Employability of Graduates and Higher Education Management … · 2020. 12. 20. · Employability...

Employability of Graduates and Higher Education Management Systems (Final report of

DEHEMS project)

Edited by: Mateja Melink and Samo Pavlin

Authors, Contributors and Support: Arzu Akkoyunlu Wigley, Sibel Aksu Yildirim, Genc Alimehmeti,

Tamara Arutyunyants, Monika Braun, Katharina Chudzikowski, Nevenka Černigoj-Sadar, Paul Demeter,

Constanze Engel, Tomasz Gajderowicz, Matej Godnič, Božidar Grigić, Gabriela Grotkowska, Miroljub

Ignjatović, Kerstin Janson, Anton Kramberger, Wolfgang Mayrhofer, Mateja Melink, Selda Onderoglu,

Angelo Paletta, Samo Pavlin, Katharina Pernkopf-Kohnhäusner, Elena Schimmelpfennig, Bugay Turhan,

Daniele Vidoni, Leszek Wincenciak

Publisher: University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Social Sciences

Proof-read by: Murray Bales

Technical editing: Peter Cimprič

Cover design: Peter Cimprič

Cover photo: Samo Pavlin

The report has been prepared within Erasmus project “Network for the Development of Higher Education Management Systems

(DEHEMS)”; Project Number: 502890-LLP-1-2009-1-SI-ERASMUS-ENWS.

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This communication reflects the views only of the

author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the indispensible support received from all partners in the

participating countries. Our thanks go to Ivan Svetlik at the University of Ljubljana, Harald Schomburg

and Ulrich Teichler at INCHER Kassel University, Klaus Ruth and Georg Spöttl at ITB Bremen

University, Katharina Pernkopf-Konhäusner at WU Vienna University.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... 11

LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... 14

1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 16

1.1 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................ 16

1.2 PURPOSE AND GOALS .............................................................................................................. 17

1.3 STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT ............................................................................................... 19

2 ADDRESSING GRADUATES’ CAREER SUCCESS FROM THE HIGHER

EDUCATION PERSPECTIVE – THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL

FRAMEWORKS .......................................................................................................................... 20

2.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 20

2.2 GENERAL THEORIES ON EDUCATION, LABOUR MARKET AND CAREERS ........... 20 2.2.1 Introduction: The Role of HE Institutions in Generating Skills .............................................. 20

2.2.2 The theory of human capital .................................................................................................... 21

2.2.3 Education as a signalling device .............................................................................................. 23

2.2.4 Search and matching theory .................................................................................................... 24 2.2.4.1 Skill and individual matching – general perspective .......................................................................... 24 2.2.4.2 Education and job matching – macroeconomic perspective ............................................................... 25

2.2.5 Employability .......................................................................................................................... 28

2.2.6 The concept of professional career and career success ........................................................... 29 2.2.6.1 The professional career ...................................................................................................................... 29 2.2.6.2 Career success .................................................................................................................................... 30 2.2.6.3 Factors influencing a professional career ........................................................................................... 32

Non-education-related factors ......................................................................................................................... 32 Education-related factors ................................................................................................................................ 33

2.2.6.4 Relevance of career approaches for the DEHEMS project ................................................................ 34

2.3 DESIGNING A MODEL OF GRADUATES' CAREER SUCCESS ........................................ 34

2.4 CONSIDERING AND SELECTING PROFESSIONAL DOMAINS FOR THE DEHEMS

SURVEY..................................................................................................................................................... 38

2.5 WHAT HE MANAGEMENT SHOULD KNOW ABOUT GRADUATES’ CAREERS?

CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES .................................................................. 39 2.5.1 Strategic planning and resources allocation in higher education management ....................... 39

2.5.1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 39 2.5.1.2 Performance management system ...................................................................................................... 40 2.5.1.3 Funding and resources allocation ....................................................................................................... 41

2.5.2 Quality Assurance and Accountability .................................................................................... 42 2.5.2.1 Transparency, academic responsibility, and assessment .................................................................... 42 2.5.2.2 Accountability and incentive systems ................................................................................................ 44

2.5.3 Development of perspectives on the HE managerial system in relation to graduates‟ careers 44

2.5.4 Research objectives of the DEHEMS project .......................................................................... 47

3 METHODOLOGY ADOPTED IN THE DEHEMS PROJECT ...................................... 49

3.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 49

3.2 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS ..................................................................................................... 52 3.2.1 Datasets ................................................................................................................................... 52

3.2.1.1 The Labour Force Survey as a data source for the analysis of graduates‟ labour market situation .... 52 3.2.1.2 The REFLEX/HEGESCO dataset ...................................................................................................... 55

3.2.2 Methods used in the quantitative data analysis........................................................................ 56 3.2.2.1 Statistical analysis of the LFS data: Graduates‟ labour market situation ........................................... 56 3.2.2.2 Statistical analysis of the REFLEX/HEGESCO dataset ..................................................................... 56 3.2.2.3 Econometric analysis of the REFLEX/HEGESCO dataset ................................................................ 56

3.3 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS ....................................................................................................... 59 3.3.1 Data collection ......................................................................................................................... 59

3.3.1.1 Sampling ............................................................................................................................................ 59 Sampling technique ......................................................................................................................................... 59 Sample size ...................................................................................................................................................... 60 Interviewee selection strategy in WP6............................................................................................................. 61 Interviewee selection strategy in WP7............................................................................................................. 61

3.3.1.2 Conducting the interviews .................................................................................................................. 62 3.3.2 Methods used in the qualitative data analysis.......................................................................... 62

3.3.2.1 Coding and summarising individual interviews ................................................................................. 62 3.3.2.2 Supporting tools ................................................................................................................................. 63 3.3.2.3 Project-level analysis.......................................................................................................................... 63

3.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS ........................................................................................................ 63

4 DETERMINANTS OF GRADUATES’ LABOUR MARKET SUCCESS ACROSS

DOMAINS: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS .......................................................................... 65

4.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 65

4.2 DEPENDENT VARIABLES ........................................................................................................ 65

4.3 EXPLANATORY VARIABLES .................................................................................................. 70

4.4 ESTIMATION PROCEDURE ..................................................................................................... 72

4.5 REGRESSION RESULTS: A COMPARATIVE APPROACH ............................................... 73 4.5.1 Sociobiographic characteristics ............................................................................................... 73

4.5.1.1 Job satisfaction ................................................................................................................................... 73 4.5.1.2 Other labour market success factors ................................................................................................... 74

4.5.2 Study process characteristics ................................................................................................... 75 4.5.2.1 Job satisfaction ................................................................................................................................... 75 4.5.2.2 Other labour market success factors ................................................................................................... 75

4.5.3 Study programme characteristics ............................................................................................. 76 4.5.3.1 Job satisfaction ................................................................................................................................... 76 4.5.3.2 Other labour market success factors ................................................................................................... 76

4.5.4 Teaching modes ....................................................................................................................... 77 4.5.4.1 Job satisfaction ................................................................................................................................... 77 4.5.4.2 Other labour market success factors ................................................................................................... 77

4.5.5 Personal attitude ...................................................................................................................... 78 4.5.5.1 Job satisfaction ................................................................................................................................... 78 4.5.5.2 Other labour market success factors ................................................................................................... 78

4.5.6 International mobility experience ............................................................................................ 78 4.5.6.1 Job satisfaction ................................................................................................................................... 78 4.5.6.2 Other labour market success factors ................................................................................................... 79

4.5.7 Experience with work .............................................................................................................. 79

4.5.7.1 Job satisfaction ................................................................................................................................... 79 4.5.7.2 Other labour market success factors ................................................................................................... 79

4.5.8 Current job characteristics ....................................................................................................... 79 4.5.8.1 Job satisfaction ................................................................................................................................... 79 4.5.8.2 Other labour market success factors ................................................................................................... 80

4.6 GRADUATES’ LABOUR MARKET SITUATION ACCORDING TO THE LFS: A CROSS-

DOMAIN COMPARISON ....................................................................................................................... 80

4.7 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................ 84

5 REVIEW OF PROFESSIONAL DOMAINS AND ANALYSIS OF PROFESSIONAL

SUCCESS OF THE GRADUATES ............................................................................................ 88

5.1 BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS .................................................................................................. 88 5.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 88

5.1.2 Statistical description of graduates .......................................................................................... 89 5.1.2.1 Number of students and graduates ..................................................................................................... 89 5.1.2.2 Students by gender ............................................................................................................................. 90 5.1.2.3 International students ......................................................................................................................... 91 5.1.2.4 PhD students....................................................................................................................................... 91

5.1.3 Family Background ................................................................................................................. 91 5.1.3.1 Parents‟ education .............................................................................................................................. 91 5.1.3.2 Children .............................................................................................................................................. 92 5.1.3.3 Mobility .............................................................................................................................................. 93

5.1.4 Study provisions and conditions .............................................................................................. 95 5.1.4.1 Higher education institutions ............................................................................................................. 95 5.1.4.2 General description and duration ....................................................................................................... 96 5.1.4.3 Number of more specialised study programmes vs. the freedom to choose one‟s own special interest within a single programme .................................................................................................................................. 96

5.1.5 Teaching and learning modes .................................................................................................. 97 5.1.5.1 Formal general curricula elements ..................................................................................................... 97 5.1.5.2 Practical training period during studies ............................................................................................ 100 5.1.5.3 Foreign languages ............................................................................................................................ 101 5.1.5.4 Thesis ............................................................................................................................................... 101

5.1.6 Transition to employment and first job ................................................................................. 101 5.1.6.1 Certification...................................................................................................................................... 105 5.1.6.2 Job Satisfaction ................................................................................................................................ 105 5.1.6.3 Important stakeholders ..................................................................................................................... 108

5.1.7 Lifelong learning ................................................................................................................... 108

5.1.8 Higher Education Management Perspectives on Graduates Professional Careers – Synthesis of

the DEHEMS Interviews ....................................................................................................................... 109 5.1.8.1 Understanding of career success ...................................................................................................... 109

Short- versus long-term success .................................................................................................................... 109 Adequate employment of professional skills .................................................................................................. 109 Knowledge of the professional orientation of the graduates ......................................................................... 110

5.1.8.2 How should HE management take the future professional activities of graduates into account? .... 111 The relevance of graduates‟ future activities for curricula design and Bachelor and Master curriculums‟

relationship to market needs ......................................................................................................................... 111 Issues in tailoring curricula to market needs ................................................................................................ 112

5.1.8.3 HEI actions to support graduates‟ transition to the market and their professional career ................ 113 Making curricula more flexible: Rigid and flexible systems ......................................................................... 114 The stress on international orientation varies from country to country ........................................................ 116

The practical orientation of the study programmes is highly stressed activities so as to enhance graduates‟

transition to the labour market ...................................................................................................................... 117 The inclusion of students in research not only enhances their methodological skills but increases

opportunities for their future employment ..................................................................................................... 119 A limited focus on innovative teaching and learning modes ......................................................................... 119 Forging relationships between HEIs and stakeholders‟ vacant jobs ............................................................ 119 Career centres: Shifts from best practices to failed attempts ........................................................................ 120

5.1.8.4 Future developmental needs ............................................................................................................. 120 The centrality of the follow-up surveys (tracer studies) ................................................................................ 120 Uncertainty on the future development of innovative teaching modes .......................................................... 120 Limiting the number of students in a class .................................................................................................... 121 The question of the future development of career centres remains open....................................................... 121

5.1.9 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 121

5.2 EDUCATION AND TEACHING STUDIES ............................................................................ 123 5.2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 123

5.2.2 Statistical overview of the domain ........................................................................................ 124 5.2.2.1 Number of graduates ........................................................................................................................ 124 5.2.2.2 Gender distribution ........................................................................................................................... 124 5.2.2.3 Parents‟ education ............................................................................................................................ 125 5.2.2.4 Mobility ............................................................................................................................................ 126

5.2.3 Study provisions and conditions ............................................................................................ 127 5.2.3.1 Programme particularities ................................................................................................................ 128 5.2.3.2 Teaching and learning modes ........................................................................................................... 131 5.2.3.3 National characteristics of practical training .................................................................................... 133

5.2.4 Transition to employment and the first job ........................................................................... 134 5.2.4.1 Transition to employment ................................................................................................................ 134 5.2.4.2 Certification...................................................................................................................................... 138 5.2.4.3 Characteristics of jobs ...................................................................................................................... 140

5.2.5 Lifelong Learning .................................................................................................................. 144 5.2.5.1 National characteristics of lifelong learning ..................................................................................... 145

5.2.6 Higher education management perspectives on graduates‟ professional careers – synthesis of

the DEHEMS interviews ....................................................................................................................... 148 5.2.6.1 Understanding career success ........................................................................................................... 148

Finding a matching job is the most important career success characteristic ............................................... 148 Developed competencies in quality teaching and lifelong learning .............................................................. 148 Job satisfaction .............................................................................................................................................. 149

5.2.6.2 Academics‟ knowledge about their graduates‟ careers .................................................................... 149 5.2.6.3 The role of HEIs in the future professional activities of graduates .................................................. 149

Practical training is a major factor in preparing graduates for work .......................................................... 149 Empowering lifelong learning and soft skills ................................................................................................ 150 Supporting internationality ........................................................................................................................... 150 Other issues: cooperation with stakeholders, career centres, research activities, and quality assurance .... 151

5.2.6.4 Developmental needs ....................................................................................................................... 151 Strengthening relations with stakeholders .................................................................................................... 152 Internationalisation of programmes .............................................................................................................. 152 Further development of practical work and problem-based learning ........................................................... 152 Autonomy within curricula for regular updating according to current student needs .................................. 153 Lifelong learning has been stressed, especially in Turkey ............................................................................ 153 Career counselling ........................................................................................................................................ 153

5.2.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 154

5.3 ENGINEERING .......................................................................................................................... 156 5.3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 156

5.3.2 Statistical overview of the domain ........................................................................................ 157 5.3.2.1 Number of graduates ........................................................................................................................ 157 5.3.2.2 Subdomain structure ......................................................................................................................... 158 5.3.2.3 Gender distribution ........................................................................................................................... 159 5.3.2.4 Further information on socio-biographic backgrounds (REFLEX and HEGESCO data) ................ 160 5.3.2.5 International students ....................................................................................................................... 161

5.3.3 Study conditions and provisions ............................................................................................ 162 5.3.3.1 Study programmes ........................................................................................................................... 162 5.3.3.2 Number of enrolled students ............................................................................................................ 163 5.3.3.3 Number of graduates and PhD ......................................................................................................... 164 5.3.3.4 Mobility ............................................................................................................................................ 164 5.3.3.5 Number of study programmes offered ............................................................................................. 165 5.3.3.6 Learning and teaching modes ........................................................................................................... 165

Impact of the Bologna reform........................................................................................................................ 169 5.3.4 Transition to employment and first job ................................................................................. 170

5.3.4.1 Certification...................................................................................................................................... 170 5.3.4.2 Data on transition to the labour market and characteristics of the first job ...................................... 172

5.3.5 Lifelong learning ................................................................................................................... 173 5.3.5.1 Regulation of lifelong learning......................................................................................................... 173 5.3.5.2 Selected data from the HEGESCO and REFLEX projects .............................................................. 174

5.3.6 Higher education management perspectives on graduates' professional careers – synthesis of

the DEHEMS interviews ....................................................................................................................... 175 5.3.6.1 Introduction: graduates have good opportunities to obtain adequate jobs ........................................ 175 5.3.6.2 Understanding of career success ...................................................................................................... 176

Professional success is defined by personal experience ................................................................................ 176 A diverse professional focus of graduates ..................................................................................................... 177 Job satisfaction and the education-work match ............................................................................................ 177 Other insights ................................................................................................................................................ 178

5.3.6.3 The role of HEIs in the future professional activities of graduates .................................................. 178 Generating flexible graduates ....................................................................................................................... 179 International orientation ............................................................................................................................... 180 Practical orientation, cooperation with industry and internship are central tools for enhancing graduates‟

employability skills ........................................................................................................................................ 181 Research activities are important for multiple aspects in relation to the labour market .............................. 182 Recruitment services and career counselling ................................................................................................ 183 Contacts with former graduates .................................................................................................................... 183 Student-centred teaching fosters soft skills ................................................................................................... 184

5.3.6.4 Developmental needs ....................................................................................................................... 184 5.3.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 185

5.4 MEDICINE .................................................................................................................................. 188 5.4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 188

5.4.2 Statistical overview ............................................................................................................... 189 5.4.2.1 Number of graduates ........................................................................................................................ 189 5.4.2.2 Subdomain structure ......................................................................................................................... 190 5.4.2.3 Gender Distribution .......................................................................................................................... 191 5.4.2.4 Family Background .......................................................................................................................... 192 5.4.2.5 Student Mobility ............................................................................................................................... 192

5.4.3 Study provisions and conditions ............................................................................................ 193 5.4.3.1 Programme Characteristics .............................................................................................................. 193 5.4.3.2 Teaching and Learning Modes ......................................................................................................... 195 5.4.3.3 Impact of the Bologna Process in DEHEMS Countries ................................................................... 199

5.4.4 Transition to employment and first job ................................................................................. 201

5.4.4.1 Certification...................................................................................................................................... 202 5.4.4.2 Search duration ................................................................................................................................. 205


5.4.6 Higher education management perspectives on graduates‟ professional careers – synthesis of

the DEHEMS interviews ....................................................................................................................... 210 5.4.6.1 Understanding of career success ...................................................................................................... 210

Diversification of views ................................................................................................................................. 210 Success depends on finding the proper path within the domain .................................................................... 211 A successful graduate deals well with several stakeholders .......................................................................... 211

5.4.6.2 The role of HEIs in the future professional activities of graduates .................................................. 211 The clear mission of HEIs in this domain is to cultivate a good doctor ........................................................ 211 Enhancing the traditional focus of the medicine programme ........................................................................ 212 The need to further develop an international orientation.............................................................................. 212 The importance of a practical orientation: practical experience in medicine is the main component of the

profession and is inseparable from theory .................................................................................................... 213 Despite budget cuts, research for students can best be conducted in university hospitals ............................ 213 Limited co-operation with private employers especially in this field ............................................................ 213

5.4.6.3 Future developmental needs ............................................................................................................. 214 Increase curriculum interdisciplinarity and flexibility within the existing tradition ..................................... 214 Increasing graduates‟ scientific skills and social competencies ................................................................... 214 Introduction of new teaching methods and continuing medical education ................................................... 214 Persisting allocation of funding: reducing the number of students or increasing resources ........................ 215

5.4.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 215

5.5 SCIENCE ..................................................................................................................................... 219 5.5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 219

5.5.2 Socio-demographic statistical overview ................................................................................ 220 5.5.2.1 Number of graduates ........................................................................................................................ 220 5.5.2.2 Subdomain structure ......................................................................................................................... 220 5.5.2.3 Gender .............................................................................................................................................. 221 5.5.2.4 Family background ........................................................................................................................... 222 5.5.2.5 International students ....................................................................................................................... 223 5.5.2.6 PhD graduates .................................................................................................................................. 223

5.5.3 Study conditions and provisions ............................................................................................ 224 5.5.3.1 Impact of the Bologna Process ......................................................................................................... 226

5.5.4 Transition to employment and characteristics of the first job ............................................... 227 5.5.4.1 Search duration for first jobs ............................................................................................................ 228 5.5.4.2 Search methods ................................................................................................................................ 228 5.5.4.3 Education as a basis for starting work .............................................................................................. 231 5.5.4.4 Characteristics of the first job .......................................................................................................... 232 5.5.4.5 Current labour market status ............................................................................................................ 236


5.5.6 Higher education management perspectives on graduates professional careers – synthesis of

the DEHEMS interviews ....................................................................................................................... 239 5.5.6.1 Understanding of professional success ............................................................................................. 239

Professional success – varieties of understandings ....................................................................................... 239 Following graduates‟ career paths is rarely formalised ............................................................................... 240 There is no general occupational destination of science graduates .............................................................. 241

5.5.6.2 The role of HEIs for the future professional activities of graduates ................................................. 241 Study programmes are not very oriented to labour market requirements ..................................................... 241 International orientation is an important trait of this domain ...................................................................... 242 Teaching modes combine practical and theoretical approaches .................................................................. 242 Practical orientation and apprenticeships are only relevant in some domains ............................................ 243

Research projects play an important role in fostering student research potential ........................................ 243 Higher education support activities .............................................................................................................. 243

5.5.6.3 Higher Education Developmental needs for improving graduates‟ employability .......................... 244 Closer and more intensive cooperation with employers and high quality apprenticeships........................... 244 A closer and more individualised relationship between professors and students strengthens soft skills ...... 244 Quality of education and internationalisation with fewer financial resources? ........................................... 244 Problem of secondary school leavers‟ competencies .................................................................................... 245 Diversification of HE models in the domain of Science ................................................................................ 245

5.5.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 248

5.6 SOCIOLOGY AND POLITICAL STUDIES ........................................................................... 250 5.6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 250

5.6.2 Statistical overview ............................................................................................................... 251 5.6.2.1 Number of graduates ........................................................................................................................ 251 5.6.2.2 Gender .............................................................................................................................................. 251

5.6.3 Study conditions and provisions ............................................................................................ 252 5.6.3.1 National characteristics of study programmes ................................................................................. 253 5.6.3.2 Teaching and learning modes ........................................................................................................... 256 5.6.3.3 Impact of the Bologna Process ......................................................................................................... 257

5.6.4 Transition to employment and characteristics of the first job ............................................... 257 5.6.4.1 Search duration ................................................................................................................................. 258 5.6.4.2 Search methods ................................................................................................................................ 259 5.6.4.3 Education as a basis for starting work .............................................................................................. 261 5.6.4.4 Characteristics of the first job .......................................................................................................... 261


5.6.6 Higher education management perspectives on graduates‟ professional careers – a synthesis

of the DEHEMS interviews ................................................................................................................... 263 5.6.6.1 Understanding career success ........................................................................................................... 263

Flexibility ...................................................................................................................................................... 263 Job satisfaction .............................................................................................................................................. 264 Matching the study programme and the professional destination ................................................................. 264 Others ............................................................................................................................................................ 264 Professional orientation of the graduates ..................................................................................................... 265

5.6.6.2 The role of HEIs for graduates‟ future professional activities ......................................................... 265 Broadness of the study programmes of sociology and political science........................................................ 265 Implementation of new teaching modes including practical training............................................................ 265 Employers‟ role in the implementation of study programmes ....................................................................... 266 Supporting internationalisation..................................................................................................................... 267 Inclusion of research activities ...................................................................................................................... 267 Other issues raised ........................................................................................................................................ 268

5.6.6.3 Developmental needs ....................................................................................................................... 269 Cooperation with stakeholders ...................................................................................................................... 269 Career Centres .............................................................................................................................................. 269 Improving curricula ...................................................................................................................................... 269 Lifelong Learning .......................................................................................................................................... 270 Other ............................................................................................................................................................. 270

5.6.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 271

6 THE EMPLOYABILITY AND DEVELOPMENT OF HE MANAGEMENT

SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................................... 273

6.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 273

6.2 RESPONDENTS AND QUESTIONS ........................................................................................ 274

6.3 THE CONTEXT OF EMPLOYABILITY DATA UTILISATION: THE

IMPLEMENTATION OF HE PROGRAMMES ................................................................................. 275 6.4 UTILISATION OF THE EMPIRICAL FINDINGS ON EMPLOYABILITY – THE

PERSPECTIVES OF HE MANAGERS AND POLICY-MAKERS .................................................. 278 6.4.1 Contemporary use of employability data in the implementation of HE programmes ........... 278

6.4.2 Description of concrete actions to consider the evidence ...................................................... 281

6.4.3 Impact of the employability data on HE activities ................................................................ 285

6.4.4 Future developments of links between the labour market and the HE curriculum ................ 286

6.5 EMPLOYERS’ POSITION ON THE ROLE OF HE INSTITUTION IN PREPARING

GRADUATES FOR WORK .................................................................................................................. 288 6.5.1 Employers‟ position on the role of HE institution in preparing graduates for work ............. 288

6.5.1.1 A better match between the demand and supply of jobs and better qualifications ........................... 288 6.5.1.2 The centrality of work experiences .................................................................................................. 289 6.5.1.3 Focusing to soft skills ....................................................................................................................... 290 6.5.1.4 More coherent and formalised collaboration with HE institutions ................................................... 291

6.5.2 Employers‟ position on utilisation of hard evidence of graduates‟ employability ................ 292

6.6 TRADE UNIONS’ POSITION ON THE ROLE OF HE INSTITUTION IN PREPARING

GRADUATES FOR WORK .................................................................................................................. 293 6.6.1 Trade unions‟ position on the role of HE institution in preparing graduates for work .......... 294

6.6.2 Trade unions‟ position on utilisation of hard evidence of graduates‟ employability ............ 294

6.7 STUDENT ORGANISATIONS’ POSITION ON THE ROLE OF HE INSTITUTION IN

PREPARING GRADUATES FOR WORK .......................................................................................... 295 6.7.1 Students concerns on the role of HE institutions in preparing graduates for work ............... 296

6.7.2 Awarenes on utilisation of hard data on graduates employment ........................................... 297

6.8 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................ 297

7 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR HIGHER EDUCATION

MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS .................................................................................................... 299

7.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 299

7.2 DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES AMONG THE HE STUDY FIELDS ..................... 299

7.3 DETERMINANTS AND DIMENSIONS OF HE GRADUATES’ CAREER SUCCESS, AND HE EXPERTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THEM ....................................................................................... 303

Academics are generally aware of only a few career success dimensions .................................................... 303 In most countries, empirical data on graduates‟ employability receive little attention from HE institutions

and HE governance ....................................................................................................................................... 304

7.4 THE VIEW OF ACADEMICS ON THE HE INSTITUTION’S ROLE IN SUPPORTING HE

GRADUATES IN ENTERING THE LABOUR MARKET ................................................................ 305

7.5 POSITION OF EMPLOYERS, TRADE UNIONS AND STUDENTS ON THE LINK

BETWEEN HE SYSTEMS AND THE WORLD OF WORK ............................................................ 307 Employers‟ perspectives ................................................................................................................................ 307 Trade unions .................................................................................................................................................. 307 Student organisations .................................................................................................................................... 308

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 309

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 2.1: FOUR CATEGORIES OF CAREER SUCCESS CRITERIA ................................................................ 31 TABLE 2.2: CONCEPTUAL PROPOSAL WITHIN THE DEHEMS PROJECT ...................................................... 37 TABLE 2.3: TYPES OF HE STUDY DOMAINS ....................................................................................................... 39 TABLE 3.1: STRUCTURE OF THE 2008 LFS SAMPLE USED FOR STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE

GRADUATE POPULATION ............................................................................................................................. 54 TABLE 3.2:STRUCTURE OF THE REFLEX/HEGESCO SUBSAMPLE USED FOR THE STATISTICAL AND

ECONOMETRIC ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................ 55 TABLE 3.3:NUMBER OF INTERVIEWS AMONG INDIVIDUALS FROM HEIS BY DOMAIN AND BY

COUNTRY .......................................................................................................................................................... 60 TABLE 3.4: NUMBER OF INTERVIEWS AMONG HE STAKEHOLDERS BY EXPERT TYPE AND BY

COUNTRY .......................................................................................................................................................... 61 TABLE 4.1: THE COMPONENTS OF LABOUR MARKET SUCCESS .................................................................. 66 TABLE 4.2: GRADUATE POPULATION IN THE LFS BY DOMAIN OF STUDY: LABOUR MARKET STATUS

............................................................................................................................................................................. 82 TABLE 4.3: EMPLOYED GRADUATE POPULATION IN THE LFS BY DOMAIN OF STUDY: KEY

CHARACTERISTICS ......................................................................................................................................... 83 TABLE 4.4: UNEMPLOYED GRADUATE POPULATION IN THE LFS BY DOMAIN OF STUDY: KEY

CHARACTERISTICS ......................................................................................................................................... 84 TABLE 4.5: TYPOLOGY OF STUDY DOMAINS ACCORDING TO THE DETERMINANTS OF LABOUR

MARKET SUCCESS .......................................................................................................................................... 85 TABLE 4.6: CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDY DOMAIN CLUSTERS .................................................................. 86 TABLE 5.1: NUMBERS OF STUDENTS AND GRADUATES IN THE DOMAIN OF BUSINESS AND

ECONOMICS IN DEHEMS COUNTRIES ........................................................................................................ 89 TABLE 5.2: NUMBER OF GRADUATES OF THE BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS FIELD ................................ 90 TABLE 5.3: NUMBER OF STUDENTS AND GRADUATES, SHARES OF FEMALE AND FOREIGN

STUDENTS IN THE BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS DOMAIN IN DEHEMS COUNTRIES ...................... 91 TABLE 5.4: NUMBERS OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS AND STUDIES OFFERED IN THE

BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS DOMAIN IN DEHEMS COUNTRIES ......................................................... 95 TABLE 5.5: AVERAGE SCORE OF ASSESSMENTS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING MODES IN THE

BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS DOMAIN (MEAN OF POSSIBLE ANSWERS RANGED FROM 1 TO 5-

SEE REFLEX/HEGESCO QUESTIONNAIRE) ................................................................................................ 99 TABLE 5.6: OCCUPATIONS OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS GRADUATES (IN PERCENT) .................... 102 TABLE 5.7: SEARCH DURATION OF GRADUATES IN THE FIELD OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ..... 102 TABLE 5.8: WAYS GRADUATES IN THE FIELD OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS FIND WORK ............. 104 TABLE 5.9: STUDY PROGRAMME AS A BASIS FOR STARTING WORK: BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS

VS. ALL DOMAINS ......................................................................................................................................... 106 TABLE 5.10: TYPE OF CONTRACT IN THE FIRST JOB: BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS VS. ALL DOMAINS

........................................................................................................................................................................... 107 TABLE 5.11: HOURS OF WORK PER WEEK IN THE FIRST JOB: BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS ............... 107 TABLE 5.12: UTILISED KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN CURRENT WORK: BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS

VS. ALL DOMAINS ......................................................................................................................................... 107 TABLE 5.13: STUDY PROGRAMME AS A GOOD BASIS FOR FURTHER LEARNING ON THE JOB:

BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS VS. ALL DOMAINS ................................................................................... 108 TABLE 5.14: WORK-RELATED TRAINING/COURSE IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS IN THE FIRST JOB:

BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS VS. ALL DOMAINS ................................................................................... 108 TABLE 5.15: NUMBERS OF GRADUATES IN THE EDUCATION FIELD ........................................................ 124

TABLE 5.16: HIGHEST EDUCATION OF FATHER AND MOTHER BY COUNTRY FOR GRADUATES OF

THE EDUCATION AND TEACHING STUDIES (IN PERCENT) ................................................................. 126 TABLE 5.17: AVERAGE SCORE OF ASSESSMENTS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS

IN THE EDUCATION DOMAIN (MEAN OF POSSIBLE ANSWERS RANGED FROM 1 TO 5- SEE

REFLEX/HEGESCO QUESTIONNAIRE) ...................................................................................................... 131 TABLE 5.18: SEARCH DURATION OF GRADUATES IN THE FIELD OF EDUCATION AND TEACHING

STUDIES ........................................................................................................................................................... 135 TABLE 5.19: STUDY PROGRAMME AS A BASIS FOR STARTING WORK: EDUCATION VS. ALL

DOMAINS......................................................................................................................................................... 135 TABLE 5.20: GRADUATES‟ WAYS OF FINDING WORK IN THE FIELD OF EDUCATION .......................... 137 TABLE 5.21: OCCUPATIONS OF EDUCATION GRADUATES (IN PERCENT) ............................................... 141 TABLE 5.22: TYPE OF CONTRACT IN THE FIRST JOB: EDUCATION VS. ALL DOMAINS ........................ 142 TABLE 5.23: UTILISED KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN CURRENT WORK: EDUCATION VS. ALL

DOMAINS......................................................................................................................................................... 144 TABLE 5.24: WORK-RELATED TRAINING/COURSE IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS IN THE FIRST JOB:

EDUCATION VS. DOMAIN............................................................................................................................ 144 TABLE 5.25: STUDY PROGRAMME AS A GOOD BASIS FOR FURTHER LEARNING ON THE JOB:

EDUCATION VS. ALL DOMAINS ................................................................................................................. 145 TABLE 5.26: NUMBER OF GRADUATES IN THE ENGINEERING FIELD ....................................................... 158 TABLE 5.27: MAIN STUDY PROGRAMMES IN FIVE DEHEMS COUNTRIES ................................................ 163 TABLE 5.28: NUMBER OF GRADUATES IN THE HEALTH AND WELFARE FIELD (MEDICINE) .............. 190 TABLE 5.29: AVERAGE SCORE OF ASSESSMENTS OF STUDY PROGRAMME CHARACTERISTICS IN

THE MEDICINE DOMAIN (MEAN OF POSSIBLE ANSWERS RANGED FROM 1 TO 5- SEE

REFLEX/HEGESCO QUESTIONNAIRE) ...................................................................................................... 196 TABLE 5.30: SEARCH DURATION OF GRADUATES IN THE FIELD OF MEDICINE .................................... 205 TABLE 5.31: WAYS GRADUATES FIND WORK IN THE FIELD OF MEDICINE ............................................ 206 TABLE 5.32: STUDY PROGRAMME AS A BASIS FOR STARTING WORK: MEDICINE VS. ALL DOMAINS

........................................................................................................................................................................... 209 TABLE 5.33: UTILISED KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN CURRENT WORK: MEDICINE VS. ALL DOMAINS

........................................................................................................................................................................... 209 TABLE 5.34: STUDY PROGRAMME AS A GOOD BASIS FOR FURTHER LEARNING ON THE JOB:

MEDICINE VS. ALL DOMAINS .................................................................................................................... 210 TABLE 5.35: WORK-RELATED TRAINING/COURSE IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS IN THE FIRST JOB:

MEDICINE VS. ALL DOMAINS .................................................................................................................... 210 TABLE 5.36: NUMBER OF GRADUATES IN THE SCIENCE DOMAIN ............................................................ 220 TABLE 5.37: HIGHEST EDUCATION OF FATHER AND MOTHER BY COUNTRY FOR GRADUATES OF

THE SCIENCE DOMAIN(IN PERCENT) ....................................................................................................... 222 TABLE 5.38: GRADUATES OF SCIENCE DOMAIN BY FAMILY BACKGROUND (IN PERCENT) .............. 223 TABLE 5.39: DISTRIBUTION OF INTERNATIONAL/FOREIGN STUDENTS BY FIELD OF STUDY (IN

PERCENT) ........................................................................................................................................................ 223 TABLE 5.40: NUMBER OF PH.D. GRADUATES IN THE SCIENCE DOMAIN (IN PERCENT) ....................... 224 TABLE 5.41: AVERAGE SCORE OF THE ASSESSMENTS OF STUDY PROGRAMMES CHARACTERISTICS

AND TEACHING AND LEARNING MODES IN SCIENCE DOMAIN (MEAN OF POSSIBLE ANSWERS

RANGED FROM 1 TO 5- SEE REFLEX/HEGESCO QUESTIONNAIRE) ................................................... 225 TABLE 5.42: STUDENTS IN THE DOMAIN OF SCIENCE BY TYPE OF DEGREE*(IN PERCENT) .............. 227 TABLE 5.43: STUDENTS‟ MOBILITY IN THE DOMAIN OF SCIENCE ............................................................ 227 TABLE 5.44: SEARCH DURATION OF GRADUATES IN THE FIELD OF SCIENCE ....................................... 228 TABLE 5.45: WAY OF FINDING WORK BY GRADUATES IN THE FIELD OF SCIENCE .............................. 230 TABLE 5.46: STUDY PROGRAMME AS A BASIS FOR STARTING WORK: SCIENCE VS. ALL DOMAINS

........................................................................................................................................................................... 232 TABLE 5.47: OCCUPATIONS OF SCIENCE GRADUATES, ISCO 2-DIGIT LEVEL (IN PERCENT) .............. 233

TABLE 5.48: TYPE OF CONTRACT IN THE FIRST JOB: SCIENCE VS. ALL DOMAINS ............................... 234 TABLE 5.49: HOURS OF WORK PER WEEK IN THE FIRST JOB: SCIENCE VS. ALL DOMAINS ................ 234 TABLE 5.50: DISTRIBUTION OF GROSS HOURLY EARNINGS IN THE FIRST JOB: SCIENCE VS. ALL

DOMAINS......................................................................................................................................................... 234 TABLE 5.51: UTILIZED KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN CURRENT WORK: SCIENCE VS. ALL DOMAINS

........................................................................................................................................................................... 236 TABLE 5.52: LABOUR MARKET STATUS: SCIENCE VS. ALL DOMAINS ..................................................... 237 TABLE 5.53: LABOUR MARKET STATUS OF SCIENCE GRADUATES(IN PERCENT) ................................. 237 TABLE 5.54: STUDY PROGRAMME AS A GOOD BASIS FOR FURTHER LEARNING ON THE JOB:

SCIENCE VS. ALL DOMAINS ....................................................................................................................... 238 TABLE 5.55: WORK-RELATED TRAINING/COURSE IN PAST 12 MONTHS IN THE FIRST JOB: SCIENCE

VS. ALL DOMAINS ......................................................................................................................................... 239 TABLE 5.56: SCIENCE SUBDOMAINS BY CHARACTERISTICS OF HEIS‟ APPROACH TO ENHANCING

GRADUATES‟ EMPLOYABILITY ................................................................................................................ 246 TABLE 5.57: NUMBER OF GRADUATES IN SOCIAL AND BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE FIELD ................... 251 TABLE 5.60: AVERAGE SCORE OF THE ASSESSMENTS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING MODES IN

SOCIOLOGY DOMAIN ................................................................................................................................... 256 TABLE 5.61: OCCUPATIONS OF SOCIOLOGY GRADUATES, ISCO 2-DIGIT LEVEL (IN PERCENT) ........ 258 TABLE 5.62: SEARCH DURATION OF GRADUATES IN THE FIELD OF SOCIOLOGY ................................ 259 TABLE 5.63: WAY OF FINDING WORK BY GRADUATES IN THE FIELD OF SOCIOLOGY ....................... 260 TABLE 5.64: STUDY PROGRAMME AS A BASIS FOR STARTING WORK: SOCIOLOGY VS. ALL

DOMAINS......................................................................................................................................................... 261 TABLE 5.65: TYPE OF CONTRACT IN THE FIRST JOB: SOCIOLOGY VS. ALL DOMAINS ........................ 261 TABLE 5.66: UTILIZED KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN CURRENT WORK: SOCIOLOGY VS. ALL

DOMAINS......................................................................................................................................................... 262 TABLE 5.67: STUDY PROGRAMME AS A GOOD BASIS FOR FURTHER LEARNING ON THE JOB:

SOCIOLOGY VS. ALL DOMAINS ................................................................................................................. 262 TABLE 5.68: WORK-RELATED TRAINING/COURSE IN PAST 12 MONTHS IN THE FIRST JOB:

SOCIOLOGY VS. DOMAIN ............................................................................................................................ 263

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 2.1: LABOUR MARKET FLOWS AND INTERDEPENDENCIES BETWEEN LABOUR DEMAND

AND SUPPLY 26 FIGURE 2.2: LAYERS OF INFLUENCING FACTORS ON CAREERS (MAYRHOFER, MEYER, & STEYRER,

2005: 16) 30 FIGURE 2.3: TRANSITION FROM EDUCATION TO THE WORLD OF WORK – A SYSTEM-LEVEL

COMPARISON 36 FIGURE 2.4: CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF CAREER SUCCESS 37 FIGURE 2.5: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR STUDYING HE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND

GRADUATES‟ EMPLOYABILITY 46 FIGURE 3.1: AN OUTLINE OF THE METHODOLOGY OF THE DEHEMS PROJECT 51 FIGURE 4.1: HISTOGRAMS OF SIX INDEX VARIABLES OF LABOUR MARKET SUCCESS 69 FIGURE 4.2: MODELLING LABOUR MARKET SUCCESS IN THE DEHEMS PROJECT 72 FIGURE 5.1: SHARES OF GRADUATES WHOSE FATHER‟S HIGHEST EDUCATION IS ISCED 5+6

(TERTIARY EDUCATION) 92 FIGURE 5.2: SHARES OF GRADUATES WHOSE MOTHER‟S HIGHEST EDUCATION IS ISCED 5+6

(TERTIARY EDUCATION) 92 FIGURE 5.3: SHARES OF GRADUATES WHO SPENT TIME ABROAD DURING HIGHER EDUCATION TO

STUDY 94 FIGURE 5.4: SHARES OF GRADUATES WHO HELD A POSITION IN A STUDENT OR OTHER

VOLUNTARY ORGANISATION DURING THEIR TIME IN HIGHER EDUCATION 94 FIGURE 5.5: BROAD FOCUS OF THE STUDY PROGRAMME, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 97 FIGURE 5.6: FREEDOM IN COMPOSING ONE‟S OWN STUDY PROGRAMME, BY COUNTRY (IN

PERCENT) 97 FIGURE 5.7: RATING OF HOW DEMANDING THE STUDY PROGRAMMES WAS, BY COUNTRY (IN

PERCENT) 98 FIGURE 5.8: EMPLOYERS‟ FAMILIARITY WITH THE CONTENT OF THE STUDY PROGRAMME, BY

COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 98 FIGURE 5.9: STUDY-RELATED WORK EXPERIENCES DURING STUDY, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 100 FIGURE 5.10 : SATISFACTION WITH CURRENT WORK, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 106 FIGURE 5.11: WORD TREE RELATION FOR INTERNATIONALISATION 117 FIGURE 5.12: RATIO OF MALES AND FEMALES IN EDUCATION AND TEACHING STUDIES 125 FIGURE 5.13: SPENDING TIME ABROAD DURING HIGHER EDUCATION FOR STUDY, BY COUNTRY (IN

PERCENT) 127 FIGURE 5.14: BROAD FOCUS OF STUDY PROGRAMME, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 128 FIGURE 5.15: STUDY-RELATED WORK EXPERIENCES DURING STUDY, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT)

132 FIGURE 5.16: PARTICIPATION IN ONE OR MORE WORK PLACEMENTS/INTERNSHIPS AS PART OF THE

STUDY PROGRAMME, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 133 FIGURE 5.17: STUDY PROGRAMME AS A GOOD BASIS FOR STARTING WORK, BY COUNTRY (IN

PERCENT) 135 FIGURE 5.18: WORK IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 142 FIGURE 5.19: SATISFACTION WITH CURRENT WORK, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 143 FIGURE 5.20: MORE DEMANDING WORK THAN THE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS POSSESSED, BY

COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 143 FIGURE 5.21: FOLLOWING ANY WORK-RELATED TRAINING/COURSE IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS, BY

COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 144

FIGURE 5.22: STRUCTURE OF THE ENGINEERING DOMAIN – GRADUATES BROKEN DOWN BY

SUBDOMAINS 158 FIGURE 5.23: DEGREE OF FEMINISATION OF THE ENGINEERING DOMAIN 160 FIGURE 5.24: EMPHASIS ON GROUP ASSIGNMENTS, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 166 FIGURE 5.25: EMPHASIS ON PROJECT AND PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING, BY COUNTRY (IN

PERCENT) 166 FIGURE 5.26: STUDY-RELATED WORK EXPERIENCES DURING STUDY, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT)

167 FIGURE 5.27: PARTICIPATION IN ONE OR MORE WORK PLACEMENTS/INTERNSHIPS AS PART OF THE

STUDY PROGRAMME, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 168 FIGURE 5.28: STUDY PROGRAMME AS A GOOD BASIS FOR STARTING WORK, BY COUNTRY (IN

PERCENT) 173 FIGURE 5.29: STUDY PROGRAMME AS A GOOD BASIS FOR FURTHER LEARNING ON THE JOB, BY

COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 174 FIGURE 5.30: OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN NEW THINGS, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 175 FIGURE 5.31: STRUCTURE OF THE HEALTH DOMAIN (MEDICINE) – GRADUATES BROKEN DOWN BY

SUBDOMAINS 190 FIGURE 5.32: DEGREE OF FEMINISATION OF THE MEDICINE DOMAIN 191 FIGURE 5.33: STUDY-RELATED WORK EXPERIENCES DURING STUDY, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT)

193 FIGURE 5.34: ACADEMIC PRESTIGE OF THE STUDY PROGRAMME, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 194 FIGURE 5.35: VOCATIONAL ORIENTATION OF THE STUDY PROGRAMME, BY COUNTRY (IN

PERCENT) 194 FIGURE 5.36: EMPHASIS ON GROUP ASSIGNMENTS, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 197 FIGURE 5.37: EMPHASIS ON WRITTEN ASSIGNMENTS, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 197 FIGURE 5.38: SATISFACTION WITH CURRENT WORK, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 207 FIGURE 5.39: GOOD CAREER PROSPECTS, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 208 FIGURE 5.40: HIGH JOB SECURITY, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT) 208 FIGURE 5.41: STRUCTURE OF THE SCIENCE DOMAIN – GRADUATES BROKEN DOWN BY

SUBDOMAINS 221 FIGURE 5.42: DEGREE OF FEMINIZATION OF THE SCIENCE DOMAIN 222 FIGURE 5.43: STUDY PROGRAMME AS A BASIS FOR STARTING WORK, BY COUNTRY (IN PERCENT)

231 FIGURE 5.44: DISTRIBUTION OF GROSS HOURLY WAGES (BY COUNTRIES, ADJUSTED FOR PPP) 235 FIGURE 5.45: UTILIZED KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN CURRENT WORK, BY COUNTRY (IN PER CENT)

236 FIGURE 5.46: STUDY PROGRAMME A GOOD BASIS FOR FURTHER LEARNING ON THE JOB, BY

COUNTRY (IN PER CENT) 238 FIGURE 5.47: FOLLOWING ANY WORK-RELATED TRAINING/COURSE IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS, BY

COUNTRY (IN PER CENT) 239 FIGURE 5.48: DEGREE OF FEMINIZATION OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, BUSINESS AND LAW DOMAIN

252

Introduction

16

Samo Pavlin, Mateja Melink *

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Over the last decade those concerned with education and employment have been increasingly seeking

evidence of how levels of educational attainment characterise individuals' performances in the labour

market. Enhancing the short- and long-term employability potential of young people has become a central

developmental priority in the European Higher Education Area (EC, 2011). According to findings of the

HEGESCO project (2009), employers still have surprisingly little knowledge of what to expect from grad-

uates, and higher education institutions (HEIs) have a similar low level of knowledge of what employers

need. Both aspects are directly linked to strategic issues of enhancing graduates‟ employability as they

improve the quality, governance and societal relevance of higher education, and provide backing for re-

forms via policy-evidence-based analysis, and support flagship EU initiatives such as Youth on the Move,

aiming to increase young people‟s chances of finding a job, and Agenda for New Skills and Jobs, seeking

to improve skill and education matches.

These challenges open up several general questions regarding the future development of higher education:

how to balance general and professionally specific subjects and their complementarities, what should be

the practical scope of teaching and learning modes or how should HEIs collaborate with employers and

get involved with apprenticeships, and how should they validate non-formal learning experiences. Several

European actions such as TUNING Educational Structures in Europe1, Careers after Higher Education

(CHEERS)2, Flexible Professional in the Knowledge Society (REFLEX)

3 or “Higher Education as a Gen-

erator of Strategic Competences” (HEGESCO)4 have sought answers to these questions by comparing

graduates in their transition from education to the world of work in a country-comparative fashion.

One of the key conceptual issues in these projects was to learn about the relative impact of higher educa-

tion programmes on acquired competencies and professional success. Since then, indicators of graduates‟

transition and early career success have been attracting ever more attention on the policy agenda, accom-

panied by international surveys such as Education at a Glance (OECD, 2010) or the Programme for the

International Assessment of Adult Competencies (OECD, 2011-). The prevailing motive for these at-

tempts is based on the assumption that acquiring a high level of employability-related competencies is the

most desirable result of the higher education system.

In this way, the empirical findings from graduate surveys related to career success and the evaluation of

HE programmes are expected to hold strong potential for demystifying the real contribution HEIs make to

graduates‟ professional work either by way of generating new knowledge (i.e. the push principle) or

providing skills (i.e. the pull principle adjusting graduates to suit employers‟ needs). The HEGESCO re-

port (Allen et al., 2009), for example, produced several premises for how policy-makers, HEIs, employers

and graduates can in general terms foster the development of key competencies.

* Support: Nevenka Černigoj Sadar, Matej Godnič, Miroljub Ignjatović, Anton Kramberger 1 http://tuning.unideusto.org/tuningeu/ 2 http://www.uni-kassel.de/incher/cheers/index.ghk 3 http://www.fdewb.unimaas.nl/roa/reflex/ 4 http://www.hegesco.org/

Employability of Graduates and Higher Education Management Systems: Final report of DEHEMS project

17

These graduate career surveys all confirmed that the determinants of professional knowledge, along with

general competencies, are not exclusively linked to educational curricula per se but also to work experi-

ence, family backgrounds and general societal trends. Moreover, when looking at the jobs held by higher

education graduates the key question is not always if they get jobs but why (Brennan & Little, 2009: 101):

“it is less about the characteristics of the jobs (wages, status, employment sector) and more about what it

is that graduates bring to them – their knowledge, competences and dispositions.” This issue varies signif-

icantly among fields of study and, accordingly, among the models of career success.

Moreover, and as usually stressed by international comparative surveys, the varieties of professional do-

mains, practical knowledge and training differ not only in their scope but also in their kind (e.g. Abbott,

1988; Burrage & Torstendahl, 1990). The general recommendation found in international surveys to foster

the acquisition of competencies such as the need to obtain relevant work experience during higher educa-

tion, to make higher education more demanding, to forge links with employers, promote HE programmes

and establish the link between HE and the world of work, to question problem-based learning etc. might

lead to contradictions once applied to a particular field of study.

As the final result of the DEHEMS project (short for: Network for the Development of Higher Education

Management Systems), this report, builds and complements these premises on the basis of over 360 inter-

views in six European countries (Austria, Germany, Italy, Poland, Slovenia and Turkey) conducted in the

project, and as well as an analysis of earlier European graduate surveys and other data. All of the results

have been included on the project webpage and discussed at two large international conferences in Vienna

and Ljubljana5.

1.2 PURPOSE AND GOALS

One of the current policy concerns arsing in the midst of HE developments and implementation of the

Bologna Process is the employability of graduates. There is a particular stress on the issue of whether

higher education systems are expected to produce readymade skills, or if they should be oriented to pre-

paring graduates for a lifelong career. The assumption in the first option relates to an increase in the prac-

tical content of subjects, the applied notion of learning and teaching, and cooperation with employers over

theory and classical ex-cathedra learning. Further, in line with several EC policy actions, the REFLEX and

HEGESCO projects put a great accent on questions such as “what are the key competencies graduates

need to function well in the workplace and in society?”, “which actors are mainly responsible for compe-

tence development?”, “how well do graduates‟ competencies measure up in the world of work?”, or “what

path should higher education systems follow to foster the development of competencies?”.

The DEHEMS report aims to build upon these issues. It seeks to construct a knowledge platform that spe-

cifically addresses the method of optimising the performance and quality assurance of HE systems in the

area of graduates‟ early career success development. In this way, it seeks to identify general patterns of

understanding and enhancing career success, with particular attention to these professional domains:

- business and economics;

- education and teaching;

- engineering;

5 http://www.dehems-project.eu

http://www.dehems-project.eu/

Introduction

18

- science;

- medicine; and

- sociology and political studies.

The DECOWE event (2012-)6 already opened the issue of what we know about successful measures

(higher) education institutions are taking and what is the actual role played by graduates‟ employability

evidence in the management of HEIs, and how do and should (higher) education institutions make use of

this information. These questions are being considered as an important starting point of the DEHEMS

project and report. It addresses the needs and responsibilities of HE systems to support graduates‟ careers.

The findings and recommendations hold great relevance for the organisation of HE curricula, teaching

practices, cooperation with enterprises and students‟ apprenticeships, integration of research activities into

curricula, universities‟ career centres and the organisation of HE practicums.

Hence, the DEHEMS project‟s main conceptual goal is to link the determinants and dimensions of gradu-

ates‟ career success in the selected professional domains and fields of study with the expectations, practic-

es and future challenges of HE institutions. The report therefore explores how much HE management sys-

tems are evidence-driven, and addresses the following key questions:

First, what is the overall idea of HE institutions and management about how their studies take the

future professional activities of their graduates into account?

Second, what are higher education management systems doing to successfully and systematically

help graduates make the transition to work?

Third, where do higher education managers and academics see the biggest developmental needs?

Fourth, do teaching modes have any impact on the successful employment and work of graduates?

What role do practical and international experiences play in graduates‟ employability?

Fifth, what is the role of employment-related guidance services in a successful transition to the la-

bour market?

Sixth, do practically-oriented studies prepare graduates better for work than scientifically-oriented

study programmes?

Seventh, which are differences and similarities among the countries and professional domains?

The methodological steps taken when pursuing answers to these issues are in the following order: concep-

tualisation of the theoretical and methodological framework and elaboration of the professional domain

approach, analysis of international graduates‟ databases, the completion and analysis of the 360 interviews

and integration of the results into the final report.

6 http://www.decowe.org/

http://www.decowe.org/en/introduction/

Employability of Graduates and Higher Education Management Systems: Final report of DEHEMS project

19

1.3 STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT

Chapter 2 provides the theoretical and conceptual background. It focuses on general theories on education,

labour market and careers with an emphasis on the theory of human capital, matching theory, and the mac-

roeconomic perspective on education and job matching. It also describes the concepts of employability,

professional career and career success. The theoretical and conceptual frameworks are followed by a sub-

chapter on designing a model of graduates' career success which is also applied to the professional domain

sections in Chapters 5 and 6. These professional domains are: business and economics, education and

teaching studies, engineering, medicine, science, and sociology and political science.

Chapter 3 describes the methodology adopted in the DEHEMS project. The chapter is divided into two

parts: a description of the quantitative analysis and a description of the qualitative analysis. The quantita-

tive analysis was carried out using three different data sources on graduates and their professional careers:

OECD Education Statistics, the Labour Force Survey which was chiefly used when analysing graduates'

labour market situation, and the REFLEX/HEGESCO data set. The second part of the chapter – a descrip-

tion of the qualitative analysis – presents the collecting, conducting and analysis of in-depth semi-

structured interviews made among individuals from HE institutions and other stakeholders (employers,

trade unions, policy-makers etc.).

The main purpose of Chapter 4 is to provide the results on the determinants of graduates' labour market

success across the different study domains with the goal of ascertaining similarities and differences among

them. The analysis defines the dependent and explanatory variables that were determined on the basis of

theoretical considerations and the data availability and sets out the results of job satisfaction and other

labour market success factors from different perspectives.

Chapter 5 aims to further portray and elaborate the six professional domains identified through the theoret-

ical and conceptual frameworks (Chapter 2). Each subchapter is devoted to one professional domain and

describes study programmes and graduates, study provisions and conditions (including teaching modes,

practical training etc.) and the transition to employment on the basis of national reports from the countries

included in the DEHEMS project. A special emphasis in the chapter is given to the analysis of the inter-

views conducted among HE management representatives about graduates‟ professional careers.

Chapter 6 complements the issues raised in previous chapters, especially in the interviews with HE man-

agement (see Chapter 5). The chapter provides a qualitative analysis of the interviews among higher edu-

cation stakeholders – HE policy-makers, employers, trade unions and student organisations – on the role

of higher education institutions in preparing graduates for work and the utilisation of hard evidence of

graduates‟ employability. The main conclusions are outlined in the final chapter.

Addressing Graduates‟ Career Success from the Higher Education Perspective – Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks

20

Samo Pavlin, Leszek Wincenciak, Gabriela Grotkowska, Paul Demeter, Wolfgang Mayrhofer, Katharina Chudzikowski, Ivan

Svetlik, Angelo Paletta and Daniele Vidoni *7

2 ADDRESSING GRADUATES’ CAREER SUCCESS FROM THE HIGHER EDUCATION PERS

Employability of Graduates and Higher Education Management … · 2020. 12. 20. · Employability...

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