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ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITYINSTITUTE OF LANGUAGE STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE(GRADUATE PROGRAMME)

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GRAMMAR TEACHING METHODSEMPLOYED BY TELEVISED TEACHER AND NON-PLASMA

SCHOOL TEACHERS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCETO GRADE NINE STUDENTS OF JIMMA

TOWN HIGH SCHOOLS

SEYOUM HAILE

FEBRUARY 2008


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COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GRAMMAR TEACHING METHODS

EMPLOYED BY TELEVISED TEACHER AND NON-PLASMASCHOOL TEACHERS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE

TO GRADE NINE STUDENTS OF JIMMATOWN HIGH SCHOOLS

SEYOUM HAILE

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGNLANGUAGES AND LITERATURE (GRADUATE PROGRAM) INPARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS (MA) IN TEACHINGENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (TEFL)

FEBRUARY 2008


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ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITYINSTITUTE OF LANGUAGE STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GRAMMAR TEACHING METHODSEMPLOYED BY TELEVISED TEACHER AND NON-PLASMA

SCHOOL TEACHERS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCETO GRADE NINE STUDENTS OF JIMMA

TOWN HIGH SCHOOLS

SEYOUM HAILE

APPROVED BY EXAMINING BOARD:

Advisor Signature

________________________________ _______________

Examiner

________________________________ ________________

Examiner

________________________________ ________________


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to my advisor Dr. Hailom Banteyirga for his constructive advices

and critical comments from the beginning to the end of the research work. His

valuable advice and logical comments helped me a great deal to shape the

paper in its present form. His fatherly approach also played a key role for the

successful accomplishment of the paper. Without his help, this paper could

have not taken its present form.

Equally, my heartfelt gratitude goes to Addis Ababa University for covering the

expense of the research work.

I would alsolike to extend my sincere thanks to Ato Miftah Abdu vice director

of Jireen high school and Ato Fuad Abafita director of Setto Semero high school

for their permission to conduct the research in their schools. Moreover, my

thanksgo to English language teachers Ato Jemal, Ato Takele, Ato Belay, Ato

Kemal and W/ro Nigist of Jireen high school and Ato Wondimu Sedeka, Ato

Alemu and W/ro Belyu from Setto Semero high school for their willingness to

be observed, for willing to be interviewed and for encouraging their students to

fill the questionnaire.

I am also thankful to my colleagues Ato Negash Getachew and Ato Teshome

Bekele for their proof reading the paper.

My indebted thank also goes to Hayemanot Tekalegn and Rahel Tekalegn for

typing and editing the paper time and again.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Acknowledgements --------------------------------------------------------------------- i

Table of Contents ----------------------------------------------------------------------- ii

List of Tables----------------------------------------------------------------------------- vi

Acronyms -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- vii

Abstract ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- viii

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------1

1.1. Statement of the Problem ---------------------------------------------------- 1

1.2. Purpose of the Study ----------------------------------------------------------3

1.3. Significance of the Study ----------------------------------------------------- 4

1.4. Scope of the Study------------------------------------------------------------- 4

1.5. Limitation of the Study ------------------------------------------------------- 5

1.6. Operational Definition -------------------------------------------------------- 5

CHAPTER TWO

Review of Related Literature----------------------------------------------------------- 7

2.1. Basic Concepts of Grammar ------------------------------------------------- 7

2.2. Historical Overview of Grammar -------------------------------------------- 9

2.3. The Communicative Approach to Grammar Teaching -------------------10

2.3.1. Integration of Language Skills -------------------------------------10

2.3.2. Authenticity and Variety of Contexts -----------------------------11

2.3.3. Creative use of Language ------------------------------------------- 12

2.4. Deductive and Inductive Grammar Teaching Approaches -------------- 13

2.5. Stages of Communicative Grammar Teaching ----------------------------16

2.5.1. Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------16

2.5.2. Presentation ----------------------------------------------------------17

2.5.3. Practice --------------------------------------------------------------- 17

2.5.4. Production ------------------------------------------------------------ 17


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2.6 Tasks for Teaching Grammar Communicatively--------------------------- 19

2.7. The Role of Teachers and Learners in Foreign Language Class --------20

2.8. Techniques of Communicative Grammar Teaching ---------------------- 22

2.8.1. Role Play -----------------------------------------------------------------22

2.8.2. Pictures -------------------------------------------------------------------23

2.8.3. Graphs -------------------------------------------------------------------- 23

2.8.4. Songs --------------------------------------------------------------------- 23

2.8.5. Poetry --------------------------------------------------------------------- 24

2.8.6. Telling Stories ----------------------------------------------------------- 24

2.9. Classroom Organization for Teaching Grammar Communicatively

and Feedback -------------------------------------------------------------------25

2.9.1. Pair Work -----------------------------------------------------------------25

2.9.2. Group Work -------------------------------------------------------------- 25

2.9.3. Giving Feedback ---------------------------------------------------------26

2.10. Instructional Television: What is Instructional Television?------------ 26

2.10.1. Types of Instructional Television Programs ----------------------- 27

2.10.2. Role of Instructional Television --------------------------------------27

2.10.3. Stages in Teaching Language through Instructional

Television ---------------------------------------------------------------- 29

2.10.3.1. Before the Program (Pre-teaching) ----------------------- 29

2.10.3.2. During the Program (while-teaching)-------------------- 30

2.10.3.3. After the Program (post-teaching)------------------------ 31

2.10.4. Instructional Television in Ethiopia --------------------------------- 32

2.11. Comparative Research Evidences from Researchers on

Instructional Television and the Classroom Teacher in the

Teaching-Learning Process -------------------------------------------------- 342.12. Research Findings on Grammar Teaching ------------------------------- 35


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CHAPTER THREE

Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------36

3.1. Context -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36

3.2. Determining Target Population and Sample Size ------------------------- 36

3.3. Method of Data Collection and Sampling Technique -------------------- 37

3.4. Instruments for Data Collection---------------------------------------------38

3.4.1. Classroom Observation------------------------------------------------- 38

3.4.2. Interview ------------------------------------------------------------------40

3.4.3. Questionnaire ------------------------------------------------------------ 41

3.5. Data Collection Procedure----------------------------------------------------42

3.6. Techniques of Data Analysis ------------------------------------------------ 43

CHAPTER FOUR

Presentation and Data Analysis ----------------------------------------------------- 44

4.1. Analysis of Observed Data --------------------------------------------------- 44

4.1.1. Introducing the Grammar Lessons --------------------------------- 44

4.1.2. Grammar Presentation in the two Schools ------------------------ 46

4.1.3. Techniques and Activities of Grammar Teaching-----------------49

4.1.4. Classroom Organization ----------------------------------------------52

4.1.5. Medium of Instruction ------------------------------------------------53

4.1.6. Time Allocation to Grammar Tasks --------------------------------- 55

4.1.7. Integration of Grammar with Other Skills ------------------------- 56

4.1.8. Access to Class and Home Take Tasks-----------------------------58

4.1.9. Feedback and Correction--------------------------------------------- 59

4.2. Analysis of the Interview------------------------------------------------------ 60

4.2.1. Teachers Response about their Attitude towards theGrammar Lessons ----------------------------------------------------- 61

4.2.2. Teachers Response about Participation and Classroom

Organization------------------------------------------------------------- 63

4.2.3. Language of Instruction ---------------------------------------------- 65

4.2.4. Teachers Response about Home Take Tasks and Feedback---- 66


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4.2.5. Teachers Response about Weak and Strong Sides of the

Televised teacher ------------------------------------------------------ 66

4.3. Analysis of Questionnaire Results ------------------------------------------ 68

CHAPTER FIVE

Conclusions and Recommendations ------------------------------------------------- 78

5.1. Conclusions -------------------------------------------------------------------- 78

5.2. Recommendations ------------------------------------------------------------- 79

Bibliography -------------------------------------------------------------------82

Appendix A --------------------------------------------------------------------- 87

Appendix B --------------------------------------------------------------------- 107

Appendix C --------------------------------------------------------------------- 132

Appendix D --------------------------------------------------------------------- 138

Appendix E --------------------------------------------------------------------- 142

Appendix F---------------------------------------------------------------------- 144

Appendix G --------------------------------------------------------------------- 146

Appendix H --------------------------------------------------------------------- 148

Appendix I ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 150

Appendix J---------------------------------------------------------------------- 152

Appendix K --------------------------------------------------------------------- 154


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LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 4.1: Students Response about their Attitude towards Grammar-------- 68

Table 4.2: Students Response about their Attitude towards the Nature of

Grammar Lessons and Exercises they Learn---------------------------- 69

Table 4.3A: Students Response about Homework and Class work------------- 71

Table 4.3B: Students Response about how often their Teachers give them

Class and take Home Tasks ---------------------------------------------- 71

Table 4.4: Students Response about Group and pair Activities----------------- 72

Table 4.5: Students Response about the Adequacy of the Time given by

their Teachers when doing Grammar Tasks ------------------------------ 73

Table 4.6: Students Response about their Problem in Grammar --------------- 74

Table 4.7: Students Response about their Attitude towards the Continuity

of Grammar Instruction through Plasma Television --------------------75


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ACRONYMS

CGT: Communicative Grammar Teaching

CLT: Communicative Language Teaching

ETV: Educational Television

ITV: Instructional Television


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ABSTRACT

The main objective of the study is to compare the grammar teaching methodsused by the televised teacher (plasma television) and the non-plasma school

teachers in relation to the theory of communicative language teaching.

To achieve the objective, Jireen and Setto Semero high schools were selected as a

study area both from Jimma town. The former uses plasma television and thelatter does not. For this study, 410 students (i.e. 210 from the plasma school and

200 from the non-plasma school) and 6 interested teachers (3 from each school)were taken as sample subjects. To select the subjects from students, systematicrandom sampling technique was used. As to the teachers, the interested oneswere included in the study. To gather valuable information from the subjects,three instruments (observation, student questionnaire and teachers interview)were used. The main instrument for the data collection was observation.

The result of the study indicated that the televised teacher was teachinggrammar inductively at first and then deductively to explain the rules in the formof summary. The data obtained from the three instruments also showed that thetelevised teacher was frequently incorporating techniques such as pictures, realimages of people doing variety of activities (hunting, fishing, playing football),insects, geographical sights (like desert areas) to contextualize grammar lessons.It was also found that she was providing students with activities such as

problem solving and information gap. However, speed of the televised teacher,her failure to understand students' background and the learning environment,large class size and limited role of the classroom teachers were found the majorhindering factors in implementing communicative grammar teaching effectively.

On the other hand, the information obtained from the non-plasma school showedthat the teachers were teaching grammar deductively (by explaining the rulesexplicitly) using the isolated sentences found in the textbook. In this school, thedecontextualized and isolated nature of the tasks, absence of supportivematerials such as reference books indicating how to teach grammar, lack of skill

in some teachers, absence of workshop and training programs, and large classsize were found the major hindering factors in implementing communicativegrammar teaching.

Finally, based on the result of the three instruments, it is concluded that the televised

teacher teaches grammar relatively better than the non-plasma school teachers. However,

the study also approved that there are areas which are difficult for the televised teacher

but easy for the local classroom teachers and vice versa when teaching grammar. Hence,

it is recommended that grammar should be taught by plasma television with active

involvement of classroom teachers.


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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Statement of the Problem

It is important to have the knowledge and skill of grammar for meaningful

communication. People may not pass the intended message meaningfully

unless they arrange words in at least their minimum acceptable order. For this

reason, grammar is viewed as the central area of a language around which

skills like reading, writing, speaking, vocabulary and other components of a

language such as meaning and function revolve (Ur, 1988). Of course, grammar

by itself as an end product of a language may not be as such important, but it

plays a key role in communication. For example, when we request, invite, or

order people to do something, we use grammar as a means of passing the

intended message. In relation to this, Cook (2001: 20) says "Grammar is

sometimes called the computational system that relates sound and meaning

trivial in itself but impossible to manage without". Again, Batstone (1994: 3) on

his part argues that "Language without grammar would certainly leave us

seriously handicapped". The reason for this is that language is broad and we

manage it because there are a set of rules that govern how units of meaning are

constructed. Hence, teaching foreign language grammar has a paramount

importance for good command of the foreign language where there is no natural

way of acquiring the language (Ibid).

In spite of the fact that teaching English grammar is essential, the teaching

methods and techniques employed in a classroom can have either negative or

positive effect on the development of communicative competence of the learner.More specifically, if the method becomes effective and enjoyable, the form and

meaning can be understood easily. On the other hand, if the methods are not

effective and enjoyable, students may fail to understand and use the structure.

In short, the types of grammar teaching methods and techniques used by

language teachers can affect not only grammar skill but also the development of


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other language skills (speaking, reading, listening etc) and the overall language

performance of learners (Cunningsworth, 1984). It is because of this reason

that the researcher wanted to conduct research on grammar teaching methods.

In the past, experience showed that Ethiopian students were being taught

grammar using the traditional approach. Teachers were teaching the rules of

the language through explicit explanation using examples. After the

explanation, students most of the time were told to construct their own

sentences similar to the example. The researcher himself is the product of that

method. But, scholars such as Cunningsworth (1984) and McDonough and

Shaw (1993) criticize this kind of instruction for it brings fragmented and

unrealistic language items besides discouraging classroom interaction.

Believing that the main purpose of language is communication, the present

Ministry of Education has changed the old method to a new method by

introducing instructional television (ITV) as a main means of achieving the

objective. The program designers believed that teaching English language by

ITV would enhance learner participation. It is with this assumption that the

English programs through ITV have been designed based on the revised English

syllabus (Ethiopia today, 2004). This is also in line with what Dale (1969)

claims when he writes that instructional television is one of the instructional

media that plays a significant role in facilitating the teaching of a foreign

language. In other words, Dale says ITV can create contextualized situation in

which language items are presented.

However, Dale says that introducing a program using new technology may faceproblems of implementation. Supporting this idea, local research finding by

Tatek (1994) indicates that schools who have been teaching English using the

ITV are not effective. The reason for this according to Tatek is that the ITV is

very fast and as a result students could not follow it attentively.


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In Ethiopia, since the coming of ITV, experience shows that there is controversy

about the language teaching methods of the ITV and the conventional classroom

teacher. Some people say that the conventional way of teaching (non-plasma) is

better while others believe that the ITV teaches better. Apart from such

controversy, there is no local research that tried to solve the problem as far as the

knowledge of the researcher is concerned. Thus, the inspiration for this study

mainly arose from the researchers interest to address this problem and to put a

ground base for further work on this area.

This study, therefore, attempts to compare the grammar teaching methods and

techniques applied by ITV and the classroom teachers (non-plasma instruction) in

relation to the theory of communicative grammar teaching.

1.2. Purpose of the Study

The main objective of this study is to compare the grammar teaching methods

and techniques employed by televised teacher and non-plasma school teachers

in relation to CLT. Specifically, the study has tried to answer the following

questions:

1. What methods and techniques do the televised teacher and the non-plasma school teachers use to teach grammar lessons?

2. What procedures do they follow to teach grammar lesson?3. Are there differences in methods? If there are differences, what are they?4. Whose teaching method is established based on the theory of

communicative grammar teaching?

5. Are there factors that hinder the creation of interactive grammar class?6. What are the nature of tasks they prepare and what class organization

they use to teach grammar?

7. Does the textbook contain interactive tasks? And how do the teachersand students see the grammar lessons?

8. What role do the teachers play?


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1.3. Significance of the Study

The results of the study could serve as source for the Ministry of Education and

for any concerned body who wants to modify the English language teaching

through instructional television and the classroom teachers. Furthermore,classroom teachers could benefit from it by way of evaluating their method of

grammar teaching in relation to the theory of Communicative Grammar

Teaching (CGT) methods and techniques. Again, for the textbook designers, it

could help them to revise the grammar lessons and tasks they prepared. The

results of the study could also initiate others who are interested in carrying out

further research in the area in wider scope.

1.4. Scope of the Study

This study focuses on grammar teaching. It was conducted on two

governmental high schools at Jimma town. The schools are Jireen and Setto

Semero high schools. The former teaches using plasma television and the latter

without it. Both schools teach grade 9 and 10 students. But this study is

limited to only grade 9 grammar teaching-learning. To collect data, therefore,

12 sections (6 from plasma and 6 from non-plasma school) were taken. That

means, the observation, video recording and distribution of questionnaire was

made in 6 sections of the plasma school; and the interview was also conducted

with the teachers who were teaching these sections.Likewise, 6 sections were

taken from the non-plasma school. And the observation, video recording and

questionnaire distribution was made in these sections. The interview in this

school was also conducted only with teachers who were teaching these

sections.


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1.5. Limitation of the Study

Basically, this study is new and untouched area, i.e. no local study has been

conducted on this particular area. Therefore, there was shortage of source

materials.

The researcher also faced problem during the data collection. He wanted to

observe more teachers. But, some of them were not interested to be observed.

As a result, the researcher was forced to observe only those who were

interested. There was also electrical problem in the plasma school. The

researcher first wanted to record three grammar lessons from this school, but

because of the electrical problem, he recorded only two lessons.

Furthermore, the research finding could have been more reliable if the

researcher had included other schools from other areas. But there was time

constraint to do so.

1.6. Operational Definition

Method: In this study, method refers to what Richards and Rodgers (2001)

describe. It contains detailed specifications of the content (i.e. lessons

and tasks), roles of teachers and students and the teaching

techniques and procedures. It refers to the over all plan used for the

orderly presentation of the grammar lessons.

Technique: Refers to the classroom implementation used to achieve the

objective of the instruction. Here, it refers to the pictures, the real

images, poem etc and the classroom organizations used to accomplish

or carry out the lessons and tasks.

Televised teacher (Plasma teacher): The teacher who teaches the English

lessons on the screen from the main station. Televised teacher has

also equal meaning with the word 'she' because the teacher is female.


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Assistants: In some parts of the discussion the word assistants is used

alternative to the phrase classroom teachers of plasma school

because their role is limited to assisting the televised teacher when

she needs them.

Classroom teachers: Refers to the English teachers of the non-plasma school.

Here, classroom teachers has equal meaning with the phrase non-

plasma school teachers.

Home-take Tasks: Tasks to be done at home by students.

Modern Grammar Teaching: Refers to Communicative Grammar Teaching.


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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1. Basic Concepts of Grammar

Linguists have been studying grammar for centuries and it remains an object of

learning for many school children all over the world (Batstone, 1994). If this is

the case, what is grammar? What does it involve? Why do we concern ourselves

with it? This topic attempts to answer these questions.

Different scholars define grammar in different ways. But, the general content of

the definitions is similar. For example, Ur (1988: 4) relates grammar with the

arrangement of words in a language and defines it as "The way a language

manipulates and combines words or bits of words in order to form longer

meaning". Harmer (1987: 1) on his part defines it as "The study and practice of

the rules by which words change their forms and are combined in to

sentences". Stevic (1982: 187) also defines it as "A way of telling as accurately

and clearly as possible just how a particular language arranges its smaller

forms, its word stress, prefixes, suffixes, intonations and the like with in its

larger constructions such as words, clauses and sentences". The scholars'

definition about grammar can be made clear using the following cluster of

words taken from Batstone (1994: 3-4).

Up and he that the in Bills Jane stand announce spring marry. Now, can

we say that these clusters of words convey meaning? In their present situation,

neither a reader nor a listener can understand the meaning they convey as

such combination of words is not acceptable by the native speakers of thelanguage. However, if we combine these clusters of words using the rule of

subject + verb + object/complementas Bill stood up and announced that

he and Jane would be marrying in the spring, our perception of things

becomes clear. This sentence indicates that the announcement of Bill about the

marriage is in the past and at the same time his marriage to Jane is an


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intention than a fact. He did not, for example, announce that he had surely

married Jane. The point is that the clusters of words are rearranged in some

order and at the same time a number of modifications have been made to make

the meaning clear and to be easily understood by audience. For example, stand

has been changed into stoodand marryhas been expanded into would be

marrying. Furthermore, it is possible to have other kinds of modifications

based on the type of message one has intended to pass and based on the

occurrence of the event (present, past, future).For example, stand can be

changed to standsor standingand if we add the auxiliary verbs we can have

mightbestanding, has stoodand a number of other options.

Any language is governed by a certain rule developed by the agreement of native

speakers. This rule helps us to use the language for different purposes by

modifying and arranging words in different positions. Grammar, as a rule of a

language, is a system of creating meaning and function to any kind of

communication and a means of creating smooth relationship of the form,

meaning and function of a language. Grammar, therefore, helps us to be

creative in our spoken and written communication and for our message to be

understood by the interlocutor (Batstone, 1994). Saying it differently, grammar

is a systematizing force that allows human being to be endlessly creative with

finite set of resources. It is for this reason that we concern ourselves with

grammar. Describing it further, Batstone has to say the following about

grammar:

The question how words can or can not be combined in

sentences is one important part of grammar where it is theconcern of syntax. Through grammar we can specify the ways

in which words can be systematically modified throughalterations and additions. These modifications are part ofmorphology and they help us to convey functional concepts like

time, number and gender. At its heart, then, grammar consistsof two fundamental ingredients-syntax and morphology, whichtogether serve to enhance and sharpen the expression ofmeaning (Bastone, 1994: 3-4).


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2.2. Historical Overview of Grammar

Language teaching, particularly grammar teaching, has a long history.

According to Stern (1983: 131), grammar was taught beginning from the

classical era. It was also taught during the middle ages in the 12th

- 15th

centuries. During that time the traditional language school, which was

dominated by Latin and Greek language learning philosophy, was considered

primarily as the study of its grammar.

In the grammar translation method, grammar was given due attention and was

considered both as an end by itself and also as a means to enable the learner to

read and write. In the first half of the 20th century, structural linguists gave

attention to grammar teaching. The structural view to language teaching placed

grammar in the center of language learning and teaching. It viewed language

mainly as a system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning.

In other words, structural linguists emphasize the idea that language learning

should be seen in terms of the mastery of the elements in the grammar system

(that is, phonological units, grammar units, and lexical items). According to the

structural view, the mastery of the elements of grammar provides the learner an

opportunity to effective preparation for the realization of communication

(Widdowson, 1978; Richards and Rodgers, 2001).

In the late 1950s, grammar was considered as unscientific and unworthy while

linguistics was given a higher consideration. In other words, the coming of

communicative approach to language teaching brought a negative reaction

against explicit grammar teaching in schools. As a result, in the first half of the

20th century teaching grammar knowledge as a focus and translation as a

means was overlooked by those scholars who began to see grammar teaching

as the transmission of the grammatical system in context (Martin, 1994).

Harmer's expression about the changing status of grammar in the history of

language teaching is evidence to this:


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If grammar were a person it might be actor whose popularityfluctuated widely over the decades as he or she got good roles,

then made some bad movies, then was rediscovered, thendisappeared for a bit only to be suddenly cast in leading rolesagain. If grammar were a style of clothing, it would probably be

flared trousers, popular in the 19 20s and 30s, then abandonedthen popular again in the 60s and 70s, then abandoned

conclusively and completely but now a modest comeback.Grammar, in other words, is a fashion victim (Harmer, 1998 inEnglish teaching professional, V6, p. 38).

2.3. The Communicative Approach to Grammar Teaching

In this approach, grammar is viewed as a means by which we organize

messages in any communicative activity. Language structures are seen as a

means to an end, not an end by themselves. The focus of this approach is not

mainly on form but on meaning in context (Atkins, Hailom and Nuru, 1995). In

other words, this approach says that the main function of a language is

communication and hence grammar should be seen as a subservient to the

communication system (Krashen, 1985).

Scholars such as Cunningsworth (1995), Fortune (1992), Freeman (1986) and

Nuttal (1989) claim that effective grammar teaching in a communicative

approach to second language teaching/learning need to have natural features

such as integration of language skills, authenticity and variety of contexts and

creative use of language.

2.3.1. Integration of Language Skills

In a real-life communication situation, one who listens to the information

usually gives feedback through speaking or writing. For example, a student wholistens to a lecture takes notes and also asks questions if there is something

which is not clear. Then, the student reads his/her notes. In all these

processes, the student is expected to note the linguistic forms, meaning and

functions of the language (Freeman, 1986: 131). Similar to Freemans idea, Ur


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(1988: 6) has summarized integration of grammar with other skills in the

following table:

Skills Form Meaning

Listening Perception and recognition of

the spoken form of the

structure

Comprehension of what the

spoken structure mean in

context

Speaking Production of well formed

examples in speech

Use of the structure to convey

meanings in speech

Reading Perception and recognition of

the written form

Comprehension of what the

written structure means in

context

Writing Production of well formed

examples in writing

Use of the structure to convey

meanings in writing

According to Ur, since a real-life communication is the integration of language

skills, grammar activities designed for students should lead towards developing

various language skills. Integration of grammar with other skills, however, does

not mean that one should not have area of grammar focus on a particular task

to the exclusion of other skills (Nunan, 1989).

2.3.2. Authenticity and Variety of Contexts

In the real world communication, the aim of the encoder is to impart his/her

intended meaning. That is, he/she does not strictly follow the so-called

grammar rule as the language is authentic. Similarly, communicative approach

to second language teaching/learning calls for authentic materials that create

favorable environment for students to exercise the target language items in a

real situation. Lee (1995: 323) explains authentic material as "A text which is

not written for teaching purpose, but for real-life communicative purpose where

the writer has a certain message to pass on to the reader."


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Once again, Lee says authentic texts are useful for students to develop their

communicative competence and make them aware of the conventions of

communication. It enables students to transfer what they learn in the

classroom to the real-life situation. This scholar further says that if teachers

want to teach real English just as it functions in contextually appropriate ways

other than a collection of linguistic forms, they have to refer to how the native

speakers of the target language actually put it into communicative use.

In spite of the importance of authentic materials for the improvement of second

language teaching/learning, there seems to have a problem with the authentic

materials themselves. For one thing, the way they are written and the

structures that are used to produce such materials may remain beyond the

level of students' understanding. For another thing, the context they use to

clarify the message may not be appropriate to the students current level of

understanding. For these reasons, authentic materials may not be always

suitable for teaching foreign language. In short, there can be a gap between

what is theoretically said about the use of authentic materials and when they

are practically applied in foreign language classroom. So, teachers should be

careful enough when they use such materials in foreign language class

(Peackok, 1987).

2.3.3. Creative use of Language

In a natural communication situation, different forms may be employed to

mean the same thing and also a particular thing may be said in different forms.

According to Freeman (1986), a natural system of communication should be

reflected in a second language classroom activity. What and how a student says

something should not be predetermined by his/her interlocutor. Freeman also

says "If the exercise is tightly controlled so that students can only say

something in one way, the speaker has no choice and the exchange, therefore,

is not communicative" (Freeman, 1986: 733).


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Once again, Cunningsworth (1995) and Ur (1996) say that classroom activities

should be productive and must lead towards free use of the target language in

expressing one's feelings, beliefs, views, attitude etc. Cunningsworth further

claims that classroom activities should allow language use creatively and

should be personalized if possible. In order to realize this, Cunnigsworth says

that learning should be carried out "... in a non-judgmental atmosphere, where

there is a positive attitude towards error" (pp: 99). Generally, the author

suggests that grammar tasks have to be designed in a way that helps learners

use the target language spontaneously.

2.4. Deductive and Inductive Grammar Teaching

Approaches

Deductive grammar teaching refers to the presentation of grammar rules

explicitly. In other words, the teacher explains how a particular sentence or

phrase is formed by stating the rules. For example, to teach present perfect

tense a teacher may explain the rule subject + has/have + V3 +

object/complement by writing exemplary sentences. Based on the rules,

students are expected to construct sentences of their own (Thornbury, 1997).

Inductive grammar teaching, on the other hand, refers to the teaching of

grammar instruction without stating the grammar rules explicitly. In other

words, if we make the students to arrive at the rule of the language by

themselves from the presented tasks or texts, it is an inductive teaching. The

inductive approach is also called the discovery approach to grammar teaching.

Proponents of inductive grammar teaching believe that making students to

work out grammar items by themselves gives greater benefit in terms of

accuracy and fluency than explaining the rules explicitly (Thornbury, 1997).


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In spite of the agreement on the distinction of deductive and inductive

approaches, there seems no agreement among scholars about how to teach

grammar.

Some scholars such as Widdowson (1978) and Shahidullah (1995) indicate that

deductive way of grammar teaching is not appropriate as it enhances the

development of usage rather than the use. They say that the deductive

presentation is very much similar to the grammar translation method in which

the teacher explains the rules. According to these scholars, this kind of

teaching does not foster the development of learners communicative

competence. For example, Widdowson (1978: 19) says:

The evidence seems to be that learners who haveacquired a good deal of knowledge of the usage of aparticular language find themselves at a loss when theyare confronted with actual instances of use. The teaching ofusage does not appear to guarantee knowledge of use. Theteaching of use, however, does seem to guarantee thelearning of usage. This being so, it would seem to besensible to design language teaching courses withreference to use.

As there are supporters of the inductive approach to grammar teaching, there

are also supporters of the deductive approach. For example, Ellis (1994) claims

that explicit attention to grammar forms helps learners notice those forms

when they occur in natural contexts. She says if students are taught the

grammar rules explicitly, it helps them to monitor or edit their mistakes during

communication. Harmer (1987) on his part says that many modern courses

often teach structure explicitly and then make learners to use that structure as

part of functional conversation. He further says that explicit grammar

instruction does not distort the natural order of acquisition, but speeds up the

progress along it.

Again, in his topic about shortcomings of CLT, Tsai-Yu Chen (1995) indicates

that the assumption that grammatical accuracy can be developed in the


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classroom after communication using the language is proved ineffective by

immersion research findings. For example, Harmerly (1987) cited in Tsai- Yu

Chen (1995) reviewed six studies to evaluate the effect of the immersion

approach based on acquisition/ natural approaches. Then, he concluded that

the grammatical competence of immersed students is characterized by

fossilization or classroom pidgin while communicating freely. He criticized for

any method failing to emphasize structure before communication asputting the

cart before the horse. The result, according to him, is that successful but

grammatically inaccurate communicators. Likewise, Nunan (1989) indicates the

close interrelation of form and meaning. The author points out that knowledge

of grammar plays a decisive role for effective communication. So, which one

should we teach first? Should we teach the usage (knowledge of the grammar

rules) deductively at first and then the use (communication) or the reverse?

It is undeniable fact that the main function of a language is communication

and the main purpose of teaching grammar is to help students develop their

communicative competence. However, becoming totally dependent on inductive

or deductive approaches is not an appropriate way of grammar teaching. The

reason for this is that neither we have homogeneous classroom setting nor the

same learning styles and strategies among our students. More specifically,

some students can learn better if they are taught grammar rules deductively

followed by contextualized communicative exercises to enhance the actual use

of the structure they have learned. Others may learn grammar better

subconsciously if they are motivated to discuss using the language to arrive at

the rule (through the inductive approach), which is similar to what Widdowson

and Shahidullah are saying. In relation to this, Celce-Murcia (1991) says thatteachers should not ignore one at the expense of the other as both of them are

mutually interdependent. She has put the idea as follows:


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Communicative competence should be seen to subsumelinguistic competence, not to replace it. We claim that

linguistic accuracy is as much a part of communicativecompetence as being able to get ones meaning across or tocommunicate in a socio-linguistically appropriate manner.

Thus, teaching grammar means enabling languagestudents to use linguistic forms accurately, meaningfully

and appropriately (pp. 288).

Good grammar instruction, therefore, should employ both approaches wherever

possible; sometimes explicit attention of form and other times letting students

work out the meanings and forms by themselves from communicative tasks.

Corder (1973) in Celce Murcia (1991; 292) summarized the idea in the following

way:

What little we know about the psychological processof second language learning, either from theory orfrom practical experience suggests that the

combination of induction and deduction produces thebest result

2.5. Stages of Grammar Teaching in CLT

The modern grammar teaching approach says that students learn better when

they are provided with tasks that resemble real-life. Hence, Communicativelessons for teaching grammar according to Sysoyev (1999) and Harmer (1991)

should integrate the form and the meaning consisting of four equally important

stages namely introduction, presentation, practice and production.

2.5.1. Introduction

It usually begins with warm-up activities and with active motivation. A teacher

can ask what students know about the topic and encourage them to write

sentences of their own.Here, the teacher can organize the students into pair or

group or he/she can make it independent work.


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2.5.2. Presentation

Following the introduction, students can be given discussion tasks illustrating

a certain grammar rule and the teacher could tell them to discover the hidden

rules of the language. Here again, the teacher can organize the class into pair

or group.

After the students tried their best, the teacher tells his/her students the

grammar rules explicitly. This means, depending on the level of difficulty of the

particular grammatical construction, a good teacher is expected to explain or

summarize what was previously discovered, focusing on form.

Explanation is important because students feel safer when they know the rules

and when they have some sources to go back to in case of confusion. Besides, it

serves as a bridge between what students consider theory or what is usually

given in textbooks and the practical use, what students have discovered

(Sysoyeve, 1999).

2.5.3. Practice

The third one is practice stage. During this time, the teacher can provide some

practice exercises from the material introduced or input provided in the

presentation stage. Sometimes, activities similar to the presentation stage can be

given to make students practice the structure. This is the stage where accuracy is

given emphasis (Shahidullah, 1995).

2.5.4. Production

This is the final stage in grammar teaching. If we stop at the practice stage and do

not encourage production, students may not be able to use language. It is

important to understand that learning or mastering a language does not only

mean internalizing or in taking the grammar rules but also developing the skills or

abilities to use the rules. In other words, grammar is taught mainly not to store


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in students mind as knowledge but to be applied in real-life. Shahidulah

(1995) stresses that the main purpose of teaching grammar is not to

accumulate knowledge of rules, but to enable students apply the learned rules

in actual communication. In this stage, the teacher can prepare pair or group

discussion to share ideas and experiences. After this, he/she can give them

paragraph writing task about what they discussed, just to see whether they

could use the structure in writing (Ibid). But, it does not mean that the

language teacher must follow these steps all the time. It depends on the nature

of the lesson and tasks and on the objective of the instruction. All the stages

may not be conducted in one class period (Celce Murcia, 1991).

The following sample lesson is taken from Shahidulah (1995: 1) to illustrate

how a particular grammar lesson (article) is taught.

Step 1 Warm up activities (Exploration)

Motivate students to learn, check what the students already know about article.

Ask them to discuss the following in pairs.

a. What is article?b. How many articles are there?c. What are the articles in English?d. When are they used?e. Ask students to write few sentences using articles. When they finish

writing, ask them to underline the articles.

Step 2 Presentation

Ask students to read the following passage, underline the articles in thepassage and tell them to explain why each of the articles has been used.

A human chain was formed in front ofa Budhist temple in the city yesterday

demanding an immediate arrest and trial of the killers of Buddhist monk

Ganojyoti Mohastobir. Ganojyoti Assassination Trial Movement Committee


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organized the human chain as part of its series of agitation programs. A rally

was also held on the temple premises where the speakers demanded

immediate arrest and trial ofthe killers of Ganojyoti.

Step 3 Explanation

Explain the different rules of articles and their use. Then, ask some questions

about the rules to check if they have learned about the rules and to explain

again if they have not learned the rules well.

Step 4 Practice Stage

Ask students to work individually and fill in the gaps in the following passage

with appropriate articles

My uncle is _____________ shopkeeper. He has __________ shop in ______ small

village by ______ river Thames near Oxford. _________ shop sells almost every

thing from bread to newspapers. My uncle does not often leave _________ village.

He does not have a car. Once a month we eat lunch at _______ extensive hotel.

He is one of _______ happiest men I know.

Step 5 Production Stage

Ask students to write a short passage on a given topic

e.g. 1. Your feeling in summer

2. Known footballer

3. An interesting/sad experience.

Finally, ask students to underline the articles in their writing and see whether

they have used them correctly or not. Again, ask them to check each others

work in pairs; Check some of the students work and give feedback.

2.6 Tasks for Teaching Grammar Communicatively

Task based language teaching has become an important addition to the

conceptual and empirical repertoire of the second and foreign language teacher.

It also influenced syllabus design and language teaching methodology (Nunan,


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1991). In addition to this, Rivers (1983) asserts that an interactive task-based

grammar exercise stresses the teaching of grammar through mutual

anticipation usually small group. She further says it is active rather than

passive, student-centered rather than teacher-centered, cognitive rather than

behaviorist and in direct rather than direct. In line with this, Hornbury (2001:

203 - 204) says that everybody still agrees that mechanical structure drilling

what the behaviorists used to do is a very bad thing in deed.

Task based grammar teaching provides the learners with wide range of

classroom activities, involve the learners in comprehending, producing or

interacting in the target language while their attention is on meaning rather

than form (Nunan, 1989, Candlin and Murphy 1987). Some of the major tasks

suggested by scholars for teaching grammar communicatively are:

1. Information gap activities- Doff (1988), Cook (2001) and Prabhu (1987)point out that information gap activities are important to communicative

grammar classroom. According to Prabhu, as information gap activities

involve a transfer of certain information from one person to another or

from one form to another, it is important for communicative classroom.

2. Problem-solving activities- students can be given a problem in whichthe language items are included. The purpose of problem-solving

activities is to enable students interact and there by to exploit the hidden

grammar points indirectly (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). In addition to

this, opinion exchange and decision making tasks can be used for

teaching grammar communicatively (Ibid).

2.7. The Role of Teachers and Learners in Foreign Language Class

The types of classroom language in different methods are characterized by

different patterns of interaction. This is so because of the variation in teacher

and student roles in line with the expectations in the teaching- learning

process. In CLT context, for example, the learner is seen as processor,

performer, initiator and problem solver. In the traditional teaching practice,


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however, the role of the learner is to receive and accumulate in his/her mind

what has been told by the teacher (Richards and Rodgers, 1986).

The role that should be played by the English language teacher in the context of

classroom teaching-learning process might be affected by the kind of approach

the teacher employs. For example, Richards and Lockhart (1994: 97) indicate

that the main role of the teacher in CLT is facilitating learning. They say:

The teacher has two roles; the first is to facilitate

communication process between all participants in theclass and between those participants and the variousactivities and texts. The second role is to act as independent participant with in the teaching learninggroup. Those roles imply a set of secondary roles for

the teacher; first as an organizer of resources and as asource himself, second as a guide with in the classroomprocedures.

In the traditional language classroom, the teacher is considered as an authority

who emphasizes the memorization of grammar rules through mechanical

procedure such as repetition and rote learning, organizes the classroom

activities, overtly control the students activities and evaluate their

performance. Teachers were considered as experts who teach their studentswhat they know (Rudder, 1999: 115). Rudder further points out that language

teachers were considered as the sole responsible individuals that they had to

think of the methods that could best help in teaching. A teacher was supposed

to follow one best methodology and one best textbook.

Today, however, this assumption is changed. It is believed that learners have

varying needs, interest, cognitive and learning styles. The teacher accordingly is

expected to eclectically use as many methods and techniques as possible.

Furthermore, teacher dominated activities have been replaced by learner-

centered classes, where learners become active participants in their own

learning (Ibid).


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In general, the teacher nowadays should be a manager/planner, counselor/

social worker, supporter, motivator/ stimulator, and promoter of students

thinking skills. Furthermore, he/she is supervisor on how students should do

specific tasks, monitor, co-communicator by working with students as a

partner, feedback provider and evaluator of the students performance and the

teaching materials he/she used (Rudder, 1999).

2.8. Techniques of Communicative Grammar Teaching

According to Celce-Murcia (1988), modern (communicative) grammar teaching

uses different techniques to make grammar lessons clear. She says the modern

grammar teaching advises teachers to use techniques such as role play,

pictures, tables, graphs, songs, poetry, story telling etc in context.

2.8.1. Role Play

Role play is one of the important techniques for teaching grammar in context.

Celce-Murcia (1988) says that role play brings real-life situations to the

classroom. The author points out that role plays are one of the effective

techniques for communicative practice of structures sensitive to social factors.

She advises second language teachers to use role play as a technique for

teaching grammar by using certain procedures. The general procedures she

suggests are:

1. Handout the problem to students and then introduce and explain thevocabulary and structures necessary for the task.

2. Divide students into groups if necessary in which they discuss and playthe role. During this step, the teacher should allow students to

communicate and should not interrupt at the middle of the discussion for

any correction. However, the teacher has to take notes on grammatical

errors for later correction. After each group has performed the role play,

the entire class discusses the questions raised in connection with the

situation.


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3.The last step can be assigning a writing exercise based on the role play orrelated question. Furthermore, subsequent grammar lessons based on

the errors observed during the exercise could be presented for further

internalization of the structure.

2.8.2. Pictures

Scholars such as Celce-Murcia (1988), Harmer (1987) and Batstone (1994)

Claim that pictures are one of the techniques which are useful for grammar

presentation. Specially, Celce-Murcia argues that pictures are interesting

techniques for teaching grammar lesson in all phases (i.e. in presentation,

focused practice, communicative practice and for feedback and correction).

According to Celce-Murcia, entertaining and carefully designed pictures have

the potential to motivate students and to respond more than a textbook. The

reason for this is that pictures are more contextualized than textbooks as they

involve different cultural entities of the students outside world (Ibid).

2.8.3. Graphs

It is possible to teach grammar points communicatively by using different kinds

of graphs. This is because graphs by their very nature are free to different

interpretations and are able to invite learners to variety of language use.

Graphs are especially important techniques for visualizing change overtime

(Celce-Murcia, 1988).

2.8.4. Songs

Songs are means of cultural expression for society. They reflect the status, belief,

attitude and moral value of a given society. In favor of this idea, Celci-Murcia

(1988) says that songs have the capacity of expressing cultural practices and

historical events of a community. At the same time, most songs are authentic

materials and are rich in context. Hence, they enable students to see how a

particular structure is applied in real-life situations. For those reasons, the author


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says that they are invaluable techniques for teaching grammar. She has

summarized her idea in the following way:

Contextualization is essential to any grammarpresentation and meaningful practice of structure, and

certainly one of the most delightful and culturally richresources for contextualization is song. Songs can be

utilized as presentation contexts, as reinforcementmaterial, vichles through which to teach all languageskills, and as a medium through which to present someof the most important cultural themes which pervademodern life (Celce-Murcia, 1988: 116).

2.8.5. Poetry

Poetry is also one of the effective techniques used for contextualizing any

grammar lesson and even for other skills. Poems like songs create image about

cultural practice and reflect moral feelings of society (Celce-Murcia 1988).

Again, the author (Ibid) says that poems have the nature of repeating

particular grammar item and this repetition fosters the structure to be easily

internalized. She says:

Poetry is particularly effective tool for practicing aparticular grammatical structure because its very naturedemands that it be spoken, repeated, wrestled with, and

considered with each repetition and consideration, thestructure becomes more deeply internalized. Therefore,poetry is an excellent resource for structured practice ofgrammar and an appropriate basis for review. If a poemthat exemplifies a particular structure is also good poem,

it engages the eyes, ears and tongue simultaneouslywhile also stimulating and moving us. This polymorphiceffect makes poetry easier to memorize than other thingsfor many students (Celce-Murcia 1988: 122).

2.8.6. Telling Stories

It is a fact that most people love story. Human being by nature is attracted by

story for historical, cultural, economical and entertainment reasons. If students

are taught grammar points using the cultural practices and life experiences of


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their own community and others experiences as well, they can invest their

mind deeply in learning the language (Celce-Murcia, 1988).

2.9. Classroom Organization for Teaching Grammar

Communicatively and Feedback

The use of different kinds of tasks in grammar teaching can be more

communicative if we apply the appropriate types of classroom organization

through which the learners practice the language meaningfully. This enables

learners to use the language in order to accomplish some functions like

arguing, persuading, or promising (Freeman, 1986). The main kinds of

classroom organization in CLT teaching are pair work and group work.

2.9.1. Pair Work

McDonough and Shaw (1993) and Harmer (1991) explain that pair work helps

learners to exchange and share information about the given task. Doff (1988)

also added that the language teacher can divide the whole class into pairs, and

every student can work with his/her partner and all pairs work at the same

time. Apart from this, in grammar exercises the students can carry out the task

orally or through writing in pairs which is more interesting and productive than

students doing exercises alone. Atkins, Hailom, and Nuru (1995) and Brumfit

(1984) indicate that pair work provides students opportunity to use English

meaningfully and naturally.

2.9.2. Group Work

A number of studies have compared the interaction in teacher-centered lessons

with group work. For instance, Long, Adams, McLean, and Castanos (1976)

cited in Ellis (1994) report that students working in small groups produced a

greater quantity of language and also better quality language than students in a

teacher-fronted, lockstep classroom setting (p. 598). In other words, small

group work provides more opportunity for language production and variety of


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language use in initiating discussion, asking for clarification, interrupting, and

joking (Ibid). Celce-Murcia (1991) also supplements this point by saying that

group activities encourage total participation by making each student

responsible for facts and ideas to be contributed and discussed. Moreover,

since the students attention is on what they wish to say rather than on how to

say it, they can learn how to use grammar effectively for communication.

2.9.3. Giving Feedback

Teaching grammar communicatively encourages the development of the

reflective learner and accommodates a wide range of learning styles. According

to Ur (1981: 23),in feedback session, What the groups have done must then be

displayed and related to some way by teacher and class: assessed, criticized,

admired, argued with, or even simply listened to with interest. Celce-Murcia

(1988) also underlines the importance of giving feedback on global mistakes

that violate the over all structure of a sentence instead of local mistakes which

cause only little problem in understanding the idea. Ur (1996), Prabhu (1987)

and Seedhouse (1999) also advise giving feedback (oral or written) on a friendly

atmosphere so as to assist learners use language for meaningful

communication. Having diagnosed that a certain structure is particularly

problematic for the students, the teacher may give a review and extra practice

about the structure. A crucial function of giving feedback is to preserve and

promote a positive self-image of the learner as a person and language learner.

2.10. Instructional Television: What is Instructional

Television?

Instructional television (ITV) generally refers to television designed for specific

instructional task. In other words, ITV is a term used to describe formal school,

college, or university instruction via television. Here, it is important to

differentiate the term ITV and Educational Television (ETV). ETV is generally

used to denote any television which is used for improving education. It includes


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ITV and non-commercialized television programs for educational enhancement

that favors large number of audience. ITV, which is categorized under the

educational television, is used for teaching formal courses (Behera, 1995).

2.10.1. Types of Instructional Television Programs

Reeves (1998) suggests that there are three major forms of utilization of

instructional television. These are:

Instances where the total instructional program is delivered via televisedteacher.

Instances where television is to supplement teacher-centered instructioneither for enrichment or remedial purpose. That is almost the entire

instruction is done by the classroom teacher and ITV is used to supply

some special and helpful techniques such as demonstration and

dramatization.

Instances where there is an integration of teacher directed instructionwith television program.

The total instructional television programs in countries like El Salvador have

met with initial enthusiasm. But, it declined in popularity after the novelty were

off. That is, both students and teachers demanded non- televised instruction

and returned to regular classroom activities because of problems in utilizing

programs effectively (Cuban, 1986). However, some studies indicate that

students in rural schools, where quality teachers were less likely available,

benefited a lot from televised instruction, Reeves (1998).

2.10.2. Role of Instructional Television

The primary role of ITV is to facilitate and enhance students learning by

providing teaching aids to the classroom (Johnes, 1999). Johnes further

remarks that the basic function of ITV is enabling learners see and hear look

and listen more attentively and discriminatingly with greater comprehension.


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Brinton (1991) also points out that ITV is helpful since it gives opportunities to

learners to apply their sense. In short, ITV helps learners develop the ability of

recalling information learned as it teaches using contextualized elements such

as pictures, songs, role play (Ibid). Furthermore, John (1999) says that ITV

helps to increase retention capacity. The following table is taken from Jones

(1999: 6) to show the ability of ITV in enabling students to recall information in

comparison with the lecture method.

Method Retention in 3hours

Retention in 3days

Lecture only 70% 10%

Using instructional aids 72% 20%

From the table above one can deduce that learning and retention capacity of

learners increase when they are taught by ITV. It is also recommended that ITV

is useful to create communicative L2 learning environment (Ibid).

Besides, Skinner and Austin (1999) state that recent ITV have noticeable effects

on students' motivation for language learning. In their research, they found

that ITV is effective for teaching any language skill. It is motivating because it

gives sounds and colorful pictures which are very much helpful to catch the

attention of learners. The usual and routine teacher and textbook-based

learning may result in misunderstanding of abstract concepts and

inappropriate language use. However, it is possible to avoid misunderstanding

and to visualize abstract concepts by animation through ITV. In addition to

this, ITV helps learners to avoid some hazardous situations as it uses different

contexts to make the lessons clear. In other words, its capability to apply wide

range of audio-visual materials like graphs, pictures, and tables during the

transmission makes it suitable medium for instruction that meets learners'

needs and their learning strategies (Tomalin, 1988).


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Passy et al. (2004) also indicates the effects of ITV on pupils' motivation. The study

took 17 sample schools from across England. Finally, this study found that ITV

has positive impact on motivation. The research says ITV enhanced the country's

teaching-learning process, improved classroom communication and widened the

access of getting more information.

Instructional television also helps to introduce the culture of the target language

speakers to classroom. Saying it differently, learners can sense the life situation of

the native speakers as they see different contextualized language presentations.

The way native speakers speak, act, dress, the gesture and the clue they use for

negotiation of meaning can be reflected through ITV. In short, ITV provides

learners with natural situations such as intonation, pronunciation, dialect and theday to day life experience of the target language society (Sherrington, 1975).

2.10.3. Stages in Teaching Language through Instructional

Television

Like the classroom teacher, televised instruction has stages in teaching

language. This means, whether language instruction is televised or non-

televised the methods and procedures of modern language teaching supposedto be applied are the same. So, communicative grammar and other skills

instruction through television involves three stages namely, pre-teaching,

while- teaching and post -teaching.

2.10.3.1. Before the Program (Pre-teaching)

Here, the televised teacher has to start by introducing the lesson and by stating

specific objectives. In this stage, he/she can specify the type of information to

be emphasized and the activities to be done.

The televised teacher could tell students the main topic of the program and

could ask them what they know about the topic. Sometimes, the teacher may

supply funny things so as to catch the attention of students. The main purpose


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of carrying out before-viewing activities is to stimulate the students' interest

and to provide background information so that they can learn with interest

(Tomalin, 1986). In short, Tomalin indicates that the pre-teaching should aim

at three things.

Preparing students for the program as a whole Encouraging students to understand specific language items supposed to

be learned

Generating tasks for the students that would be done as a result ofwatching the program.

2.10.3.2. During the Program (while- teaching)

Here, the televised teacher should set some tasks to be performed while viewing

the program. For example, the ITV can give a chance for the classroom teacher

to write some expressions that are used in the language lesson. Furthermore,

the ITV can provide other contextualized tasks to be done by the students. But

to have better understanding, negotiation of meaning and to accomplish the

given tasks successfully, ITV should be controlled by the classroom teacher

rather than the classroom teacher is to be ordered by the ITV (Tomalin, 1986).

The author has put the idea in the following way:

If the broadcast of TV program is made available on a videocassette and if the video recorder is under the direct controlof the teacher, then the TV program immediately becomeshighly effective teaching medium (Tomalin, 1986: 4).

If the ITV is controlled by the classroom teacher, Tomalin (Ibid) says the

program can be repeated as many times as the learner wishes. Furthermore, a

short sequence from the program can be selected for intensive study and

worked on by the teacher in the classroom; the learner can interpret what has

been said, practice and repeat it and predict and so on. The learner can also

concentrate in detail on visual clues to meaning such as facial expression,

dress and gesture to understand the meaning. Tomalin (1986) again claims

that segmenting the lesson can be taken as a valuable technique to widen


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classroom participation and interaction. The scholar further says segmenting

could give access to the classroom teacher for adapting the program according

to his/her students' interest and learning style. Segmenting a given lesson can

be done through showing only portion of the program at a time and the

remaining portion at another time or through pausing the program (Ibid).

2.10.3.3. After the Program (post- teaching)

This stage is important to students as it gives them the chance to react about

the program. Here, the televised teacher should give chance to the classroom

teacher and to the students for discussion. In this stage, the classroom teacher

is expected to encourage students to speak what attracted their attention most

in the program or he/she may prepare questions from the program relating to

their life experience (Tamalin, 1986).In doing this, a good teacher usually seeks

feedback from his/her students so as to know the level of their understanding

about the matter.

Once again, Tomalin says that teachers should prepare follow through activities

to reinforce or integrate the lesson presented with other skills. These follow-

through activities may include, group work, pair work, role play, activities and

so on. For example, in groups or in pairs students can talk what they have seen

in the program by taking their turn. Creating such condition is to mean making

students to communicate in the classroom in favor of communicative language

teaching (Ibid).Here, all the group and pair works, the classroom interaction

and students feedback are expected to be handled by the classroom teacher.

This is because the classroom teacher is in a good position to know the

students difficulty, level of understanding, their need and the learningenvironment better than the televised teacher who teaches from afar.

Finally, evaluation about the success of the lesson presented is an important

part of the ITV program utilization as it helps to see the degree of achievement.

In other words, considering such questions as was the program utilized as


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effectively as possible? What additional activities might be integrated next

time? and "What techniques worked well and what could be incorporated in to

future lessons? is an important means for the effective implementation of ITV

in language classroom (Schramm, 1977).

2.10.4. Instructional Television in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is one of the developing countries which have shown promising change

in the expansion of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

utilization for multi-purposes. Specially, in educational sector, the country is

using ITV to sustain qualified human power. In addition to expanding the range

of instructional techniques, ITV presents new options for teaching-learning

process (Amina, 2004). One of the various new options offered by ITV is a one

way presentation which is now being employed in Ethiopian high schools (Ibid).

Currently, the government of Ethiopia has employed ITV for teaching some

subjects. However, there is a long-term plan to use the entire potentials of ITV

for all subjects. It was stated that the future task of the government focuses on

the sustainability and integration of ITV. This could be made phase by phase.

First, by expanding the ITV from priority subjects to all subjects; and then to

computer based teaching and internet including many programs to primary

level education (Ethiopia today, 2004). The governments report on the

Development of Education in Ethiopia to the UNESCO (2004) is evidence for

this:

Information and communications technology (ICT) isintroduced in the education system to strengthen the

expansion of quality education. The introduction of ICT is

done phase by phase starting at the secondary level (9-12). Multi-faceted programs and major preparations havebeen underway to reach the goal of implementing ICT inthe Education sector and improve the quality ofeducation.

Currently, the country's instructional television is one way presentation system.

But this system is being criticized by critics and teachers for its uncomfortable


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nature. Therefore, in many conferences, it was advised to substitute by two-way

satellite teleconferencing and video-conferencing courses. In spite of the

dissatisfaction of critics and teachers on the one way transmission, the system

has got greater acceptance by government officials. According to the

government officials, ITV is an effective means to overcome the problem of

overcrowded schools, poor infrastructure and facilities, and lack of trained

teachers. The officials further indicate that visualizing and listening to content

on plasma display panels makes teachers free to be creative and needs analysts

(Ethiopian Government Report to UNESCO, 2004). The report says:

... the new pedagogical paradigm offers teachers timeto be creative, identifies students' needs and fostersthem with the necessary attention and guidance, saves

time spent in drawing diagrams and simple practiceteaching learning process; enables them to carry outexperiments.

The report, says that "for what the technology can not offer, the teacher is

there, and for what the teacher can not offer, the technology is there".

Generally, they believe that the ITV has great motivational value since the

lessons are enhanced by graphs, animations and real-life footage. The plasma

display in Ethiopia according to them:

Present abstract concepts in a simplified manner Transmit uniform education to many students at the same time. Enable students to have access to model competent teachers Motivate learners to attend classes and learn more by creating attractive

situation such as presentation of graphs, diagrams, visual and sound aid

to the lesson (Ethiopian Government report to UNESCO, 2004).


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2.11. Comparative Research Evidences from Researchers on

Instructional Television and the Classroom Teacher in the

Teaching-Learning Process

Reeves (1998) states there are reasons why attention is given to ITV and media

technology. Some among many, according to the scholar, are:

People are curious to know if new technologies are more effective forteaching and learning than traditional classroom approaches.

People want to know whether new technologies increase educationaccessibility or reduce educational costs.

The existence of sharp disagreement among scholars about the value ofmedia and technology in education. There are contradictory findingsoften reported in educational research about the value of ITV.

Reeves further asserts that there is no significant difference whether some one

learns by ITV or by classroom teacher. The reason for this according to the

author is that learning results from factors such as task differences,

instructional methods and learner traits, not from the choices of media for

instruction. Furthermore, Chu and Schramm (1963) as cited in Schramm

(1977) tabulated 421 television versus classroom comparisons. They found that

308 of the studies showed no significance difference, 63 of the studies stood in

favor of television and the remaining 53 studies came out in favor of classroom

/conventional teaching. Similarly, Dubin and Hedloy (1966) in Schramm (1977)

examined 381 studies and found that 191 of them showing no difference, 102

of the studies came out in favor of television and 89 of them in favor of the

conventional (non-plasma) instruction. Based on this study, therefore, they

concluded that there is no precise reason to say that students learn more fromtelevision than from non-televised teaching or vise-versa. According to these

researchers, better learning depends on the method of the teacher, the effort of

the learner and the content of the material. However, Schramm (1977) contends

that the more carefully such comparisons are designed, the more likely they are

to show significant difference in learning from the two sources.


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On the other hand, Brumfit (1983) says that television programs can not be

seen as the main stay of the language learning process. In other words, the

classroom teacher still remains to play a central role either as a guide or

facilitator. The teachers role remains central because television by itself can

not relate the broadcast materials to learners needs. At the same time, it could

fail to understand the students background and the learning environment. Not

only this but ITV as independent teacher is also non-stop-straight through, no

pauses and repeats. As a result, students could be confused throughout the

instruction (Ibid).

2.12. Research Findings on Grammar Teaching

In their research finding, Choat, Harry and Dorothy (1987) found that ITV is

effective in teaching language rules and grammar items as effective as good

grammar teacher. They say that ITV is effective in teaching tenses and language

rules in a subconscious way. The reason according to their research finding is

that ITV uses different techniques such as stories, songs and pictures to

contextualize grammar lessons. They further indicated that ITV is effective not

only for developing linguistic competence of the learner but also to develop

his/her communicative competence because it uses rich contexts and brings

different natural settings for teaching grammar.

In spite of the foreign research work mentioned above, there is no local research

finding that compares the teaching methods and techniques employed by ITV

with the methods used by the conventional (classroom) teacher in teaching

grammar points, as far as the knowledge of the researcher is concerned. Of

course, Tatek (1994) and Luel (2006) studied problems of ITV in teaching

English and attitude and perception of students towards ITV in language

classroom respectively. But, their studies have not dealt with televised and non-

televised grammar teaching methods in comparison with each other. So, this

study is an initial attempt on the area.


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CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. Context

This study has been designed to identify the similarities and differences of the

grammar teaching methods used by plasma and non-plasma school teachers.

The main research question is what are the similarities and differences between

the two types of schools in teaching grammar and what are the factors that play

a role in creating similarities and differences? In this study, the effectiveness or

ineffectiveness of a method that the teachers apply in classroom is seen in

terms of modern (communicative) grammar teaching theories and practices.

Method for the study was conceived by considering four stages. These stages

are the introduction, presentation, practice and production stages. These stages

formed the basis for the observation and interview. For the questionnaire,

attitude and problem of students in grammar classes formed the basis.

Through the questionnaire, attempts were made to gather information about

the students attitude towards the grammar lessons and their problems in

learning grammar.

3.2. Determining Target Population and Sample Size

The subjects of this study were both teachers and students. Accordingly, two

high schools were selected from the town of Jimma in Oromiya region so as to

collect the required data.

The schools are Jireen and Setto Senior Secondary Schools. The former, which

uses instructional television, registered 2,300 students at the beginning of the

school year 2007, but a drop out of 200 students. The latter, which is non-

plasma school, registered 2124 students out of which 120 dropped out their

education, as the statistics of the two schools indicate. In other words, the

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