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tallh 01'1

mrudKql jHqyh

lef;dav lsrK wkdjrKh yd mrudKql jHQyh ms<sn| uQ,sl wOHkhka wdrïN úh'

bf,lafg%dakh fm%dafgdakh kshqfg%dakh

wxY=fõ ixfla;h e p n

wxY=fõ

ialkaOh/kg

wxY=fõ idfmalaI ialkaOh

1 1

wxY=fõ

wdfrdamKh/C

0

wxY=fõ idfmalaI wdfrdamKh

-1 +1 0

iuia:dkslhla hkq l=ula o@ o tlu mrudKql l%udxlhka we;s o kuq;a" fjkia ialkaO l%udxl we;s" mrudKqh

Wod' Cl ys iuia:dksl

kshqla,hsv hkq fudkjdo@ o fm%dafgdak wxlh (Atomic number) iy

o kshqla,sfhdak wxlh (Mass number)" úfYaIs;j olajk ,o mrudKql m%fNaoh hs'

kshqla,hsv j¾.

1' iajdNdúlj mj;akd ia:dhS kshqla,hsv

2' iajNdúlj mj;akd wia:dhS kshqla,hsv

3' lD;Su úlsrKYS,S kshqla,hsv (Uuo)



úlsrKYS,S;dj @ o kHIaáfha is:dhS;dj Wfoid wia:dhS kHIaá fyda wxY= úiska isjhxisoaOj

úlsrK ksl=;a lsÍu' o fuu úlsrK j,g

úksúo hdug;a úhq whkSlrKh lsÍug;a yelsh'

j¾.h úl,am kï wdfrdamKh úksjo hdfï n,h

k;r lrkq ,nk øjH

we,a*d

yS,shï kHIaá

^fm%dafgdak 2 kshqfg%dak 2&

+2 Wvqhs jd;h fyda lvodis

îgd bf,lafg%dak -1 uOHia:hs ;=kS we¨ñkshï ;yvqjla

.eud by, Yla;sfhka hq;a úoHq;a pqïNl ;rx.

0 by<hs >klï f,â ;yvqjla



mrudKqj ms<sn| kHIaál wdlD;sh bÈßm;a lsÍug mokï jQ .hs.¾ iy udiavka mÍlaIKh'

ksrSlaIK meyeos,s lsrSu



mrudKqj ms<sn| fnda¾ wdlD;sh yd tys Wml,amk fnda¾ wdlD;sh Wml,amk ;=kla u; mokï fõ' 1' yhsv%cka mrudKqfõ bf,lafg%dak hï Yla;sj,g wkqrEm ksYaÑ; wrh j,skaa hq;= llaI j, mj;S' 2' wkqo;a llaIhl mj;sk bf,lafg%dakhlg ksYaÑ; Yla;shla we;s w;r wkqo;a

Yla;s wjia:djl mj;S' wkqo;a Yla;s wjia:djl we;s bf,lafg%dakhla Yla;sh ksl=;a fkdlrk neúka th i¾ms,dldr m:hl .uka lr kHIaáhg fkdjefÜ' 3' th wkqo;a Yla;s wjia:djl isg fjk;a wjia:djlg ixl%uKh ùfï oS muKla bf,lafg%dakh úiska Yla;s wjfYdaIKh fyda úfudapkh fyda flf¾' fuu Yla;sh

wjfYdAIKh fyda úfudapkh fyda flfrkafka f*dafgdak (photon) jYfhks'

m%Yak iy úi|qï

1' ^2015& mrudKql jHQyfha ma,ï mqäka wdlD;sh bÈßm;a lrk ,oafoa@

^1& fcdaka fvda,agka úisks ^2& fca' fca' f;dïika úisks ^3& .af,aka iSfnda.a úisks ^3& w¾kiaÜ ro¾*ä úisks ^4& frdná ñ,slka úisks ms<s;=r - ^2&

2' ^2014& kshqfg%dakh fidhd .kakd ,oafoa

^1& kS,aia fnda¾ úisks ^2& w¾kiaá ro¾*â úisk ^3& fcaïia peâúla úisks ^4& we,anÜ whskaiaghska úisks ^5& bhqcka f.da,aâiaghska úisks ms<s;=r - ^3&

fuu úIh fldgiska úNd. m%Yak m;%fha Tng yuqjkafka m<uq nyqjrK m%YaKhhs' ieneúkau fuh

idudkH ±kSuh' idudkH fm< isiqfjl=g jqj o b;d myiqfjka ms<s;=re iemhsh yel' flfia fj;;a

by; m%Yak i|yd ksjerÈ ms<s;=re imhd ;snqfka 80 lg wdikak m%;sY;hls'



tallh 01'2

mrudKql jHqyh - 2

mrudKqfõ jHQyh kS¾Kh lsÍfï§ tys wvx.= Wm mrudKql wxY= j, iajdNdjh kS¾Kh lsÍu m%Odk ia:dkhla .kshs'

ta wkqj mrudKqfõ wvx.= bf,lafg%dak j, msysàu ^bf,lafg%dak úkHdih& kS¾Kh lsÍu b;d jeo.;a ikaêia:dkhls' ta i|yd mdol jQ uQ,O¾u kï"

o mrudKql j¾Kdj,s" yd o uQ,øjHuh whKSlrK Yla;s uÜgï" h'

úoHq;a pqïNl j¾Kdj,sh o wNHdjldYh yryd Yla;sh iïfm%aIKh jkafka úoHq;a pqïnl ;rx. f,ig

hs' o tajdg úoHq;a flaIa;%hla yd pqïnl flaIa;%hla we;' tu flaIa;% fol

tlsfklg ,ïn j msysghs' o ish¨ úoHq;a pqïnl ;rx. ßla;hl § .uka lrk fõ.h" wdf,dalfha

m%fõ.hg iudk fõ'

3 × 108 𝑚 𝑠−1 o ;rx. wdhuh yd ixLHd;h jk úg úoHq;a pqïnl ;rx.hl m%fõ.h"

𝑐 = 𝜐𝜆 hk iólrKfhka ,efí' o úoHq;a pqïnl ;rx.hl Yla;sh"

𝐸 = 𝑕𝜐 ^𝐸 hkq tla f*dafgdakhl Yla;sh hs'&

fuys 𝑕 hkq ksh;hls' th ma,dkala ksh;h kï fõ'

ma,dkala ksh;h = 6.624 × 10−34 𝐽 𝑠

fu u`.ska" 𝐸 =𝑕𝑐

𝜆

o ixLHd;h wdfrdayKh jk ms<sfj<g úoHq;a pqïnl ;rx. fm< .eiaùfuka ,efnk igyk úoHq;a pqïnl j¾Kdj,sh fõ'



o úoHq;a pqïnl j¾Kdj,sfha úúO mrdij,g wh;a lsrKj, m%fhdack

f¾äfhda ;rx. ( rEmjdyskS" .=jka úÿ,s udOH Tiafia ikaksfõok lghq;= i|yd fhfoa'

f¾vd¾ ;rx. ( .=jka yd kdúl moaO;sj, Ndú; flf¾'

laIqø ;rx. ( laIqø ;rx. W÷kaj, l%shdldÍ;ajh fu u`.ska isÿ fõ' cx.u ÿrl:kj, Ndú; fõ'

wfOdarla; ;rx. ( fN!; Ñls;ail m%;sldr lghq;=j, oS fhfoa'

ÿria: md,l ix{d ksl=;a lsÍfï oS yd j¾Kdj,SlaI l%u u`.ska flfrk úYaf,aIK lghq;=j, oS Ndú; flf¾'

oDYH ;rx. ( oDIaáh" PdhdrEm Ys,amh fuu mrdifha ;rx. Weiqßka

isÿ fõ' j¾Kñ;sl úYaf,aIKfha oS fhfoa'

mdrcïnq, ;rx. ( úIîc keiSug" uqo,a fkdaÜgq wdosfha fhdod we;s ryiH ixfla; lshùug fhfoa' j¾Kdj,SlaI úYaf,aIKj, oS Ndú; flf¾'

𝑋 - lsrK ( 𝑋 lsrK PdhdrEm .ekSu yd iaMál wdosfha jHqy yeoEÍfï oS Ndú; flf¾'

γ - lsrK ( ms<sld i|yd m%;sldr lsÍfï oS Ndú; flf¾'

wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s m%ia;dr

o mrudKqj, bf,lafg%dak m%Odk Yla;s uÜgïj, yd Wm uÜgïj, meje;au ms<sn| idlaIH bosßm;a lrhs'

o ldnka" Tlaiscka yd f*dia*ria hk uq,øjHj, wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s m%ia;drh

ldnka Tlaiscka fmdiamria

o fuu uQ,øjHj, mj;sk ish¨ u wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s rEmfha fmkajd

we;'



tu wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s .Kk mrudKqfõ we;s bf,lafg%dak .Kkg iudk fõ'

wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;sfha laIKsl jeä ùï flfrys wjOdkh fhduq l< úg bf,lafg%dak ldKav jYfhka úúO Yla;s uÜgïj, msysgd we;s nj ;yjqre fõ'

j¾Kdj,sh

o wjfYdaIK j¾Kdj,sh(Absorption Line Spectrum)

o úfudapk j¾Kdj,sh (Emisstion Line Spectrum)

yhsv%cka ys wjfYdaIK yd úfudapk j¾Kdj,s



𝑅𝑒𝑑 → 𝐻𝛼 𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 → 𝐻𝛽 𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑡 → 𝐻𝛾 𝑉𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑡 → 𝐻𝛿

fnda¾ wdlD;sh weiqßka yhsârckays úfudapk j¾Kdj,sfha f¾Ld we;s jk wkaou meyeos,s lsÍu



,hsudka" ndu¾" mdIka iy n%elÜ fYaKs yg.kakd wdldrh'

fuu j¾Kdj,s wOHkh uÕska bf,lafg%dak mj;skakd jQ ksYaIs; Yla;s uÜgï j,

meje;au ;yjqre fõ'

fnda¾ wdlD;sfha iSud

o fnda¾ wdlD;sh u`.ska yhsv%cka mrudKqfjys f¾Ld j¾Kdj,sh úia;r flfrk w;r wfkl=;a mrudKqj, j¾Kdj,s úia;r l< yelafla o< jYfhks'

o iDK wdfrdams; bf,lafg%dak Ok wdfrdams; kHIaáh u; m;s; fkd jk nj Wml,amkh lrñka t fia fkd jkafka uka oe hs úia;r lsÍu fnda¾ úiska u`. yer we;'

o tu ksid yqfola bf,lafg%dakhla hkq kHIaáh jgd mßN%uKh jk l=vd

wxY=jla f,i úia;r lsÍu .eg¨ iy.; fõ'

fuu ish¿ .eg¿ j,g ms<s;=re imhñka mrudKql jHQyh i|yd jQ lafjdkagï wdlD;sh ìysúh'



mrudKqj ms<sn| lafjdkagï wdlD;sh'

miqìu

o bf,lafg%dakhg ;rx.uh yd wxY=uh iajNdjhka we;' ;rx.uh .=K

whksl iaMálhla ;=<ska 𝑋 - lsrK loïnhla .uka lsÍfï§ isÿ jk wdldrhg u bf,lafg%dak loïnhla .uka lsÍfï § o új¾;khg ,la fõ'

bf,lafg%dak loïnhla u`.ska ksfrdaOk rgd o we;s flf¾' wxY=uh .=K

bf,lafg%dak loïnhlg ld¾h lsÍfï yelshdj ^.uH;dj fya;=fjka& we;s w;r wdfrdamKhla o we;'

o bf,lafg%dak mj;skafka tla tla Yla;s uÜgfuys wvx.= WmYla;s uÜgï j, h'

Wm Yla;s uÜgu ldlaIsl ixLHdj mej;sh yels Wmßu bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj

𝑠 1 2

𝑝 3 6

𝑑 5 10

𝑓 7 14

o tla tla WmYla;s uÜgfuys ksYaÑ; ldlaIsl ixnHdjla mj;sk w;r tla ldlaIslhl mej;sh yelafla Wmßu bf,lafg%dak 2 la muKs'

ldlaIsl j, yev

𝑠

^f.da,dldr&

𝑝

^vïfn,dldr&



Yla;sh lafjdkagkSlrKh

mrudKq Yla;sh wjfYdaIKh fyda úfudapkh fyda isÿ lrkafka l=vd ksYaÑ; Yla;s m%udK f,ig h'

tu l=vd u ksYaÑ; Yla;s m%udKh lafjdkagï fyj;a f*dafgdak f,i ye¢kafõ' ma,dkala f.a jdohg wkqj mod¾:h wjfYdaIKh lrkafka fyda uqodyßkafka fyda f*dafgdakfha Yla;sh fyda tys mQ¾K .=Kdldrhla jk Yla;s m%udKhls'

Wod - 𝑕𝜐, 2𝑕𝜐, 3𝑕𝜐 ….

t neúka Yla;sh lafjdkagkSlrKh ù we;e hs i,lkq ,efí'

lafjdkagï wxl

o m%Odk lafjdkagï wxlh ^𝑛& bf,lafg%dakh wh;a m%Odk Yla;s uÜgu fu uÕska ksrEmKh flf¾'

𝑛 = 1,2,3, …

o Woaos.xY lafjdkagï wxlh ^𝑙&

bf,lafg%dakh wh;a WmYla;s uÜgu (𝑠, 𝑝, 𝑑, 𝑓) fu u`.ska ksrEmKh fõ'

𝑙 = 0,1,2, … , (𝑛 − 1)

0 → 𝑠, 1 → 𝑝, 2 → 𝑑, 3 → 𝑓, …

o pqïnl lafjdkagï wxlh ^𝑚𝑙& hï WmYla;s uÜgul bf,lafg%dakh mj;akd ldlaIslh ^ksoiqka (

𝑝𝑥 , 𝑝𝑦 , 𝑝𝑧& fu uÕska ksrEmKh flf¾'

−𝑙, − 𝑙 − 1 , … ,0, … , 𝑙 − 1 , 𝑙

o neuqï lafjdkagï wxlh ^𝑚𝑠& hï ldlaIslhl msysá bf,lafg%dakhl osYdk;sh fu u`.ska ksrEmKh

flf¾'

𝑚 = ±1

2

hï bf,lafg%dakhla i|yd jk lafjdkagï wxl l=,lh Bg wkkH fõ' ksoiqk"

fojk Yla;s uÜgu i,lkak' tkï 𝑛 = 2

túg 𝑙 = 0, 1

𝑙 = 0 úg 𝑚𝑙 = 0

𝑙 = 1 úg 𝑚𝑙 = −1, 0, +1

𝑚𝑙 ys tla tla w.hka i|yd ksIsÑ; ldlaIslhla ksrEmKh

fõ' tu tla w.hlg wod, 𝑚𝑠 w.hka 2 ls' +1

2 fyda −

1

2 fõ'

tkï tla ldlaIslhl Wmßu mej;sh yelafla bf,lafg%dak folla muKs'



𝑙 = 1 úg 𝑚𝑙 w.hka 3 la mj;S' tkï 𝑝 ldlaIslfhys mej;sh yels Wmßu bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj 6ls'

wjia:d foflys§u mej;sh yels 𝑚𝑙 w.hka 4 ls' tkï fojk Yla;s uÜgfuys mej;sh yels Wmßu bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj 8ls'

fujeks jHq;amkak lsÍï uÕska tla tla Yla;s uÜgï j, yd tajdfha wvx.= Wm Yla;s uÜgï j, mej;sh yels Wmßu bf,;afg%dak ixLHdjka kS¾Kh l< yel'

tkhska my; j.= f.dvk.kak'

m%Odk lafjdkagï

wxlh 𝑛

WoaÈ.xY lafjdkagï

wxlh ^0 isg 𝑛 − 1 olajd&

wkqrEm Yla;s uÜgu

pqïNl lafjdkagï

wxlh ^−𝑙 isg +𝑙

olajd&

Neuqï lafjdkagï

wxlh 𝑚𝑠

(−1

2, +

1

2)

ldlaIsl j, mj;sk Wmßu

bf,lafg%dak .Kk

m%Odk Yla;s uÜgug wh;a

Wmßu bf,lafg%dak

.Kk

1 0 1s 0 -1/2

+1/2 2 2

2

0 2s 0 -1/2

+1/2 2

8 1 2p

-1 0

+1

-1/2

+1/2

-1/2

+1/2

-1/2

+1/2

6

3

0 3s 0 -1/2

+1/2 2

18

1 3p

-1 0

+1

-1/2

+1/2

-1/2

+1/2

-1/2

+1/2

6

2 3d

-2 -1 0

+1

+2

-1/2

+1/2

-1/2

+1/2

-1/2

+1/2

-1/2

+1/2

-1/2

+1/2

10



m%Yak iy úi|qï

1' ^2015& lafjdkagï wxl 𝑛 = 1 iy 𝑚𝑙 = −2 jk bf,lafg%dakhla i|yd my; i|yka l=uk j.ka;sh$j.ka;s i;H fõ o@

^𝑎& bf,lafg%dakh we;af;a ;=kajk m%Odk Yla;s uÜgfuys h'

^𝑏& bf,lafg%dakh ldlaIlhl we;'

^𝑐& bf,lafg%dakh ldlaIlhl we;'

^𝑑& bf,lafg%dakfha N%uK lafjdkagï wxlh 𝑚𝑠 = +1

2 úh hq;= h'

ms<s;=r - ^1&

2' ^2014& mrudKqjl lafjdkagï wxl 𝑛 = 3, 𝑙 = 2 f,i we;s Wmßu bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj jkqfha

^1& 2 ^2& 4 ^3& 6 ^4& 8 ^5& 10 ms<s;=r - ^5&

3' ^2014& ;rx. wdhduh 200 nm jk úoHq;a pqïNl úlsrKh ms<sn| my; i|yka l=uk j.ka;sh i;H fõ o@

^𝑎& thg ;rx. wdhduh 400 nm jk úlsrKhg jvd jeä Yla;shla we;'

^𝑏& th úoHq;a pqïNl j¾Kdj,sfhys oDYH fldgfiys we;'

^𝑐& ßla;hl § thg ;rx. wdhduh 400 nm jk úlsrKhg jvd jeä m%fõ.hla we;'

^𝑑& tys f*dafgdakhl Yla;sh ;rx. wdhduh 100 nm jk f*dafgdakhl Yla;shg jvd jeä fõ'

ms<s;=r - ^5&

4' ^2013& lafjdkagï wxl 𝑛 = 3, 𝑚𝑙 = −1 jk f,I mej;sh yels mrudKql ldlaIsl ixLHdj jkqfha ^1& 1 ^2& 2 ^3& 3 ^4& 4 ^5& 5 ms<s;=r - ^2& 5' ^2013&

yhsv%cka j¾Kdj,sfha ndu¾ ndu¾ (𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑚𝑒𝑟) fY%aKsh i|yd ish¿u úfudapk

𝑛 = 1 ys § wjika fõ'

yhsv%cka j¾Kdj,sfha iïNjh meyeÈ,s lsÍu i|yd fnda¾ (𝐵𝑜𝑕𝑟) wdlD;sh Ndú;

fõ'

ms<s;=r - ^4&



tallh 01'3

mrudKql jHQyh - 3 ^bf,lafg%dak úkHdih kS¾Kh lsÍu&

uQ,øjH mrudKqjl bf,lafg%dak msÍu isÿjkafka rgdjlg wkqj h'

bf,lafg%dak msÍfï rgdjg wod< uQ,O¾u yd kS;s

yqkaâ kS;sh

iudk Yla;sfhka hq;a úfNaokh jQ ldlaIslj, bf,lafg%dak mj;skqfha tajdfha neuqï iudka;r jk mßos h' ke;fyd;a úhq.au bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj Wmßu jk mßos m<uq j bf,lafg%dak ne.ska msÍ wk;=re j" N%uK úreoaO ÈYdjg msysgk mßÈ hq.,kh fõ'

mjq,S nysIaldr uQ,O¾uh

tla ldlaIslhl bf,lafg%dak follg jvd mej;sh fkd yel'

i.e. mrudKqjl hï bf,lafg%dakhl lafjdkagï wxl l=,lh thg u wkkH fõ' t kï tl u lafjdkagï wxl l=,lhla iys; bf,lafg%dak folla ;sìh fkd yel'



f.dvkexùfï uQ,O¾uh ^Aufbau principle&

ldlaIslj,g bf,lafg%dak msÍu mjq,S nysIaldr uQ,O¾uhg wkqj t kï" ldlaIslj, Yla;s wdfrdayKh jk wkqms<sfj<g isÿ jk nj hs'

WmYla;s uÜgïj, Yla;s wdfrdayKh jk wkqms<sfj< my; ±lafõ'

fuu uQ,O¾u mokï lrf.k mrudKq j, bf,lafg%dak úkHdih kS¾Kh lsÍug wm yg mq¿jk' Wod (-

Tlaiscka ^mrudKql l%udxlh 8& uQ,øjHh i,lkak'

1' f.dvkexùfï uQ,O¾uh wkqj uq,skau bf,lafg%dak msfrkafka ldlaIslhg h' mjq,S nysIaldr uQ,O¾uh wkqj tu ldlaIslhg msßh yelafla bf,lafg%dak folla muKs'

tkï" f,i mgka .kak'

2' wk;=rej we;af;a ldlaIslh hs'

tkï" f,i ,súh yel'

3' ;j bf,lafg%dak 4 la msßh hq;= h' ;jo ñka wk;=rej we;af;a ldlaIsl

hs' ^f.dvkexùfï uQ,O¾uh&' ;jo ldlaIsl 3 la we;' tkï uq¿

bf,lafg%dak 6 la msßh yel' tkï ldlaIsl j,ska Tíng bf,lafg%dak fkdmsf¾'

tkï" bf,lafg%dak úkHdih fõ' yqkaâ kS;sh wkqj tys úkHdih ksrEmKh l< hq;af;a my; wdldrhg h'



m<uq uQ,øjH 38 ys bf,lafg%dak úkHdih

wNHdih myl ±lafjk tla tla uQ,øjH yd whk j, bf,lafg%dak úkHdih kS¾Kh lrkak'



mrudKql l%udxlh 1-20 olajd uQ,øjHj, m%:u whkSlrK Yla;s úp,k m%ia;drh

m<uq whkSlrK Yla;sh w¾:±laùu

o iïu; wjia:dfõ mj;sk uQ,øjH mrudKq ujq,hlska kHIaáhg ,sys,a j

u ne|S we;s bf,lafg%dakh ne.ska bj;a lr jdhquh tal Ok whk ujq,hla iEoSu i|yd iemhsh hq;= Yla;s m%udKh'

( ) ( )

wdj¾;hl jfï isg ol=Kg hdfï§ iuia:hla jYfhka whkSlrK Yla;sh jeäfõ'

ldKavh II isg III olajd;a ldKavh V isg VI olajd;a hdfï § fmkakqï

flfrk widudkH yeisÍu w¾O msÍu iy w¾O msÍu ksid we;s jk

wu;r ia:dhS;dj fya;= fjhs' iy bf,lafg%dksl úkHdih o wu;r ia:dhS;djla fmkakqï lrhs'


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tallh 01'4

mrudKql jHQyh - 4 ^wdj¾;s;d j.=j&

uQ,øjH j, mrudKql l%udxlh mokï lrf.k wdj¾;s;d j.=j f.dvk.d we;'

wdj¾;s;d j.=fõ uQ,sl j¾. lsÍï folls' 1' ldKav (Groups)

2' wdj¾; (Periods)

;jo uQ,øjH j, iyixhqc ljpfha bf,lafg%dak úoHdih mokï lr.ksñka fuu

uQ,øjH f.dkq j,g fnod we;' (𝑠, 𝑝, 𝑑, 𝑓) ^fuu f.dkq ms<sn|j úia;rd;aulj wldnksl ridhkh mdvfï§ úia;r flf¾&

fuu uQ,o%jH f.dkq j, tajdgu wkkH jQ ,laIK mj;S' óg wu;rj wdj;hla Tiafia .uka lsÍfï § o ldKavhla Tiafia .uka lsÍfï § o my; i|yka ,laIK j, l%udkql+, úp,khla fmkakqï lrhs'

1' legdhk iy wekdhk iE§u 2' TlaislrK wjia:d 3' TlaisyrK$TlaislrK yelshdj 4' úoHq;a iDK;dj 5' bf,lafg%dak nkaOQ;dj 6' mrudKql wrh



uQ,øjH fmkakqï lrk úp,k rgd

wdj¾; Tiafia bÈßhg ldKav Tiafia my<g 𝑠, 𝑝 f.dkqj,g wh;a

legdhk iy wekdhk iE§u

legdhk iy wekdhk iE§u ;SrKh jk idol folls' 1' ixhqc;d ljpfha mj;sk bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj 2' whkSlrK Yla;sh

legdhk idokq ,nk ldKav - 𝐼 1 , 𝐼𝐼 2 , 𝐼𝐼𝐼(3) wekdhk idokq ,nk ldKav - 𝑉 15 , 𝑉𝐼 16 , 𝑉𝐼𝐼(17)

ldKavh IV ^14& g wh;a uQ,øjH idudkHfhka ksoyia M4+ whk fkd

idohs' tajdfha m<uq jk" fo jk" f; jk yd isõ jk whkSlrK Yla;sj, tl;=j úYd, w.hla ùu fuhg fya;=j hs'

TlaislrK wjia:d

TlaislrK wjia:dj hkq uQ,øjHuh wjia:djg idfmalaI j

ixfhda.hl § mrudKqjl md,kh hgf;a mj;sk bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj ms<sn| ñkquls'



Wod (- 1 𝑁𝑎(𝑠) ys TlaislrK wjia:dj 0 jk w;r 𝑁𝑎+ ys TlaislrK wjia:dj +1 fõ' 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑠) ys fidaähï mj;skafka +1 TlaislrK wjia:dfjys h' Wod (- 2

TlaislrK wjia:dj iïnkaO u;l ;nd.; hq;= lreKq

o uQ,øjHuh wjia:dfõ§ ´kEu uQ,øjHhl TlaislrK wjia:dj 0 fõ'

o whkhl TlaislrK wjia:dj tys wdfrdamKhg iudk fõ'

o fmfrdlaihsvhl (−1) yd iqm¾Tlaihsvhl (−1

2) yerekq

fldg wfkl=;a ish¿u wjia:dj, ixfhda.hl mj;sk Tlaiscka j, TlaislrK wxlh −2 fõ'

o yhsv%hsvhl yerekq fldg wfkla ish¿u wjia:dj,§ ixfhda.hl mj;sk yhsv%cka ys TlaislrK wxlh +1 fõ'

o ´kEu ixfhda.hl mj;sk uQ,øjH j, TlaislrK wxl j, ùcSh tl;=j 0 fõ'

o ixfhda.hl§ uQ,øjHhlg meje;sh yels by< u TlaislrK wxlh tys ixhqc;d bf,lafg%dak ixLHdjg iudk fõ'

o iuyr uQ,øjHj,g ixfhdað; wjia:dfõ § úp,H TlaislrK

wjia:d ;sfí' wNHdih my; i|yka ixfhda. j, mj;sk ish¿u mrudKq i|yd TlaislrK wxlhka .Kkh lrkak' 𝐻𝐶𝑙, 𝐻2𝑂2, 𝐻2𝑂, 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3,𝐻3𝑃𝑂4, 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4

TlaisyrK yelshdj$ TlaislrK yelshdj

TlaislrKh yd TlaisyrKh

wdj¾;hla Tiafia bÈßhg ldKavh VII^17& olajd uQ,øjHj,



TlaislrKh ùfï yelshdj idudkHfhka wvq fõ'

ldKavhla Tiafia my<g TlaislrKh ùfï yelshdj idudkHfhka jeä fõ'

úoHq;a iDK;dj

wKqjl mj;sk nkaOkhl oS bf,lafg%dak ;ud foig wdl¾IKh lr .ekSfï úoHq;a RK;dj f,i ye|ska fõ'

úoHq;a RK;dj úúO mßudKj,g wkqj m%ldY lr we;' fmda,ska mßudKhg wkqj úúO uQ,øjHj, jvd;a iq,n TlaislrK wjia:dj i|yd úoHq;a RK;d w.h my; j.=fõ oelafõ'

^fuu w.hka w;rska iq,n uQ,o%jH j, úoHq;a iDK;d u;l ;nd .ekSu bÈßfha § jeo.;a úh yel' uq,a uQ,øjH j, úoHq;a iDK;d w.hka mj;skafka rgdjlg wkqj h' uola úuis,,af,ka n,kak'&

fmda,ska mßudKhg wkqj tla tla uQ,øjHh i|yd ksYaÑ; úoHq;a RK;d w.hla m%ldY lr we;s uq;a hï uQ,øjH mrudKqjl úoHq;a RK;dj tu mrudKqfõ mßirh ^uqyqïlrKh" wdfrdamKh" TlaislrK wxlh& u; fjkia fõ' ksoiqka ( 𝑁𝐻2

−,𝑁𝐻3 yd 𝑁𝐻4+ hk m%fNaoj, § 𝑁 ys úoHq;a RK;dj my;

f,i úp,kh fõ'

𝑁𝐻2− < 𝑁𝐻3 < 𝑁𝐻4

+

bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;dj

jdhquh uQ,øjH mrudKqjla tla bf,lafg%dakhla ,nd f.k jdhquh tal iDK whkhla njg m;a ùfï § isÿ jk Yla;s úm¾hdih

𝑋 𝑔 + 𝑒 → 𝑋−(𝑔)

fndfyda uQ,øjHj, m<uq jk bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;dj RK w.hla .kshs' thg fya;=j tl;= jQ bf,lafg%dakh kHIaál wdfrdamKh u`.ska wdl¾IKh lsÍu hs'



fo jk bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;dj ieu úg u Ok w.hla .kshs' thg fya;=j oekg u;a RK wdfrdams; whkhlg RK wdfrdams; bf,lafg%dakhla tl;= úh hq;= ùu hs'

fojk yd f;jk wdj¾;j,g wh;a uQ,øjHj, m<uq jk bf,lafg%dak

nkaOq;d

wdj¾;hla Tiafia jfï isg ol=Kg hdfï oS kHIaál wdfrdamKh jeä jk w;r mrudKql wrh wvq fõ' t neúka whkSlrKh Yla;sh jeä fõ' tu ksid wdj¾;hla Tiafia jfï isg ol=Kg hdfï oS legdhk iEoSfï m%jK;dj wvq jk w;r Tlaisydrlhla f,i ls%hd lsÍfï yelshdj o wvq fõ'

tfia u wdj¾;hla Tiafia jfï isg ol=Kg hdfï oS wekdhk ieoSfï yelshdj jeä jk w;r Tlaisldrlhla f,i ls%hd lsÍfï yelshdj o jeä fõ'

mrudKql wrh

- idudkHfhka kHIaáh yd bf,lafg%dak mj;sk ndysr;u Yla;s uÜgu

w;r ÿr mrudKql wrh f,i i,lkq ,efí'

- tfy;a bf,lafg%dakhla msysgk ia:dkh wúksYaÑ; neúka tys m%;sM,hla f,I mrudKql wrh m%ldY lsÍu wiSre h'

- t neúka mrudKql wrh úúO wdldrhg w¾: olajkq ,efí'

mrudKql wrh ^iy whkSlrK Yla;sh& flfrys n,mdk idOl folls'

1' ksjdrl wdprKh 2' iM, kHIaál wdfrdamKh

o wNHka;r Yla;suÜgïj, mj;sk bf,lafg%dak u`.ska ndysr;u bf,lafg%dak flfrys kHIaáh olajk wdl¾IKhg ndOd muqKqjkq ,efí' fuu n,mEu zksjdrl wdprKhZ kï fõ'

o kHIaáfha we;s fm%dafgdak u`.ska bf,lafg%dak j,dj wdl¾IKh

flf¾' fuu wdl¾IKfha yd ksjdrl wdprKfha iuia; n,mEu ziM, kHIaál wdfrdamKhZ f,i ye¢kafõ'



iyixhqc wrh

tl u uQ,øjHfha mrudKq folla iyixhqc j ne|S we;s úg tu mrudKq fol w;r wka;¾ kHIaál ÿßka yß wvla tys iyixhqc wrh f,i ye|skafõ'

iyixhqc wrh } 𝑑

2

mrudKql iy ixhqc wrh ldKavfha my<g hk úg jeä jk w;r

th wdj¾;hl jfï isg ol=Kg 18 jk ldKavh olajd wvq fõ'



jeka vZjd,aiaa wrh

wKq folla fyda mrudKq folla fyda tlsfklg yels ;dla <`.ska mj;sk úg" wdikakfha mj;sk kHIaá fol w;r ÿßka yß wvla jeka vZjd,aiaa wrh kï fõ'

f,dayl wrh

f,dayl oe,sfia we;s hdno legdhk kHIaá folla w;r we;s ÿßka yß wvla f,dayl wrh fõ'

whksl wrh

whk f.da,dldr hehs yd ksYaÑ; m%udKhlska hq;=he hs Wml,amkh lr >k iaMálhl mj;sk whkhlg mjrkq ,nk wrh whksl wrh hs'

>k iaMálhl wka;¾ kHIaál ÿr ks¾Kh lsÍug X- lsrK új¾;kh fhdod .; yels h' wka;¾ kHIaál ÿr wkqj whksl wrh .Kkh l< yels h'

idudkHfhka iDK whkhlg tys WodiSk mrudKqjlg jvd úYd, whksl wrhla mj;sk w;r Ok whkhlg tys WodiSk mrudKqjg jvd l=vd whksl wrhla mj;S'

whkSlrK Yla;sh

^m<uq uQ,øjH lsysmfhys whkSlrK Yla;shkays úp,kh fmr fldgfiys bÈßm;a lrk ,§'&



whkSlrK Yla;sh flfrys n,mdk idOl - 1' kHIaál wdfrdamKh 2' mrudKql wrh 3' ksjdrl wdprKh 4' bf,lafg%dak úkHdih ^ldlaIslj, bf,lafg%dak ;ks j fyda hq., jYfhka mj;S o hkak&

wNHdih my; i|yka uQ,øjH lsysfmys bf,lafg%dak nkaOQ;d w.hka ms<sn|j Tnf.a meyeÈ,s lsÍï fudkjdo@

1' 𝑁 yd 𝑃 w;r;a 𝐹 yd 𝐶𝑙 w;r;a mj;akd bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;d fjki

2' 𝐵𝑒" 𝑀𝑔 yd 𝑁 ys widudkH bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;d w.h

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