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Petroleumby Philip W. Bishop

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published forThe Museum of History and TechnologySmithsonian Institution

Smithsonian Institution PressCity of Washington1969


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MURAL OF THE OIL INDUSTRYpainting In the h o ll o f petroleum In the Smithsonian Institution's

and Technology was painted by Deloert L. Jackson, staff illustratoran Petroleum Corporation.

Petroleumby Philip W. Bishop

Centr?| C*9f

published forThe Museum of History and TechnologySmithsonian Institution

Smithsonian Institution PressCity of Washington1969


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Contents4 Hall of Petroleum, a description4 Oil-Field Geology

Photogeology4 Exploring for Oil

Seismic InstrumentsGravity MetersMagnetic MethodsUsing Geophysical Data

7 Oil and the Oil Reservoir8 Exploring by Drilling9 How an Oil Well is Drilled

13 Completing and Evaluating the Well14 Raising Oil to the Surface15 Well Stimulation15 Refining Oil19 Natural Gas and Petrochemicals21 Distribution and Use22 Glossary25 Catalog of Exhibits

in the Hall of Petroleum30 Acknowledgments31 Suggested Reading

Library of Congress catalog card number 68-55303Standard Book Number 87474-095-9Designed by Louise HeskettSmithsonian Publication 4751


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NOV 2 2 200C

is a temptation to compare theindustry with its mirror image,exploration, for both reach into

unknown, the one toward infinity andother into the dark obscurity of

rock. In many ways, those whoore the firmament of heaven are

off than the well-drillers, becauseof astronomical study havea formula for celestial navigation

will guide the hardware, onceis launched, with spectacular precision.

drill bit is, indeed, guided by someinformation but, for the most

drilling for oil remains an exercise ofthe layman may call sophisticatedand error.

ne writer on the petroleum industry,W. Ball, entitled his book This

Oil Business. When it isthat in little more than a century,

use of oil has grown so that nearlyof the energy now consumed

the United States is deriveddirectlyindirectlyfrom oil and from its sister

natural gas, and that most of thishas taken place in the last forty

it is, indeed, a fascinating business.The industry is composed of many firms,

very large and others small, but all

are faced with risks which are almostunique in business experience. Petroleumis one of the few industries in which anenormous investment must be made withonly the minimum assurance that eventhe costliest exploratory drilling venturewill result in any product to sell.The petroleum industry as we know it

today is usually reckoned to be just overone hundred years old, though, in fact,some of the roots of its technology go backmuch further. The evolution of thetechniques applied has been the result,mainly, of an infinite number of smallimprovements, most of them developed onthe job to solve the immediate problems.The patent registers are filled withinventions, but neither the dates on thepatents nor their technical claims areclear and unequivocal evidence of theorder and extent of their application inpractice. It is only in recent years that theUnited States has taken a positive interestin its technological history and, by the timethe necessary investigations began, thephysical evidence had largely disappearedwith the pioneers in the industry. It isalmost incredible, for example, that no one

Words and phrases in boldface aredefined in the Glossary'cohimencingon page 22. ... \| '--... '.;

is able to say precisely how the firstcommercial oil well was drilled in 1859 atTitusville, Pennsylvania.The preparation of a permanent

exhibition recording the history and thetechnology of the petroleum industrypresented great problems. The hall ofpetroleum in the Smithsonian Institution'sMuseum of History and Technology doesnot claim to be as comprehensive andexplicit as the subject warrants. It wasprepared with the best available technicaladvice to give the public some conceptionof the involved nature of the processes offinding and producing oil and itspreparation for consumptionwhether byautomobiles, airplanes, power stations,household furnaces, or the petrochemicalindustry. If the hall can increase thepublic's knowledge of and respect for thetechnical skill and know-how of those whomake this energy available, it will haveserved its purpose. A suggested readinglist on page 31 may encourage the curiousto explore deeper.The hall of petroleum, due to space

limitations, deals only with the history andtechnique of the industry within thecontinental United States excludingAlaska. Since American technology and,in large measure, American equipment areused in most of the world's oil fieldsVenezuela, Arabia, the Persian Gulf, or theNorth Seathe equipment and processesdescribed may be considered as typical ofthose used in the Western world.


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of Petroleum,a description

the hall from the main axis offirst floor, one is confronted by a large

in which the painterhimself an oilhas depicted most of the activities

in the finding and production ofThis mural, reproductions of

are available, serves as a key to theof the hall.

In front of the mural is a rotary drillingused originally to drill water wells in

and, later, to drill shallow oil wells.horse-powered machine called the

rig, is believed to be one of theest surviving examples of a rotary-

system.Adjacent to the introductory mural is a

relief map of the United Statesshows the statistical growth of the

including crude-oil and natural-production and proved reserves. A

of the columns on the mapdramatic evidence of the

of oil-finding technologyafter the doldrums of the 1920s

scientistsincluding those of theInstitutionwere confidently,

despondently, forecasting the exhaustionAmerica's oil resources within a fewAn alternative entrance to the hall from

hall of nuclear energy, currently inbrings one to a detailed scale

of a modern rotary-drilling rig anda brief history of the development ofgasoline dispensing pump, culminating

a modern blending pump.A series of ship models shows the

of the oil tanker from the smallto the modern giants. Here, thereview of the industry's technologyThe arrangement of the hall is

and deals with the followingof the industry:

The geology of the oil regions.Exploring for oil, showing how the

geophysicist locates areas in which furtherexploration by drilling can be recommended.

The nature of oil and of the reservoir.The methods of drilling and their

development, including drilling offshore.How the well is completed and evaluated.Raising the oil to the surface.Stimulation of the well by artificial

means.Refining oil.Natural gas and petrochemicals.Distribution of oil products to the

consumer.

Oil-Field GeologyDrilling in the United States began in thesearch for water and salt. The firstcommercial oil well was drilled forColonel Drake by salt-well drillers, whoseearlier discoveries of brine were oftenaccompanied by petroleum, an occurrencewhich, at first, was not welcome. Oil wasalso often observed in the form of surfaceseepages and used for medicinal and otherpurposes. Oil from seepages was given itsfirst known scientific examination byProfessor Benjamin Silliman, Jr., of Yale.His report led eventually to the firstsuccessful, deliberate drilling for oil atTitusville, Pennsylvania, on August 27 and28, 1859.Within a year after Colonel Drake's

success at Titusville various theories wereadvanced concerning the geologic sourceof oil. The so-called anticlinal theory,associating oil accumulations withflexures [bending] of the strata, firstadvanced in 1860, was not immediatelyaccepted. Its proponents did not recognizethe necessary consequence of such atheory, namely that the anticlines wereone of the conditions that preceded theformation of what is called a structuraltrap. These and stratigraphic traps formedby distortions of many kinds in the rockformation or as the result of erosion and

deposition processes during the longgeologic ages, are the principal objectivesof modern exploration methods to whichscientific knowledge began to be appliedin the early 1920s.

PhotogeologyUntil comparatively recently, oil fieldgeologists have been obliged to examinea terrain the hard wayon foot, throughforests, over mountains and along rivervalleys. By combining their observationsof the nature of rock outcrops and of thesurface contours of the land, they couldfind places where they felt it might beworthwhile to undertake a detailedexploration. The cost of such fieldexaminations was often disproportionateto the results achieved.Since about 1925, improvements in

cameras and the development of aerialphotography for map making brought abouta tremendous change in oil exploration.Stereoscopic pictures opened up a whollynew field of possibilities, for they showedthe surface indications which accompanycertain of the substrata formations ofinterest to the oil geologist. Aerial surveysof a terrain known to overlay sedimentaryrocks can reduce ground-survey expense.Location for instrument surveys can bepinpointed, and detailed geophysicalexploration can be planned.

It should be noted that airbornemagnetometer surveys can also be made.They trace only the depths of the basementrocks and so give merely a probability asto the general arrangement of thesedimentaries. Aerial photographs are alsoeffective for locating possible oil-bearingstructural traps.

Exploring for OilSome people still believe that it is possibleto locate minerals and fluids in the earth'scrust by using a divining roda forkedbranch, usually of hazel, which, if held in


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way by the right person twiststowards the concealed resource.

dea goes back to Biblical times,modern geophysics began its

about one hundred years agooil industry, less than fifty.

methods used by geophysicists todaytheir roots in 17th- and 18th-century

The magnet was used as early asdiscover ore bodies in Sweden andneedlean adaptation of thewas used to locate similarin Wisconsin as late as 1915. The

the pendulum to study variationsgoes back to 1672. Studies of theconductivities of rock began

1720, while sophisticated studies ofwhich led ultimately to the

of seismographs to exploration,from the 1760s.

methods were not applied to thefor oil until after World War I.

with the beginning of the massof automobiles, fear developed

underground supplies of oil wereexhausted. The Smithsonian'sreport of 1919 publicized the

opinion of many that: We havethe peak of our petroleum

and consumption has overtaken. .

.

first applications in the Unitedof the three principle methods of

for oil prospects are generallyas follows, though it is impossibleprecisely which of them is entitled

distinction of being first in the

the Schmidt magnetometeravailable for field work, but directis lacking as to its first use in

work.E. de Golyer first investigated

surveys to search for petroleum.work became possible after 1922Suss gravity meters became available.the first commercial applicationrefraction method of seismicion occurred. The Nash dome in

gulf-coast area was located inay in 1924. The first applications of

method of seismic surveyingin 1927 and 1928.

The first systematic investigation of aregion using seismic methods appears tohave been that of Ludwig Mintrop in 1924.

Seismic InstrumentsAn earthquake, due to a sudden movementin the earth's crust, sets up a series ofshock waves; and before World War I, ithad been noticed that different rockstransmitted the shock waves at differentrates.During World War I, Dr. Ludwig Mintrop

and his associates undertook to locateartillery emplacements by the use ofseismic instruments and, as a result,secured a basic patent in 1919 for atechnique using artificially induced shockwaves. This was applied in 1924 in a Texasoil field and the instrument used in thissurvey is now in the SmithsonianInstitution. It proved successful in locatingshallow salt domes, the low velocities ofthe surrounding rocks contrasting stronglywith the high velocities from the intrudingsalt.These studies were based on the

refraction technique. The explosion of acharge of dynamite sets up vibrations inthe earth. These penetrate the strata toan area of different density, travel for atime in a direction parallel to thisformation, and then return to the surface.Measurement of the travel time at variousobservation points enables the observerto construct a map of the refractingsurface. An alternative procedure wasdeveloped by J. C. Karcher and others.They relied on the observation of thetravel times of reflected seismic waves;that is, waves which are returned directlyfrom a reflecting horizon. One of Karcher'searly instruments is shown in the hall, aswell as examples of modern detectorscapable of recording a seismic movementin the earth as small as one 10-millionthof an inch.Seismic surveying continues to occupy

a most important place in the search foroil. In 1966 as much as 90 percent of theoil industry's world-wide geophysicalactivity was conducted by this type ofsurvey.

1. An exploration crew sets off an explosivecharge in a small hole as part of a hunt for oil.A field seismograph picks up underground vi-brations from the explosion. Study of thisinformation helps oilmen decide whether theunderground structure might possibly containpetroleum. Drilling a well, however, is the onlysure test. (Photo courtesy of Texaco, Inc.)

FILM RECORD

2. Shock waves from explosive charges traveldownward and are reflected back to the surfaceby successive rock formations. As the wavesreturn, they are picked up by geophones and theimpulses recorded. Geophysicists can learn fromthese records the general characteristics of theunderground structure. (Diagram courtesy of theAmerican Petroleum Institute.)


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Metersconnection between the swing of a

and gravity has long interestedIn the 17th century it wasthat the time of the swing of

pendulum can vary from place toon the earth's surface, but not untilcenturies later was the possibility of

gravity measurements to geologicalrealized. A pioneer in theof the method to oil prospect-

was the late Everett Lee de Golyer, aRegent of the Smithsonian

who made use of the torsiondeveloped by F. Suss of Hungary

the designs of Roland von Eotvos, aphysicist. This instrument relied

the principle that a suspended weightbe deflected by a large force of

and so may not hang verticallythe surface.The effectiveness of the gravity techniquelocating geological anomalies was first

demonstrated in the Nashof Texas between 1924 and 1926.

used by scientists to measuregravityillustrated by the Gulfshown in the hall of physical

in the Museum of History andhave been modified in variousto produce equipment capable oftransportation in rough territory while

extreme accuracy. A number ofinstruments have been collected tothe achievements in these directions.

Variations in gravity arise from theof an area and the varying

of the materials of the earth.sensitive gravity meters it is possible

relate the changes in gravitational pullchanges in the underlying structuresthus indicate the presence of sub-

face areas where oil may have

Methodsmethods of surveying derive

the study of the behavior of theThe earth's magnetic field is not

3. The flying magnetometer suspended from the airplane measures and records variations in theearth's magnetic field. From this information, geophysicists can obtain clues to the location ofrock formations which might contain petroleum. Sedimentary rocks, where most oil is found,generally have low magnetic properties compared to other rocks. (Photo courtesy of the AmericanPetroleum Institute.)

evenly distributed and it is also affectedby the variations in the magnetic qualitiesof the various rocks which form the earth'scrust. Measurement of these variationsgives the geophysicist information fromwhich the location and disposition of thebasement rocks can be mapped and henceby inference, the lie of the sedimentaryrocks. The method is used for preliminarysurveys before more detailed studiesleading to the location of underlyingstructures of granite and igneous rocks.The first tool used in magnetic surveying

was the dip needle which in a simple formhelped early prospectors to discover orebodies. It was not used in oil prospecting,but its adaptation by Schmidt anddevelopment by Askania in 1914 and 1915,led to an instrument which was portableand capable of measuring small magneticanomalies. Means were devised to recordthese variations photographically and,when electrical circuits were substitutedfor moving components, airborne magneto-meters could be introduced. Developedbetween 1936 and 1941, these can measurethe earth's magnetism from elevations of5,000 to 10,000 feet and so provide valuablepreliminary data covering large areas ina relatively short space of time.

Using Geophysical MethodsGeophysical surveying of oil fields hasattained highly sophisticated levels, andits results are given intensive study as aguide in selecting drilling sites. The

combination of information from thesesurveys and the more revealing informationderived from actual drilling permits theconstruction of models with which thereservoir engineer can study in detail thesubsurface structures. One such model hasbeen given to the Museum. Constructed bythe engineers of the Skelly Oil Companyof Tulsa, it shows the structure of theVelma field in Oklahoma and was used todevelop methods to recover additional oilfrom the Sims Sand. It provides aninteresting contrast with an earlier model,derived from drilling data only, whichshows the geological characteristics of theoil-bearing areas beneath the Gulf ofMexico. This information was accumulatedand the model constructed during thedrilling of an area around Creole No. 1,the first well to be drilled offshore inthe gulf.There is no substitute for drilling to find

out what lies beneath the surface of theearth. In some areas, drilling operationshave been so extensive that it makespossible the visualization of sections ofthe earth's crust above the basementrocks. Such a map has been prepared bythe Humble Oil and Refining Company andpresented to the Museum. This extensivecross-section covers the whole state ofTexas, on to Shreveport, Louisiana, andthence south through the delta of theMississippi River. Noting the locationsfrom which oil and gas are being produced,it provides a fascinating assembly of dataon the sedimentary rocks and theirstructure in one of the most prolific oil-producing areas in the world.


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and the Oil Reservoir

geologic age to age, the waters ofocean have alternately covered and

from land areas. During each ofperiods, the land-drainage systemsdown to the seas as sedimentaryanimal and vegetable debris ofAt the same time, the abundant

life also contributed to thisof material within the

It is generally believed thatof this debris provided the

material for the formation of petroleumoccurs naturally as crude oil, itsimportant state, or as natural gas (a

vapor).sedimentary rocks containing this

were originally laid down in morehorizontal layers. These, over theages have been covered, subjectedshifted, distorted by seismic

of the earth's crust, andby climatic conditions so that the

of any single period are likelyin widely scattered areas. Those

geologic periods are equallyso that, no matter how simple

concept of the accumulation oftheir discovery and examination

present formidable problems to theand geophysicist. In the hall ofthere is a model based on maps

by Schuchert and others whichthe location of the ancient seasvarious geologic periods.

the origin, the crude oil andgas often associated with it have

over a long period of time.are not found in underground lakes orbut in porous and permeable rock

connected cavities andthrough which fluids and gases

move, but which are invisible to theeye. These rocks are in areas called

and stratigraphic traps, fromthe escape of the oil and gas hasblocked off by denser, nonpermeableThese storage areas are known as oil

reservoirs. Finding oil is made moredifficult by the fact that the porous andpermeable rock may prove barren, becauseits earlier content has migrated toanother section of the formation.

Drilling a well is only the first stage in acomplicated and costly process designedto induce the oil to flow from a reservoirto the borehole through which it can beraised to the surface, sometimes by pent-upnatural pressure, more often by some kindof pumping. The petroleum engineer isfaced with a number of variables which hemust study before he can estimate how fastthe oil will reach the borehole and whatsteps he must take to accelerate itsprogress. Various phases of this problemare demonstrated in the hall. The generalaspects are dealt with in two unusualmodels. One shows precisely how the oilemerges drop by drop from a sandstoneinto the borehole. This model wasdesigned and built by a firm specializingin the analysis of core samples takenfrom the well as it is drilled. It isconstructed from an authentic sandstone,drilled by conventional rotary tools, andcross-sectioned to show the flow of oil.While the natural pressures are simulated,it can be said that what becomes visibleis in fact a glimpse of events occurring inthousands of oil wells, some almost fivemiles deep.

Before they are penetrated by the drill,the oil-bearing strata are subject to variouspressures, including those from the upperlayers of rock. Frequently, often milesaway, the sandstone layer is exposed at thesurface of the ground as an outcrop andthe accumulated water in its pores pressingdownward pushes the oil ahead of it untila concentration of oil is blocked bynonpermeable rock. This pressure action issimilar to the pressure supplied by thefamiliar water tower in a small citywater system.What happens in the reservoir in terms

of the flow of oil is thus determined bythe porosity and permeability of the rockand by the gravity and viscosity of the oilitself. Oil exists in a great variety offorms, ranging from a fluid approachingwater in appearance and behavior to a

heavy, sluggish substance that hardlyseems to move at all.

All of these factors are elements in theproblems confronting the petroleumengineer once an oil-bearing stratum hasbeen discovered. If, as is usual, gas existsin association with the oil or is dissolvedin it, the engineer is faced with specialproblems affecting the organization ofrecovery methods. The petroleum engineermust be prepared, therefore, to cope withhigh-pressure gas or water, or both.A unique demonstration in the hall of

petroleum illustrates the nature of thereservoir and some of the problemsconnected with it. This model is based onmethods used in the research laboratoriesof an oil company to study the behaviorof the reservoir. It was constructed inthose laboratories and, using oil, gas, andwater in a formation constructed fromminute glass beads, it permits the viewerto see what occurs in a reservoir that hasbeen penetrated by a borehole. The viewercan study the movement of the oil to thedown-hole pumps under the influence ofthe pressure of gas in the formation. Asthe pressure is exhausted, the movementof oil through the formation is increased bypumping water under pressure into theformation. The use of waterflooding toincrease the amount of oil recovered froma formation is discussed on page 15.

... & /, J8*'j* 03poundpefsq.iit\V per loot ol depth

4. Normal gradient water pressure in an oilreservoir. The pressure of the water column inthe sandstone formation at right assists the oilto rise to the surface. (From a sketch by John E.Eckel. Humble Oil & Refining Company.)


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1926 blowout by the Rio Bravo Oil Company near Spindletop, Beau-Texas. Accidents like this are now rare. (From Spindle-top byA. Clark and Michel T. Halbouty, 1952, Random House, Inc., New

Photo courtesy of the authors.)

6. Blowout preventer on an offshore well. The equipment is seen in itslocation below the drilling floor. (Photo courtesy of Humble Oil &Refining Company.)

by Drilling

in an area not previously drilled foror known to have produced it is calledThe place where drilling is

is usually determined by surveysreveal likely geologic deviations.

convincing this exploratory data,drilling of a wildcat is full of risk. Infor example, 90 percent of such wells

in the United States proved to beholesa sufficient indication of the

in discovering the formationdoes contain oil.progress of a wildcat is followed

great care. From time to time, specialand auxiliary tools are used to cut outcylinders of the rock. These cylinders,

called cores, are sent to special laboratoriesfor examination. The cores shown in the hallof petroleum appear dry and unproductive;actually, they contain oil which can onlybe observed by careful study and analysis.Another source of information is found

in the chips of rock brought to the surfacein the drilling fluid. These are carefullyscreened from the fluid and examined byspecialists. They may contain fossils whichwill provide a guide to the age of theformation as well as indicating a possi-bility that the formation has, or once had,oil in the pores of its rocks. The core drillfinally provides complete data on theactual rocks to be found beneath thesurface and the completion of a series ofsuch wells enables the reservoir engineerto construct, in effect, three-dimensionalmaps of the subsurface area.

Periodically, the formation being drilledis under an abnormally high pressure.Drilling into the formation withoutadequate controls may result in the suddenexpansion of the gas causing any fluidspresent to rush to the surface. The old-time gusher is a case illustrating suchconditions. The possibility of a spectacularoutpouring of oil, as seen in theaccompanying photograph, has beenalmost entirely removed by the scientificdevelopment of drilling fluids ( muds ) and,as a last resort, by the use of a blowoutpreventer. The latter is a complicatedmechanical contrivance that permits thedriller to shut off a well which exhibitsunexpected increases in pressures. Suchequipment is accompanied by other deviceswhich provide, in effect, a warning againstblowouts.


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an Oil Well is Drilled

art of drilling was borrowed by the oilfrom those who drilled for water

borings to discover the natureextent of mineral-bearing strata. In the

States, there appears to be a directbetween the first commercial

well and those who had for seventy oryears before drilled to find salt

Little is known about the evolutiontechnique used in this country1859. (Fortunately, a definitiveof drilling is being prepared by

E. Brantly under the sponsorship of thePetroleum Institute. Publication

in 1969.) A completeof the kicking-down method

by the Ruffner brothers in the Kanawhaof what is now West Virginia during

1807, and 1808 has survived in The OilDriller (Weston, West Virginia, 1902)

C. A. Whiteshot. By 1859 when Colonelhired Billy Smith to drill his well at

Pennsylvania, newer methodsthe use of steam power were

While it has been possible toa reasonably accurate picture

the Ruffners' kicking down a well, thenature of Smith's technique is stillfor controversy. That the use of

engines was not necessarily gen-accepted or available, even in 1859,

indicated by the fact that long afterDrake's discovery, wells were

down.years following Drake's discoverythe gradual evolution of the cable-tool

the essential parts of which werebeam to provide the motion

enabled the drill bits to crush theand a temper screw for gradually

the tools as the depth increased.derrick supported the gear with whichtools could be withdrawn from the holethat it might be bailed and the rock

removed.drilling has persisted in spite

the increasing efficiency of the rotarybut its use is generally confined

7. The first commercial oil well, 1859. This model in the Museum collection suggests the methodused by Colonel Drake to drill his well at Titusville, Pennsylvania.

to those softer rock formations wherethere is little chance of high-pressure gasor other formation fluids.

After about 1895, the oil industry begandrilling with the rotary system. The basicelements of such a system are a drillingmachine using a rotating tool, hollow drillrods, and circulating fluid to remove thecuttings. The earliest patent reference isthat granted in 1844 to Robert Beart ofGodmanchester, England. By 1901, rotaryequipment had attained some sophisticationand was, in effect, publicized with thesuccessful drilling of the Spindletop wellin Texas by Captain Anthony Lucas, but itwas some years before improvements inthe system were perfected to the extentthat it really began to replace cable-tooldrilling. After 1928, the development of theimportant oil fields in Oklahoma, Texas,and California required equipment capableof drilling to great depths, while thecompetition among producers demanded

increasing speed of drilling. The periodpreceding World War II was, therefore, oneof intense engineering development inwhich many problems, such as evolutionof adequate drilling fluids ( muds ), hadto be solved. The vast expansion of thedemand for petroleum products after thewar led to even greater improvements inthe equipment and techniques.The Smithsonian exhibit includes a

simple, one-horsepower rotary rig. Itincorporates a device, called a grip ring(credited to C. E. Baker), through whichthe rotary motion of the drilling table wastransmitted to the hollow pipe to whichthe bit was attached. Also on display isequipment that is similar to that used indrilling the spectacular Lucas well atSpindletop. These two exhibits are quiteinadequate to describe the evolution ofthe massive gear now used to drill todepths of almost five miles into the earth,but the essential elements are visible in a


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r

Museum model of a modern oil derrick and drilling rig.

9. THE MUD SYSTEM.

The diagram shows the path taken bythe drilling fluid in circulating throughthe well. From the slush pumps (A)the fluid goes to the swivel (B), fromthe swivel down through the kelly(C), through the drill stem (D) to thebit (E). At the bit, the drilling fluidwashes the cuttings from the bit and

^-^

the bottom of the hole and carriesthem back to the surface through theannulus (F). At the surface, a pipecarries the cuttings in suspensionthrough a shale shaker (G), which re-moves the cuttings from the drillingfluid. From the shaker, the drillingfluid goes to the mud pit (H) and thewhole cycle is begun again.

(Diagram courtesy of Petroleum Ex-tension Service, University of Texas.)

fine scale model of a modern rotary rigillustrated on this page.The drill bits first used in rotaries were

adaptations of those used in cable-tooldrilling, taking into account that the rotarybits now were expected to remove rock inthe hole by cutting rather than by poundingand crushing. By 1908, Howard R. Hugheshad perfected the first practical rock bitspecially adapted to rotary work. It was inthe form of three intermeshed cones.Concurrent with tool development was

the evolution of effective drilling fluids( muds ), and early rotaries made use ofthe mud produced by the traffic in thevicinity of the rig. Circulated down thedrill pipe, through the bit, and pumpedback to the surface, the mud acted as alubricant for the tool and brought thechippings from the hole. Later researchshowed that the composition of the mud


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.

10-11. These oil-field roughnecks demonstrate someof the skill, strength, and teamwork that go into drill-ing a well. The crews are preparing to pull some drillstring from its hole in the ground, an operation re-quired each time it is necessary to change the drillingbit. Roughnecks can pull 1,000 feet of pipe from theearth in a matter of minutes. (Photo on left, courtesyof The Orange Disc, Gulf Oil Corporation; photoabove, courtesy of Humble Oil & Refining Company.)

be varied to give it weight enoughback high-formation pressures, to

seal up the formations and to preventloss of drilling fluids into these

as well as to speed up morethe drilling. Modern techniques

the use of additives to vary theviscosity, strength, density, and

properties of the mud to meet theconditions of the well.

appropriate times during the drillinghole, special tests are run for the

of evaluating the prospects foroil. This technique has its origin

work of Conrad and MarcelUnder their method,

capable of measuring theresistivity of formations were

into a borehole and readings wereat the surface on simple recorders.

the mid-1930s, electrical logging had

become a popular method for providingdata on the formations surrounding a well-bore. Later, nuclear logging which measuresradioactivity in rocks, either natural orinduced, became another widely acceptedmethod.Logging devices lowered into the hole on

electrical cables now produce what are, ineffect, pictures of subsurface conditionsfrom which the trained observer can obtainsignificant information about the nature ofthe rocks and their relative positions, theirporosity, and their natural radioactivity.

Drilling into the earth is, in spite ofmodern survey methods, speculative in thesense that all the conditions to beencountered as the drill descends cannever be known in advance. Various devicesare used to discern changes in pressureand temperature other than those regardedas normal. It might be added that, in

genera], pressure is expected to rise by0.47 pounds per square inch for every footof added depth; and temperature in thedrill hole increases by 1 F. for every 100feet drilled. The danger of a sudden rushof fluid and/or gases to the surface has tobe anticipated. The use of blowoutpreventers to close sealing devices aroundthe drill pipe permits ultimate control ofthese conditions if, for any reason, thedrilling-mud procedure has not beeneffective.As wells have gone deeper and deeper

into the earth, the problem of handling thedrill pipe has increased. Interruptions inthe drilling program, required for thereplacing of the drilling bits, involveremoval of the drill string from a holewhich may be 10,000, 15,000, or even 25,000feet deep. The drill bit is suspended onlengths of pipe, screwed together. The taskof uncoupling these lengths of pipe isdifficult, so that engineers have concen-trated on minimizing the number of timesthis has to be done. Clearly, one obviousway was to make each section of pipe aslong as possible. But longer lengths ofpipe involved heavier draw works (hoistingequipment) and taller and stronger derricksnot only to accommodate the powernecessary to draw or lower up to 170 tonsof pipe, but also to allow space to stack itduring the bit-replacement operation calleda round trip or trip. The evolution ofthe derricks from the early wooden formthrough various kinds made of steel to themodern, high efficiency, portable derrickis an exciting chapter in the history of

11


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This drilling rig is made up of a steel island topped by a derrick 15 stores tall. The rig candrill six wells from one position. (Photo courtesy of Shell Oil Company.)

13. These sketches dramatize the growth of thederrick between the 1860s and the 1930s.

Only those who have theto visit an oil field can appreci-

the size and elegant efficiency of therig. The model of such a rig onin the hall was made by a drilling

It is typical of the modernderrick and can be contrasted

models of modern portable rigswhich are equipped with masts.

is not always practicable to reach anformation by drilling a vertical

Specially designed tools have beento enable the driller to follow adeviation. This technique permits

to be bored from a suburban locationreach oil lying under a city; or fromshore out under the ocean. This artpermits up to 20 wells to be drilleda single platform in the ocean withentries into the oil-producing zonethousands of feet apart. When a

occurs and an oil well catchesdirectional drilling of this kind may

used, as a last resort, to drill from ainto the affected hole to cut off

flow of formation fluids and, thus, tothe fire.

rotary method of drilling involvesconversion of mechanical power into

the rotary motion that is to rotate thedrill bit against the formation. As early as1884, George Westinghouse, inventor of theairbrake, conceived the idea of using acirculating fluid to turn the bit through afluid motor attached to the lower end ofthe drill pipe. The principle was not thenadopted commercially in the United States.Instead, as has been noted, rotation ofthe drill pipe was secured by use of amechanical gear on the surface. The SovietUnion revived the Westinghouse idea in1925 and by 1955 had evolved an effectiveturbodrill. The United States is nowdeveloping similar equipment.

During World War I, A. Aratunoff, aRussian now living in Bartlesville, Okla-homa, developed an electric motor-drivendrill for the purpose of undermining Germantrenches. A successor to this drill is widelyused today by the Russians for oil-welldrilling. A similar electric motor to operatea down-hole, electric motor-driven, oil-wellpump is now made.Research in drilling methods is

continuous and intensive. In June 1968,for example, it was announced that amethod of combining the hammering of acable tool with the rotating drill had been

evolved in a liquid percussion drillsuitable for hard-rock drilling.Since there have been many variations

in the location of the land and sea areasthroughout geologic time, it follows thatoil reservoirs can exist beyond the shoresof our present land masses and these havebeen the subject of investigation for somethree decades. As a result, oil is beingfound in the Pacific, the Gulf of Mexico,the Persian Gulf, the North Sea, andelsewhere. Though offshore drilling haspresented formidable challenges to theengineers, the technique has progressedso that it is now practicable to drill fromboth fixed and mobile platforms working indangerous seas at great distances fromland.

In 1960, offshore drilling accounted for8 percent of the Western World's supplyof oil; by 1966, it was up to 16 percent.The larger offshore drilling rigs cost from$5 to $12 million. The oil industry iscurrently investing $1 billion annually inoffshore exploration throughout the worldand is expected to invest more than $25billion during the next ten years in itscontinuing search for underwater suppliesof oil and natural gas.


17/38

the Well

down to an oil producing formationmore often than not, that the hole

pass through several strata containingoil, and/or gas which should beone from another to prevent mixing.

insertion of lengths of permanent pipedimension, called a casing,

a partial protection. There stillthe difficulty of providing a sealthe base of the casing to isolate

non-oil-bearing strata. One methodin the early days of drilling, was toa seed bag (containing seedswould swell when wet) around thejoint in the casing. For a 20,000-

well, running the casing down the holerequire the derrick to handle loads uptons (see page 11).

toward a more effectivebegan in the 1870s, with the usewith or without casing. The firstwas to run hydraulic cement to

bottom of the hole and drill it afterthus providing access to the

Through a series of developments,modern method was evolved.

are used to isolate a batch ofon its way to the bottom,

preventing contamination from drillingEarly methods of cementing required

time of up to a month; now,of improvements in the under-of the setting characteristics of

cement, it is possible to complete thewithin a day.

bottom plug has a diaphragm whichwhen it reaches a collar or shoe,

at the foot of the casing. The shoea one-way valve that preventsof the cement as it rises in the

between the borehole and theWhen the top plug reaches theit stops the flow and pumprises warning the cementer that


18/38

15. Shaped charges. Close-up of string of charges as lowered into the drill hole.

the cement has left the inside of theorder that oil may flow from the

into the well, the casing mustperforated. Before the introduction ofperforation in 1932, it was often

or desirable to leave thearea uncased, but where casing

inserted, it was ripped at theducing zone by mechanical means. Gun

of the well began with the usesolid steel projectile fired from a

designed gun which was loweredthe well. After 1950, the principle ofshaped charge, used in the World War

bazooka, was applied to oil-wellits producing life, the flow of oil

be controlled and directed to theareas and pipeline systems. Into the flow line, the well iscompleted by the installation of astring inside of the casing. These

then connected to well-head equipment,as the Christmas tree, which

valves to regulate flow fromwell. Since wells may be completed to

oil from more than one formation,flow channels with appropriate

are provided. The Christmas treeis designed to handle multiple

of this kind.of the problems of offshore drillingof installing the Christmas tree and

producing gear on the well-headof course, must be located on the

bottom. Various methods are beingto obviate the perilous work of

divers and to make the necessary

installations mechanically by remotecontrol. A model in the hall showssophisticated equipment, designed to beoperated from the surface, to install andservice wells at water depths of up to1,000 feet.

16. Christmas tree designed for completion ofmore than one well. (Museum collection.)

17. Museum model of a typical central pumpingrig of the first quarter of the 20th century.

Raising Oil to the SurfaceAs has been mentioned earlier, oil-bearingformations contain inherent pressureswhich, when the structure is penetratedby the drill, are released, so that theliquids and gases rise to the surface. Thisinherent natural energy may be sufficientto cause the well to produce oil for sometime but, more often than not, it isnecessary to resort to external sources oflifting energy to supplement or replace thenatural forces. The most common form ofartificial lift is the down-hole mechanicalpump. These were operated at first by thewalking beams of the cable-tool rigs and,later on, by centrally located steam enginesconnected with more than one well by aseries of rod-lines. These pumps can stillbe seen in the older oil regions, especiallythose of Pennsylvania and California.The drilling of deeper and deeper wells

has led to the development of othermethods of artificial lift. In someinstallations, gas at high pressures is usedto gasify and lighten the oil, causing it toflow to the surface. In other cases, aplunger is used in the flow tube whichcollects gas beneath it. This forces theplunger to the top of the tubing, pushingthe oil ahead.

In another system, a hydraulic motor atthe bottom of the well is operated byfluid pressure.


19/38

operated centrifugal pumps,possible by specially designed

cables and capable of operatingsubmerged, became practicable in

1930s. Their origin was discussedon page 12.

Stimulationamount of oil which can be recoveredthe forces provided by nature willexceed one-third of that actually

in the formation. This is the resultvariations in the porosity and

of oil-bearing formations, theof insufficient energy sources,

variations in reservoir-fluid behavior.methods are, therefore, used tothe rate of production and the

yield. As early as 1865, oilmento explosives which were dumped

the well and fired at considerableto life and limb. Some improvementeffected when means were found tothe firing mechanism, but the methodlacked the controls which became

by acidizing and fracturing. Theseopen pores and channels in

parts of the formation to providepaths for the oil to travel to the

thus materially increasing theof the oil in the reservoir.

Acidizing, first attempted in 1895, wasdesigned to eat into the formation.Unfortunately, the raw acid attacked anddissolved the steel pipe in the hole asreadily as it penetrated the formation.Acidizing became an accepted practice instimulating oil and gas flows when effectiveinhibitors were evolved in the early 1930s.Another common procedure is hydraulic

fracturing. A fluid is pumped down thehole under pressure. It carries grains ofvarious material which, as the pressurecracks and penetrates the formation, arecarried into the fissures. When the pressureis reduced and the fluid withdrawn, thesematerials remain to keep the fissures open.Oil can then flow more freely to thewell-bore.

More elaborate methods of keeping oilfields in production are known asassisted, or secondary recovery. Invarious ways, these methods compensatefor declining or exhausted naturalreservoir energy by substituting artificialmeans of maintaining or restoring the lostpressure. At first, assisted recovery wasused only to renew pressure in old fields.Today, planning for assisted recovery maybegin as soon as a new well starts toproduce.The various methods of secondary

recovery include waterflooding; mixedflooding by the injection of propane, drygas, and water into the reservoir to forcethe oil toward the producing well; andthermal recovery, which uses heat or steamto reduce the viscosity of the crude oil soit will flow more readily to the well.Secondary recovery techniques have

made possible the recovery of as much as80 percent of the oil in some fields. TheUnited States Department of the Interiorpredicts that by 1980 secondary recoverymethods will account for nearly half ofthe crude oil produced in this country.A significant factor in encouraging these

conservation procedures is the InterstateOil Compact, established by Congress in1935. Though it has no authority to act onits own, the Compact, with 30 oil- andgas-producing states as members, providesa forum for the exchange of technicalinformation and guidance in improvingconservation procedures and regulations.

Refining OilAlthough crude oil as it emerged from theearth in oil seepages was used byAmerican Indians for medicinal purposesand later sold as a cure-all, it is of littleuse in its raw form. The technology ofrefining raw crude oil has developed overthe past century as more and varied usesfor petroleum were found or weredeveloped in laboratories.The Museum has a pot, probably of

Spanish origin of the 18th century, inwhich petroleum from seepages at Talara,Peru, was boiled to reduce it to the formof tar or pitch, used to coat ships'bottoms. This was probably the first useof an oil product and the first refining inthe Western Hemisphere.When oil was first produced in

commercial quantities after 1859, its mostsignificant uses were for lighting andlubrication.To obtain kerosene, the lighter fractions

were condensed while the remainder waswasted. The heavier fractions servedprincipally to coke up the stills and causeshutdown while they were removed. Later,means were found to capture the lightergases for use as fuel for the furnaces;

18. Cheesebox still. Museum model showing ar-rangement of furnace below tank. Crude oil washeated in the latter to remove lighter fractions.Kerosene vapors were taken off at top andcondensed. Tars had to be cleared out fre-quently. The method of refining persisted untilthe first decade of the 20th century.

15


20/38

'ssF- 5Heading&aRig Vr ^

'zs

'

Ii :vH

*4 * ^*iL

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21/38

fcr

\ . 2^

3 n

19.

To drillone oil well-$2 million

in materialsand machines,and the skills

of almost 100 men.

Courtesy ofSun Oil Company.

17


22/38

until the end of the 19thmany of the valuable components

oil were lost. The gasoline used in theautomobile was a straight run

made in much the same way asThe invention of the automobile and

importantthe emergence of plantsmass-producing them caused the firstmany revolutions in refining methods.was obvious that more gasoline wouldneeded than straight-run refining could

supply. By 1912, Burton, Humphreys, andRogers had developed the first method ofsplitting (cracking) the molecules ofheavy oil to produce gasoline. Theirprocess successfully met the currentdemands of the automobile, but operationswere handicapped because it wasnecessary to shutdown the stills frequentlyto clean out the residue of coke.A method was needed to minimize or

eliminate this obstacle to continuousproduction of gasoline. By 1918 some

Burton-Humphreys still in the Museum collection. In this pilot plant, Drs. Burton, Humphreys,Rogers perfected the first successful method of cracking gasoline, in time for Henry Ford's

automobile.

half-dozen methods had been developedfor continuous cracking so that whenautomobile production was resumed andintensified after the end of World War I,gasoline could be made available in ever-increasing quantities. This gasoline wasadequate for its time, but far inferior totoday's octane product.

During the first World War, the airplaneevolved to the point where its possibilitiesas a practical form of transportation couldbe seen. Larger and more efficient enginesto provide power for larger air framesmeant, in turn, that suitable aviation fuelmust be provided.

In this period, petroleum chemistryattained its full status as a branch of pureand applied science. The outstandingachievement was the development of 100-octane gasoline in the late 1930s, and theevolution of fluid catalytic crackers whichcould produce it in the quantitiesdemanded by the Air Forces of World WarII. Refining advances also made possiblequantity production of fuel for the dieselengine, resulting in an almost completetakeover of this form of propulsion fromcoal-burning engines in ships and railroadlocomotives.A final stage in these developments, to

date, has been the discovery of ways tomanipulate and rearrange the hydrocarbonmolecules of oil in order to evolve newproducts. As a result, the petrochemicalindustry has not only introduced new,synthetic materials for our use, but vitallyaffected the means of refining itself.Today, it can truly be said that every lastmolecule of crude oil can be put to good


23/38

A typical oil refinery of the 1920s, shown on left. Burton-Humphreys stills in action at Whiting,(Photo courtesy of Standard Oil Company .)

At right, a modern oil refinery and petrochemical plant at Lake Charles, Louisiana. The fluidcracker dominates the installation. (Photo courtesy of Continental Oil Corporation.)

One writer states that: A cent's worthbecomes 28 cents' worth of

which is later converted into $5of cold cream (Alfred M. Leeston

others in The Dynamic Natural GasNorman, Oklahoma: University

Press, 1963, p. 208.) Somedifferent chemicals are processedpetroleum and natural gas in more500 petrochemical plants throughout

country.map in the Smithsonian's hall ofgraphically explains the

interdependence of those who engage inthis petrochemical business. One man'sproduct is another man's raw material, andthe latter's output may, in turn, be acomponent of yet another intermediateprocess before it takes its final form as amanufactured item. The spaghetti bowlin Texas, centered around Houston, is nowa vast complex of industries which live,so to speak, by taking in each other'swashing, and represent, in the aggregate,the structure of a new segment in theproductive life of the modern world.

Petroleum as a source of health. Kier's cure-all, as bottled andby S. M. Kier of Pittsburgh before the first well was drilled.

was frequently discharged by salt-water wells in western Pennsyl-At right, a present-day product derived from natural gasaspirin.

Natural GasandPetrochemicals

America's natural gas supplies come fromtwo sources: three-quarters comes from gaswells, the remainder by extraction fromthe product of oil wells. The output fromgas wells, therefore, can be adjusted tomeet seasonal demands, while that fromoil wells will vary according to the demandfor crude oil.

Before 1920, natural gas was regarded inAmerica as either a curiosity or a nuisance.As early as 1821, the town of Fredonia, NewYork, used gas in a small way for streetlighting, and by 1884 the city of Pittsburghhad developed an extensive distributionsystem; but the problem of making tightjoints for the pipe contributed to the slowadoption of gas as a source of energy atany great distance from the producingfields. The gas which accompanied theproduction of oil after 1859 was, therefore,almost entirely wasted and a well whichproduced only gas was generally notwanted. In the 1920s, the role of gas inhelping to bring oil to the surface becamea recognized part of oil technology; butlate in the 1920s discovery of sources ofgas in Oklahoma and Texas started a newphase in the history of gas, as the firstlong distance pipelines linked gas fieldsto remote markets.The period immediately preceding World

War II was one of development of the

19


24/38

25. Ancient and modern. The Gluckauf, the first vessel built expressly as an oil tanker is showalongside a modern giant, the Esso Malaysia. Their dimensions are:

GluckaufEsso Malaysia

Tonnage3,000

190,000

(Photo courtesy of Standard Oil Company .)

Length in feet Breadth in feet300 37

1,062 144

Capacity in barrel17,000

1,400,000

20


25/38

of pipe manufacture and laying.invention of electric welding which

larger diameter pipe to be madethe development of machines which

pipe laying, led to thegrowth in the distribution of

gas which occurred after 1940.are now more than 200,000 miles

taking natural gas to markets,of them far from the producing field.

is shown on the map in the petroleumthe greater proportion of this systembeen built up over the last twenty-fiveThe efficiency of the system hasincreased dramatically by the

that it is possible to store gasreservoirssome great

caves in the earth, others thereservoirs from which oil or gas

already been extracted.

26. Tank wagon used for door-to-door distribution of kerosene in 1910.(Photo courtesy of Mr. Jacob Blaustein, American Oil Company.)

and Useple tend to take for granted theprocess by which oil, gasoline,gas are brought from the producingto the consumer. While they may beof a local refinery, few residents on

east coast of the United States realizemagnitude of the pipeline system

brings natural gas to their region, orvolume of gasoline coming to their

in tankers from the Gulf of Mexico.development of the modern pipeline

em cannot be shown in a museum. Itproblems caused by the tremendous

in the viscosity of oil; by the rivers,and other natural obstacles inpath of a pipeline; by the difficulties of

pumping stations in remoteand by the need to accommodate

one but often many products in theline.can the growth in the mileage of the

and petroleum-products pipelinebe adequately represented in a

It is difficult to bring alive thestatistic which shows that over

miles were added to the interstatebetween 1940 and 1966; or to show

barrels or their equivalent that the

volume of crude oil and oil productsmoved in interstate commerce increasedfour-fold between 1940 and 1966.

Besides the pipeline, the industry usesships and barges for distribution bothnationally and internationally. With moreand more discoveries of oil reservoirsthroughout the world and with theincreasing dependence of the world onautomobile and truck transportation, thevolume of petroleum shipped by sea hasincreased year by year. The size of thetanker ship has grown correspondingly. In1886 the first tanker in the westernkerosene tradethe Gluckauf of 3,000 tonsshowed that shipment in small containersto the consumer could be replaced. At thattime, no one could have foreseen an erain which tankers one hundred times larger(300,000 d.w.t.) would be constructed; orthat the 109 tankers comprising the worldtankship fleet in 1900 would grow to 3,524by the end of 1966.These changes have been suggested in

the Museum by the use of symbols. Halfmodels of typical tankers convey somesense of the growth of the ships themselvesand of the volume of oil and its productscarried in international and coastal trade.A cabinet used in a country store tocontain a kerosene drum contrasts withhand-operated gasoline pumps typical of

the first gas stations and with a modernblending pump. These dramatize the shiftof the industry's main concern fromlighting the home to fueling the automobileand the truck. At the same time, akerosene lamp reminds us that huge areasof the world are still without electricity.This lamp was developed in 1957 to givegood and economical lighting in suchplaces. The lamp is shown in contrast withwhat some people still think of as theperfect reading lamp, the famous StudentLamp. Developed in the 1890s, this kerosenelamp, in its heyday, burned the midnightoil for a multitude of famous men.We have seen, step by step, howpetroleum is released from its prehistorichiding places in the earth's crust andbrought to the service of man; and learnedsomething of the story of a naturalresource which, during the hundred yearsof its commercial exploitation, hasrevolutionized our manner of living. Thehall of petroleum, which provides, ineffect, three-dimensional illustrations forthis booklet, gives a systematic accountof the highly developed technology whichsupplies the fuel to power our factories andour cars, to heat our homes and,increasingly, to provide raw materials forthe vigorous and expanding plasticsindustry.

21


26/38

The practice of applying acidthe producing formation in an oil wellremove materials which may restrict the

of oil or gas to the well.Literally, an abnormality orIn gravity studies, a departure

the normal pull of gravity caused bypresence of rocks of relatively heavy ormaterials.

In a geological formation, ain the form of an arch.

OR SECONDARY RECOVERY.use of artificial means to increase theof oil to the surface when natural

pressures have been depleted.

ROCK. Ancient geological for-usually of igneous origin normally

the sedimentaries. (See Sedi-Rocks.)

PUMP. A gas-station pump indifferent grades of gasoline may be

to provide a choice of octane

The circular hole made bydrilling machine into the rocks belowsurface.

A steel or iron pipe lowered intoto prevent the sides from cav-

in or to exclude water, gas, or other

The process used in refiningbreak up the heavier molecules into

lower boiling-point molecules.

PUMP.pump.

The familiar gas-

27. Drill collar is held by a roughneck as it isplaced over a rock bit at the Humble Well M.McAlister No. 1, McLain County, Oklahoma. Thebit will be used to drill a rat hole. (Photocourtesy of Standard Oil Company .)

DRILL BIT. The tool attached to thelower end of the drill string. Bits, whichdo the actual drilling of a formation, areof two types: those used on a cable tocrush the rock; and rotary tools which, ineffect, cut the formation.DRILLING FLUID OR MUD. An emulsionof water, clay, and chemical additives usedin drilling to cool the drill bit, to flush thecuttings from the well and cake the sidesof the borehole.DRILL STRING. The steel pipe lowered intothe drill hole with the bit attached andrevolved by means of a turntable on thefloor of the derrick.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY. Differentrocks exhibit differences in their capacityto conduct electrical currents. Study ofthese variations (usually by measurementof the reciprocal, resistivity) assists geolo-gists to estimate the location of rockslikely to contain oil, since crude oil is analmost perfect insulator against electricalcurrent.

FAULT. Crack in the rock structure of theearth, the beds on the opposite sides ofwhich have been moved out of line withone another as the effect of a lift or slip.FRACTIONS. A term applied to the variousconstituents of petroleum having differingboiling points. In a fractionating column,high and low boiling-point fractions areseparated, those with lower boiling pointsrising through the column.FRACTURING. The practice of applyingpressure to an oil-bearing formation forthe purpose of opening channels and thusincreasing the porosity of the rock.

GRAVITY. The force of nature manifestedas a mutual attraction between massestending to draw them toward each other.Variations in the force of gravity occur,for example, as the result of differences indensity of the materials of the earth.

IGNEOUS ROCKS. Rocks formed by thesolidification of molten fluids injected intothe earth's crust, usually by volcanicaction.

KICKING DOWN. Drilling wells with toolssuspended by rope from a flexible tree

An adjective often appliedthe oil fields to the tools and instru-

lowered into the borehole. 28. Solid black areas show common types of traps for oil.


27/38


28/38

GASOLINE. Gasoline ob-directly from crude oil. The method

replaced by cracking. (See Cracking.)TRAP. If a sedimentary

has been deposited against an oldmass of relatively impervious mate-oil deposits may accumulate in theso formed.

TRAP. A geological situa-in which sedimentary strata have been

by the intrusion of other olderagainst the side of which oil

have accumulated.

SCREW. An attachment to acable with a screw permitting the

of the cable as the drillingsinks into the rock.

STRING. The steel or iron pipeinto a well and connected with

Christmas tree, through which oil oris brought to the surface.

The measure of a fluid's re-to flow arising from the cohesion

its molecules.

BEAM. Sometimes called abeam, a long beam of wood, or

iron, attached in the middle to thepost connected at one end

a pitman with the power source.the other end, cable tools were sus-and raised and lowered in the hole

the motion of the beam.

1. Crown block2. Bull wheel3. Walking beam4. Temper screw5. Drilling line6. Casing head7. Cellar8. Drilling tools9. Calf wheel

10. Casing line

30. A CABLE TOOL RIG.

Cable-tool drilling is doneand dropping a string of toolsof a cable. The up and downimparted by the walking beamare pulled from or lowered irby winding or unwindingcable on the bull wheel. Casior lowered by the casing liwheel. The cuttings are rethe hole by the bailer, whicand lowered by the sand lin(Illustration from This FascBusiness by Max W. BallMerrill Company, Indianapol

11. Pitman12. Crank13. Band wheel14. Sand reel15. Sand or bailing lin16. Belt house17. Engine18. Engine house19. Headache post20. Lazy bench


29/38

Catalog of Exhibits in the Hall of Petroleum

Introductory

Geologyand Geophysics

Map of the United States with schematic presenta-tion of production and proved reserves; refinerycenters and pipeline distribution of crude oil andnatural gas; all shown schematically to indicategrowth between 1859 and 1963.Mural, 13 x 57 feet, epitomizing the activities of theindustry. Done in polymer tempera by Delbert Jack-son, Pan American Petroleum Corporation.The Corsicana rig. Developed by C. E. and M. C.Baker, about 1895. Driven by one horse, the rig in-cludes C. E. Baker's pioneer grip ring.The growth of the tanker. Half models of four tank-ers showing growth of the typical unit from the1890s to the present.

Geological cross-section of Texas, Mississippi, andLouisiana.Formation of sedimentary rocks. Model of Missis-sippi Delta.The ancient seas. Model showing distribution ofland and water during various geologic eras.Marine fossils. Their use in the search for oil.Photogeology.

(The Departments of Paleobiology and MineralSciences have extensive exhibits on this theme inthe Museum of Natural History; therefore, furtherdiscussion is unnecessary here.)

Prepared by the Museum of History andTechnology with funds provided by theAmerican Petroleum Institute.

Funds provided by a group of Tulsa,Oklahoma, firms organized by WalterHelmerich.Continental-Emsco Company, a divisionof Youngstown Sheet and Tube Com-pany.Texaco, Inc.

Data provided by Humble Oil & RefiningCompany.

Esso Production Research Company.Doeringsfeld, Amuedo, and Ivey in coop-eration with the Museum of History andTechnology.

Gravity Surveys Bamberg torsion balance, 1926.The Nash Dome, 1924-1926. The first oil reservoirto be discovered by the gravity technique.

HolweckLeJay pendulum, 1937.Gulf pendulum, 1930-1935. The original pendulum isshown in the Museum of History and Technology'shall of physical sciences.Helical-spring gravity meter, 1933.

Humble Oil & Refining Company.Prepared by the Museum of History andTechnology from data of the Society ofExploration Geophysicists.U. S. Army Map Service.

Gulf Research & Development Corpora-tion.

25


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Truman gravity meter, 1929-1931. This was 0. H.Truman's second model, used by him in a survey ofthe gulf coast during 1930-1931.Atlas model C meter, patented by Mott Smith in1938.Humble Y gravity meter.La Coste & Romberg gravity meter, 1934. Operatingmodel, full scale.North American gravity meter, 1935.Worden gravity meter, 1946.Worden quartz spring-balance system. Scale modelenlarged five times.

0. H. Truman.

Robert M. Iverson.

Humble Oil & Refining Company.La Coste & Romberg.

Robert M. Iverson.Texas Instruments, Inc.Quartz Products Division of Ruska In-strument Corporation.

Magnetic Surveys Earth's magnetic field. Illustration.Dip needle.

Schmidt magnetometer.Airborne magnetometer, 1936-1941.

Gulf Research & Development Corpora-tion.

Gulf Research & Development Corpora-tion.Gulf Research & Development Corpora-tion.

Seismic Surveys Mintrop seismograph, 1924. Original equipment usedby Mintrop on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico.Taylor seismometer, 1931-1933.Karcher electromagnetic detector, 1925.Moving-coil seismometer.

Modern truck-borne seismic equipment.An oil field explored. Plastic model showing dataaccumulated from surveys and drilling of Velmaoil field, Oklahoma.

Seismos, G.m.b.H., Hanover, Germany.

Continental Oil Company.Everett Lee de Golyer, Jr.Gulf Research & Development Corpora-tion.

Geophysical Research Corporation.Skelly Oil Company.

The Reservoir Kinds of petroleum. Sample of crudes.

Display illustrating relative viscosities.Source rocks. Sample cores with illustrative photo-micrographs.Core bits and barrels.

Selected by U.S. Bureau of Mines,Bartlesville, Oklahoma.

Core Laboratories, Inc.Atlantic Richfield Company.Christensen Diamond Products Co.Christensen Diamond Products CompanyReed Roller Bit Company.


31/38

Naturally flowing oil well. Demonstration of flow ofoil to the well-bore.Oil reservoir. Demonstration of oil recovery bynatural and induced energy.Pressure and temperature. Instruments used in well-bore.

Formation evaluation.

Conservation. Photographs illustrating old and newpractice of well spacing.

Core Laboratories, Inc., in associationwith Texas Pacific Oil Company.Esso Production Research Company.

U.S. Bureau of Mines, Bartlesville,Oklahoma.Geophysical Research Corporation.Humble Oil & Refining Company.Schlumberger Well SurveyingCorporation.

Drilling withCable Tools

Rotary Drilling

Kicking down a well, 1806-1808. Diorama.First commercial oil well (Drake's well, 1859). Dio-rama.Walking beam from a Star spudding rig.

Cable-tool drilling rig, 1923. Model.

Tools used in cable drilling.

Spindletop-type rotary.Early rotary systems. Photographs.C. E. Baker's grip ring. Photograph from History ofPetroleum Engineering published by the AmericanPetroleum Institute.Modern rotary-drilling rig. Model.

J. S. Abercrombie blowout preventer.Modern blowout preventer.Rotary bits.

Directional drilling.Turbo drilling.Development of drilling mud.

Museum of History and Technologypurchase.Department of Petroleum Engineering,University of Kansas.Humboldt County Historical Society,California.Museum of History and Technologypurchase.

John M. Robinson.

National Supply Division of Armco SteelCorporation and Cities Service OilCompany.Cameron Iron Works, Inc.Cameron Iron Works, Inc.Reed Roller Bit Company.Hughes Tool Company.Christensen Diamond Products Company.Eastman Oil Well Survey Company.Dresser Industries, Inc.Baroid Division of National Lead Com-pany and National Lead Foundation, Inc.

27


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Developmentof the Derrick

Rig profiles, 1860-1930. Schematic drawing.Cantilever mast, 1960s.Super K derrick, 1960s.

Lee C. Moore Corporation.Lee C. Moore Corporation.

Offshore Drilling Creole well, 1937-1938. The first well drilled in theGulf of Mexico. Model.Kermac Rig 54, 1962. Offshore rig.Catamaran. Offshore rig.

Offshore drilling platform.Underwater well completions. Model showing serv-icing by remote (surface) control.

Pure Oil Company.

Kerr-McGee Oil Industries, Inc.Reading & Bates Offshore DrillingCompany.Shell Oil CompanyShell Oil Company.

Lighting the Rig Yellow Dog derrick lamp.Early steam-line generator.

C. V. Radke.Oil Well Supply Company.

Well Completion Drill-stem testing.Cementing methods, 1860s to the present.Casing shoes and retainers.Early drive pipeDrake well.Early brass coupling, 1870-1890.Multiple-completion Christmas tree.Dual-completion valves and packers.Casing perforation, 1932 to the present.

Johnston Testers, Inc.Halliburton Company.Baker Oil Tools, Inc.R. A. Locke.L B. Holland.Cameron Iron Works, Inc.Brown Oil Tools, Inc.Schlumberger Well SurveyingCorporation.

Pumping Subsurface pump (about 1894).Sucker rods.

Rivet catcher.Central-power pumping.

Sucker-rod pumping system.

Standardized rod pump.Modern-surface pumping jack.

Gas lift with and without plunger.First hydraulic pumping system.Submergible electric pumps.

Midwest Oil Corporation.University of Oklahoma.Lynn Hicks.Standard Oil Company (California).Atlantic Richfield Company.Union Oil Company (California).Fluid Packed Pump Division of ArmcoSteel Corporation.American Petroleum Institute.Museum of History and Technologypurchase.Cameo, Inc.Kobe, Inc.Reda Pump Company.


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Assisted Recovery Roberts torpedo (after 1865).Go-devil, 1900.Brass hand reel for lowering; explosives.The Bolshevik.Acidizing.

Fracturing.Swab cup.

W. R. Murrow.Dowell Division of The Dow ChemicalCompany.Pan American Petroleum Corporation.Dresser Guiberson Division of DresserIndustries, Inc.

Refining

Natural Gas andPetrochemicals

Uses of Petroleum

La Brea tar pot. First refining on American conti-nent. Late 18th century.Cheesebox still, 1870s. Model.BurtonHumphreys still, 1912. The original experi-mental cracking still used at Whiting, Indiana, toprove out the BurtonHumphreys cracking process.Dubbs thermal cracker, 1920. Plant model.

Flow chart.Polymerization process, 1935. Model and flow chart.Fluid catalytic cracking process, 1942. Model.Flow chart.Platinum reforming process, 1949. Model and flowchart.Udex process for aromatics, 1952.Fractionating tower. Operating model.Kerosene dispenser, 1890s.

Processing of natural gas and of petrochemicals.Complexity of petrochemical industry. Map showingplant exchanges of products of Texas gulf coastarea.

Early gasoline pumps, 1920s.Blending pump, 1956.Student lamp, 1890s.

Candela, 1957. Kerosene lamp for underdevelopedcountries.

Gift through Standard Oil Company(New Jersey).

Standard Oil Company (Indiana).

Carbon Petroleum Dubbs and Massa-chusetts Institute of Technology.Universal Oil Products Company.Universal Oil Products Company.Humble Oil & Refining Company.Standard Oil Company (New Jersey).Universal Oil Products Company.

Universal Oil Products Company.Phillips Petroleum Company.Wayne Pump Company.Humble Oil & Refining Company.Data from Houston Pipe Line Company.

Gilbert & Barker Company.Wayne Pump Company.Museum of History and Technologypurchase.Standard Oil Company (New Jersey).

Transportation Growth of the tanker. Half models of four tankersshowing growth of the typical unit from the 1890sto the present.S.S. Natalie O. Warren. The first ship equipped totransport propane gas. Model.

Texaco, Inc.

Warren Petroleum Corporation.

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AcknowledgmentsThe publication of this pamphlet was made possible by a grant from the

American Petroleum Institute. The author wishes, also, to express his ap-preciation for the cooperation of the staff of the Institute's Committee onPublic Affairs who made many constructive suggestions and criticisms. Mr.Roy F. Carlson, Director of the Institute's Division of Production, and Mr.Thomas 0. Allen and Mr. John E. Eckel, Chairman and Secretary respectivelyof the Committee set up by the Institute to assist the Smithsonian Institution,gave invaluable assistance not only in the planning of this booklet, but through-out the long period of preparation of the hall of petroleum in the Museum ofHistory and Technology. Their enthusiasm for the project was infectious andif the author knows anything about petroleum, it is due to the generosity ofthese men in giving him the full benefit of their lifetime experience in theindustry.The hall of petroleum in the Museum of History and Technology is the

result of collaboration with a hundred or more volunteers from many oil andrelated companies who have assisted the Committee of the American Petro-leum Institute.The author also greatly appreciates the generosity of the following formaking possible the use of color illustrations in this booklet: Span, a stock-

holder publication of Standard Oil Company (Indiana) for the inside-covermural; The Orange Disc, bimonthly magazine of Gulf Oil Corporation forfigure 10; and Sun Oil Company for figure 19. The sketch on the cover was pro-vided through the courtesy of the Oil and Gas Journal.

PHILIP W. BISHOP, ChairmanDepartment of Arts and ManufacturesMuseum of History and Technology


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Suggested Reading

BALL, MAX w. This fascinating oil business. Indianapolis: Bobbs-MerrillCompany, 1940.

BEATON, KENDALL Enterprise in oil. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc.,1957. [A company history, but one of the best general accounts of techno-logical developments in the industry after 1900.]

History of petroleum engineering. New York: American Petroleum Insti-tute, 1961.

A primer of oil well drilling. Austin, Texas: University of Texas, Division ofExtension, Petroleum Extension Service, 1957.

S'wanson, E. B. A century of oil and gas in books. New York: Appleton-Cen-tury-Crofts, Inc., 1960.

WILLIAMSON, HAROLD F. et al. The American petroleum industry. 2 vols. (vol. 1,The age of illumination; vol. 2, The age of energy.) Evanston, Illinois: North-western University Press, 1959, 1963. [A definitive account of the industry'shistory and of the general development of its technology.]

More specific information about any aspect of thepetroleum industry may be obtained by writing to:

The Committee on Public AffairsAmerican Petroleum Institute1271 Avenue of the AmericasNew York, New York 10020

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