Select hardy,

well-adapted plants to form a line since the visual effect can be spoiled if one or a few of the plants are damaged. Also be sure that the same soil, drainage and sun conditions occur along the length of the row since any or all of these factors can significantly affect the plant.

• Group: Grouping is a relatively natural way to use plants. Place several trees, shrubs, etc. fairly close together for a more massive effect. Since plants are often grouped naturally, this is a good method to relate your landscape to the natural environment. Also group container plants for emphasis.



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• Mass: The mass is really just an extension of the group. In mass plantings, individual plants tend to lose identity. Mass plantings are especially useful in relating large buildings to the site since these plantings can be large enough to be in good scale



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Landscape Construction

Use landscape construction. Although most people evaluate the success of a landscape development in terms of the selection and condition of the plant materials, most really well-designed landscapes contain a good balance of construction and plant materials.

Carefully designed and executed paved surfaces, fences, walls, overhead structures and edging materials are not only attractive but also reduce routine maintenance. If possible, when selecting building materials for the landscape, repeat materials and colors already used on the home. Weathered wood, natural stains, concrete and earth tones in brick will usually blend with existing construction materials and relate to the natural environment.

The following drawings contain construction ideas for typical home landscape use.

BRICK



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OVERHEAD STRUCTURE

ON-SITE PARKING



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OUTDOOR STEP DESIGN

IMPORTANT POINTS:

1. Riser + Tread = 21 inches

2. Riser height must not exceed 7 inches.

3. Tread to riser relationship must be consistent over entire length of stairway.

4. No fewer than two steps to avoid an invisible one-step hazard.

5. No more than twenty steps in a group without putting in a landing or rest area.



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EARTH MOLDING. . .

Creates a pleasant view by blocking noise and unsightly views, and it helps facilitate drainage on the site.

DRAINS

BENCHES



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Accessories

Landscape accessories are details which may have no functional purpose, such as surfacing or enclosure, but do have definite visual effects. Accessories also help express individual tastes and preferences. Major accessories, however, should not be afterthoughts; they should be planned as the design evolves. Accessories add character and dimension to a garden, but poorly selected and placed accessories may spoil an otherwise well-designed landscape.

Many landscape accessories are available. Much of what is available, however, has little or no aesthetic value. To determine whether or not to use an accessory in the garden, ask yourself these questions: (1) Does it have practical use? (2) Is it beautiful in itself? (3) Does it fit or relate to the overall landscape design? Probably the most important of these three questions is the last one.

Garden furniture offers a real opportunity to add utility, color and beauty to the landscape. Comfortable and attractive items are now available in a wide variety of low maintenance outdoor furniture. Outdoor furniture must be large enough to be practical and must be in scale with its surroundings. Built-in furniture has the added value of being permanently in place and



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enhancing the overall design. Occasionally the surface of a retaining wall or raised planter can serve as a seating area. The living terrace is the most usual place for outdoor furniture.

An interesting piece of driftwood, tree roots or limbs, boulders or rocks provide interesting substitutes for good sculpture. These items are easily blended with the design and may be readily available.

Birdbaths are often used in home landscapes. To be useful they should be shallow, not exceeding 1 1/2 inches in depth, and contain fresh water. Bird houses and feeders should also be selected on the criteria discussed earlier.

Other accessories, such as stained glass, relief sculpture, outdoor chandeliers and plant containers are finding their way into the well-designed landscape. A stained glass window, partially enclosed in an outdoor area, or a burning outdoor chandelier may be added for interest, illumination and possible insect-repelling qualities. Hanging or conventional container plants can add a great deal of interest. With the current trend to return to natural materials and handmade workmanship there is an almost limitless variety of accessories available for our use. The temptation to "overdo" has never been greater. Like other fine things, garden accessories should be used with considerable restraint.

Outdoor lighting can add a great deal to the attractiveness and usefulness of the landscape. Specialists often recommend two separate lighting systems: one for functional and safety purposes and another designed to be beautiful and interesting. Dimmers, low voltage units and other special lighting equipment have become popular and add versatility to outdoor lighting. When placing outdoor lighting for beauty only the effects of lighting should be seen; the source or fixtures are usually hidden in the ground or in tree branches.

Good landscaping is a major investment in time and money. Many people feel that they obtain double enjoyment by including well-designed outdoor lighting to increase the hours of pleasure from their outdoor environment.



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Description/Purpose

As a landscape designer, your objective is to provide your customer with a design that is

• functional • maintainable • environmentally sound • cost effective, and • visually pleasing

As a businessperson, your objective is also to sell your design. However, most homeowners viewing a landscape design presented in plan view (drawing 1) will have trouble visualizing what it will look like in their yard.

Drawing 1

Landscape designers can use other drawings to compliment the plan view including section, elevation, section/elevation, and perspective drawings. Following are examples of each of these drawings as well as tips on improving drawing speed without sacrificing quality.

Section Drawing

A section drawing shows a cross-section of the site plan, providing a view of the horizontal and vertical dimensions.



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• Easy and quick to do. • Best to use when vertical details need to be communicated: stairs, grade changes,

slopes, etc. • Requires a plan view drawing and the measurement of elevations that you want to

show on your section.

Step-by-Step Process:

1. Place a sheet of paper on your plan view drawing (graph paper is helpful). Draw a base line through the area that you want to show in section. Then, use known vertical information and draw a point on the base line that corresponds to each elevation. In drawing 2, each contour line represents five feet above or below pond level.

Drawing 2

Adapted from Reid 1987 p. 117

2. Construct a series of horizontal lines above and below your base line to represent even increments of vertical change. Then, from the points on your base line, draw a vertical guideline, and connect the dots. In drawing 3, the lowest point is the bottom of the pond at -15 ft., and the highest point is the hill at 25 ft.



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Drawing 3


3. On a clean sheet of paper, trace your elevation line. Then, draw in any corresponding features on the baseline at the correct elevations (drawing 4). Since a section shows only the profile along a cut line, it is not necessary to include features behind the line. If more detail is desired, a section/elevation drawing is a better choice (Reid 1987; Wang 1996).

Drawing 4


Elevation Drawing

An elevation drawing represents a side view of the site plan.

• Elements are drawn as if a person is standing directly in front of the scene with no perspective.

• Elevations show more depth and surface detailing than sections but are not nearly as detailed as perspective drawings.

• Relatively easy to do. • Best to use when a simple structure façade needs to be shown

(Pierceall 1984; Reid 1987; Wang 1996).


1. If something will be built from this drawing, then exact scale is necessary. However, if the drawing is simply for presentation, then scale can be approximated. Drawing 5 is used for presentation and is thus not drawn to exact scale.



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2. After establishing the scale you want to use, lightly sketch in any façade from measurements or from photographs. If there are items to show in front of the façade (such as plants), make sure your lines are light. For quick methods of sketching in structures, see "Tips and Tricks on Improving Drawing Speed."

3. Sketch in any plants you want to show. Be sure to show the height of trees or plants in relation to other plants and to the structure. In your sketches, it is helpful to the client if your drawings represent the plant's approximate shape and growth form (Reid 1987).

Drawing 5

Section/Elevation Drawing A section/elevation drawing shows a cross-section of the landscape plus elements a selected distance beyond the base line (drawing 6).

1. All vertical features are drawn at the same scale. 2. Easy to do. 3. More interesting and informative than either a section or elevation drawing. 4. A good choice for showing vertical elements as they relate to activities and use.


1. Follow all the steps for Section Drawing and Elevation Drawing.



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Drawing 6

Adapted from Wang 1996 p. 95

Perspective Drawing

A perspective drawing presents images as if one is looking through a camera lens (drawing 7).

1. Depth, proportion, and relative distances are included to convey the volume of a space.

2. Most difficult to do, but often the most important in helping clients visualize a space.

3. Line, textures, and shadows are more important in perspective drawings than any other (Pierceall 1984).



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Drawing 7


There are many books that focus in great detail on perspective drawing. True perspectives are drawn to scale and are important for large-scale, high-budget projects. However, for many landscape designers, accurate perspective drawings drawn to exact scale are not necessary. In many cases, all you need to draw is a good likeness of what your plan will look like. Simply learning the basic elements of one- and two-point perspective will give you the tools to create quality drawings that will be extremely important in selling your design.

One-point perspective:

Key aspects of one-point perspective (drawing 8):

• All lines parallel to the line of site converge to one vanishing point on the horizon line (A).

• All horizontal lines that are perpendicular to the line of site are drawn parallel to horizon line (B).

• All vertical lines in the space are drawn vertical in perspective (C).



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Drawing 8



1. One-point perspective is similar to viewing one face of a transparent cube straight on. So, begin by drawing that face as a square (drawing 9).

Drawing 9

Adapted from Ching 1990 p. 110

2. Next, draw a horizontal line (H.L.) through the square that represents the eye level of the viewer. The lower or higher the line is, the lower or higher the viewer is. In drawing 10, eye level is about 5 feet above the ground plane, or the bottom of the square.

3. Establish the center of vision (C.V.) on the horizon line and draw lines from the center of vision through each corner of the square. In drawing 10, these represent the horizontal edges of the cube which are parallel to our central line of sight and which converge at the center of vision. If the center of vision is left of center, then more of the right side of the cube will be seen as in drawing 10. If the center of vision is right of center, more of the left will be seen.



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Drawing 10


4. Determine the depth of the cube. The cube's depth depends on how far away you are. The closer you are, the more you will see of the top, bottom, and sides. The farther away you are, the flatter the top, bottom, and sides will appear. One method to estimate the cube's depth is by using a 45º right triangle. Since the sides of a 45º right triangle are equal, if drawn in perspective, its diagonal will mark off equal segments in perpendicular lines (drawing 11).

Drawing 11


For example, to determine the cube's depth in drawing 12, assume you are standing 30 feet away from the front face of the cube. Then, measure 30 feet (at the same scale as the cube) from the center of vision to a point on the horizon line. This point is the vanishing point (V.P.) for all 45º diagonals receding to the right.



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From the left end of the square's baseline, draw a line to the V.P. This line will cut off a segment of the right-hand baseline that is equal to the front baseline.

If the diagonal vanishing point is moved toward the center of vision, this is equivalent to moving closer to the cube (V.P. 2 in drawing 12) (Ching 1990; Leach 1990).

Drawing 12


Two-point perspective:

Two-point perspective is similar to viewing the corner of a transparent cube. If you can see two sides of an object, then use two-point perspective.

Key aspects of two-point perspective (drawing 13):

• If you establish each side's vanishing point and extend all parallel lines until they reach them, then the angle of the lines will be correct.

• There are two vanishing points (right and left). • There are no horizontal lines except at horizon line, and all parallel lines on the

same plane or object surface vanish to the same vanishing point (Ching 1990; Pierceall 1984).



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Drawing 13


Step-by-Step Process to draw a simple house in two-point perspective:

1. Establish your eye level with the horizon, and draw the horizon line. Then, draw in the near corner of the house. Next, draw in all guidelines (for the top and bottom of the roof and the front and side of the house) making sure to extend the lines to their vanishing point (drawing 14).

Drawing 14

Adapted from Smith 1994 p. 42

2. Establish the center of the sides by drawing 2 diagonal lines from corner to corner. A perpendicular line through the point at which they intersect indicates the centers (drawing 15).



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Drawing 15


3. Draw in the top and bottom of the windows, and extend the lines to the same vanishing point (drawing 16).

Drawing 16


4. Sketch in the position of the door and windows, using the lines of the roof and horizon as a guide. The basic outlines of your house are finished (drawing 17). On a clean sheet of paper, trace the house lines and add in the details (Smith 1994).



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Drawing 17

Adapted from Smith 1994 p. 42-43

Perspective Points to Remember

• Size: with two identical objects, the one further away will appear smaller, and the one closer appears larger (drawing 18). With two objects of differing sizes, the larger one appears closer and the smaller one appears further away.

Drawing 18

• Overlapping: an object in front of another creates an illusion of depth (drawing 19).



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Drawing 19

• Vertical location: the higher an object is in a picture plane, the farther away it appears (drawing 20).

Drawing 20

• Aerial perspective: objects look lighter in tone the farther away they are from us (drawing 21).



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Drawing 21

• Texture: a surface texture receding into the distance will gradually show less detail (drawing 22)(Ching 1990).

Drawing 22

Tips and Tricks on Improving Your Drawing Speed

You can speed up the process of creating elevation or perspective drawings by using photos of a site using a slide projector, LCD projector, computer scanner, or overhead projector.


1. Take photographs of the areas of your site that you want to show in a drawing.



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2. Depending on the equipment you will use, have the photos made into slides, clear overhead copies, or transfer them to graphic files by using a scanner or digital camera. (The fastest way is to use a digital camera when taking the photos).

3. Enlarge the photos so that you can trace the important elements in them. If you are using a slide, overhead, or LCD projector, set up a screen onto which you can place your paper, and adjust the size and focus of the image onto your paper. If you are using an enlarged paper copy of your photo, using a lightbox will help you see the photo's images.

4. Trace the essential edges and objects. Sketch in plants or other objects from your base plan that do not appear in the photograph. Remove the paper and add in shadows and textures to make your drawing look more realistic.

Additional Tips:

• Take photos of your plan view drawing at various angles to simulate a bird's eye view. When taking the photos, frame the plan to fill the camera's viewfinder. Follow steps 3 and 4 above.

• Develop your own library of landscape graphics to use in elevation, section and perspective drawings. If you see a graphic that you like, use it! For some ideas, see http://www.sustland.umn.edu/design/index.html.

• Practice: by practicing your drawing skills, your speed and ability will improve.

In drawing a completed landscape design, designers use graphics and symbols, rather than words, to show many of the various components of the plan. Different graphics are used to indicate different types of plants, such as evergreens, deciduous trees, or groundcovers. Hardscape materials, such as brick, flagstone, and decking are also shown with different groups.

There are an endless number of different graphics that can be used to depict plants and hardscapes. What follows are some possibilities:



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Profesional Landscaper

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