Contrast i Veling

7/28/2019 Contrast i Veling

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ContrastiveContrastive LinguisticsLinguistics:: IntroductionIntroduction

1950s:1950s: basedbased onon structuralismstructuralism ToTo makemake foreignforeign languagelanguage teachingteaching moremore effectiveeffective BasedBased onon thethe assumptionsassumptions thatthat::

ForeignForeign languagelanguage learninglearning isis basedbased onon thethe mothermothertonguetongue

PositivePositive transfertransfer:: similaritiessimilarities facilitatefacilitate learninglearning NegativeNegative transfertransfer//InterferenceInterference:: differencesdifferences causecause

problemsproblems ViaVia contrastivecontrastive analysisanalysis:: problemsproblems cancan bebe predictedpredicted andand

consideredconsidered inin thethe curriculumcurriculum

CLCL seenseen as anas an appliedapplied branchbranch ofoflinguisticslinguistics ServingServing practicalpractical purposespurposes inin foreignforeign and secondand second

languagelanguage teachingteaching ExpectationsExpectations werewere notnot metmet InterestInterest in CLin CL declineddeclined ((especiallyespecially inin thethe US)US) In Europe,In Europe, interestinterest continuedcontinued; large; large contrastivecontrastive

projectsprojects inin thethe 1970s1970s ExpandingExpanding fieldfield;; theoreticaltheoretical andand methodologicalmethodological

interestinterest InternationalisationInternationalisation increasinglyincreasingly demandsdemands crosscross--

culturalcultural competencecompetence,, translationtranslation,, foreignforeignlanguagelanguage teachingteaching etc.etc.

Language pedagogy

Translation theory

Language typology

Language description

Language universalsIntercultural

communication

MethodologicalMethodological stepssteps in CLin CL

1.1. DescriptionDescription:: SelectionSelection ofofitemsitems toto bebe comparedcompared CharacterisationCharacterisation ofofitemsitems inin termsterms ofofsomesome languagelanguage

independentindependent theoreticaltheoretical modelmodel

2.2. JuxtapositionJuxtaposition SearchSearch forfor andand identificationidentification ofofcrosscross--linguisticlinguistic

equivalentsequivalents

3.3. ComparisonComparison:: SpecificationSpecification ofofdegreedegree andand typetype ofofcorrespondencecorrespondencebetweenbetween comparedcompared itemsitems

ProblemsProblems TertiumTertiumComparationisComparationis::

LgLg a anda and LgLg bb differdiffer inin structurestructure translationtranslation equivalenceequivalence::

meaningmeaning of ofstructurestructure a >a > structurestructure bb meaningmeaning structurestructure a =a = meaningmeaning structurestructure b?b?

Das gefllt mirDas gefllt mir

IIlikelikethisthis

CelaCelamemeplaitplait//JaimeJaimecelacela

gefallen = togefallen = tolikelike==plaireplaire==aimeraimer??

SimilarSimilar::PresentPresentPerfectPerfectvs. Perfekt vs. passvs. Perfekt vs. passcomposcompos

norm,norm, standardstandard ??

languagelanguage independentindependent modelmodel??

PredictabilityPredictability L1L1--basedbased errorserrors vs. nonvs. non--L1L1--basedbased errorserrors

ComplexityComplexityofoflanguagelanguagesystemssystems

Analysis ofAnalysis ofsubsystemssubsystems

DifferencesDifferencesvs.vs. similaritiessimilarities

ImportanceImportance ofofcrosslinguisticscrosslinguistics similaritiessimilarities

Langue vs.Langue vs.paroleparole

StaticStatic viewview onon languagelanguage ContextContext Levels ofLevels oflinguisticlinguistic descriptiondescription inin theorytheory andand

practicepractice


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Levels ofLevels ofdescriptiondescription

PhonologyPhonologyMorphoMorpho--Syntax / GrammarSyntax / GrammarLexisLexis

PragmaticsPragmaticsCultureCulture

TerminologyTerminology

ContrastiveContrastiveAnalysisAnalysisTransfer: positive and negativeTransfer: positive and negativeInterferenceInterferenceHypercorrectionHypercorrectionError Analysis Error Analysis predictingpredicting errorserrors

ContrastiveContrastive PhonologyPhonology

PhonemicPhonemic inventoriesinventories// phonemicphonemic systemssystemsPhonotacticsPhonotacticsSuprasegmentalsSuprasegmentals

ForeignForeign accentaccentStereotypesStereotypes

Causes/ErrorsCauses/Errors

SubstitutionSubstitution examplesexamples

Neutralisation (Auslautverhrtung)Neutralisation (Auslautverhrtung) examplesexamples

Distribution ofDistribution ofallophonesallophones examplesexamples

Stress andStress and intonationintonation patternspatterns

PhonemicPhonemic systemssystemsStudentStudent presentationpresentation::

VowelVowel andand consonantconsonant contrastscontrasts PhonotacticPhonotactic rulesrules

SuprasegmentalsSuprasegmentalsStressStress

CompoundsCompounds withwith levellevel stress (stress (eveneven stress)stress)

IntonationIntonation GlottalGlottal stopstop ((MairMair 1995: 19)1995: 19) FallFall--riserise intonationintonation vs.vs. lowlow--riserise intonationintonation


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Stress:Stress: levellevel stressstress

Definition:Definition: Unter ebener Betonung versteht man eineUnter ebener Betonung versteht man eine

Betonungsart, nach der zwei miteinanderBetonungsart, nach der zwei miteinanderverbundene oder auch freistehende, jedochverbundene oder auch freistehende, jedochinnerlich zusammengehrende Wrter (Wortsilben)innerlich zusammengehrende Wrter (Wortsilben)mit gleich starkem Druck (mit gleich starkem Druck (evenevenoderoder levellevelstressstress))gesprochen werden, sogesprochen werden, so dada zwei betonte Silbenzwei betonte Silbenunmittelbar aufeinander folgen, mitunter aber auchunmittelbar aufeinander folgen, mitunter aber auchdurch eine oder zwei unbetonte Silben getrenntdurch eine oder zwei unbetonte Silben getrenntsein knnen. (Bornemann 1954: 200)sein knnen. (Bornemann 1954: 200)

PatternsPatterns

1.1. : : roastroastbeefbeef,, weekweek--endend,, armarm--chairchair,, sheshe--catcat,, mankindmankind

steinreich, todernst, stahlblau, eiskalt, kreisrund steinreich, todernst, stahlblau, eiskalt, kreisrund

2.2. a: a: plumplum--puddingpudding,, toytoysoldierssoldiers, hot, hotwaterwater,, oldold--fashionedfashioned

Endsumme, goldrichtig, zwlf Liter Endsumme, goldrichtig, zwlf Liter

3.3. a : a : London Bridge,London Bridge, silversilverwatchwatch, bitter, bittercoldcold,, easyeasychairchair, ,

kreidebleich, totenstill, federleicht, riesengro kreidebleich, totenstill, federleicht, riesengro

4.4. a a: a a: silversilverpencilpencil,, overcrowdedovercrowded,, reestablishreestablish, ,

Dienstagmorgen, hundemde, tatendurstig, Dienstagmorgen, hundemde, tatendurstig,

5.5. a a a: a a a: Buckingham Palace, Waterloo Station, Buckingham Palace, Waterloo Station,

Frankfurter Wrstchen, Leipziger Messe, Edamer Kse Frankfurter Wrstchen, Leipziger Messe, Edamer Kse

6.6. (a) a a a (a):(a) a a a (a): CommanderCommander--inin--chiefchief, University College, , University College,

Zentralkommission, EntschdigungssummeZentralkommission, Entschdigungssumme

MinimalMinimal pairspairs: English: English

Level stress vs.Level stress vs. alternatingalternating stressstress aablackblackbirdbirdvs. avs. ablackbirdblackbird

thethedyingdyingindustryindustryvs.vs. thethedyeingdyeingindustryindustry

a noble man vs. aa noble man vs. anoblemannobleman

aaloudloudspeakerspeakervs. avs. aloudspeakerloudspeaker

totomakemake--upupvs.vs. thethemakemake--upup

Distribution?Distribution?

MinimalMinimal pairspairs: German: German Level stress vs.Level stress vs. alternatingalternating stressstress

frh reif vs. frhreiffrh reif vs. frhreif

voll Milch vs. Vollmilchvoll Milch vs. Vollmilch

mit Gift vs. Mitgiftmit Gift vs. Mitgift

eineinSchuSchuvs.vs. EinschuEinschu

ein Fach vs. einfachein Fach vs. einfach

ein Topf vs. Eintopfein Topf vs. Eintopf

Distribution?Distribution?

ContrastsContrasts//problemsproblems Level stressLevel stress moremore frequentfrequent in Englishin English

typologicaltypological characteristiccharacteristic:: lossloss ofofinflectionsinflections ininEnglishEnglish

hothotdaydayvs.vs. heiheiererTagTag weekendweekendvs.vs. WochWochenenendeende London BridgeLondon Bridgevs.vs. LondonLondonererBrckeBrcke

SomeSome compoundcompound nounsnouns ((nounnoun ++ nounnoun)) in German: stress onin German: stress on firstfirst nounnoun ((determinansdeterminans) an in) an in

English:English: levellevel stressstress ExamplesExamples::

mankindmankindvs. Menschheitvs. Menschheit gardengardenfencefencevs. Gartenzaunvs. Gartenzaun

shortshortstorystoryvs. Kurzgeschichtevs. Kurzgeschichte


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IntonationIntonation

DifferencesDifferences ofofmeaningmeaning producedproduced byby thethe useuseof differentof different intonationintonation patternspatterns

IfIfthesethese areare notnot perceivedperceived oror correctlycorrectlyidentifiedidentified andand subsequentlysubsequently lost:lost: MiscommunicationMiscommunication//misunderstandingsmisunderstandings

CommunicationCommunication breakdownbreakdown MisinterpretationMisinterpretation ofofattitudesattitudes andand intentionsintentions

German and EnglishGerman and English prosodicprosodic systemssystems

German and EnglishGerman and English prosodicprosodic systemssystems arearecloselyclosely relatedrelated StressStress signalledsignalled acousticallyacoustically aa combinationcombination ofof

lengthlength,, intensityintensity,, frequencyfrequency StressStress isis ascribedascribed toto particularparticular syllablessyllables inin wordswords

and toand to wordswords withinwithin sentencessentences Prominent andProminent and nonnon--prominentprominent stress,stress, whichwhich areare

distinguisheddistinguished byby pitchpitch differencesdifferences FallingFalling tonestones areare basicallybasically completivecompletive RisingRising tonestones basicallybasically continuativecontinuative ((cfcf.. TrimTrim 1988: 239)1988: 239)

ContrastsContrasts cancan bebe foundfound inin thethe distributiondistribution ofofprominent andprominent and nonnon--prominentprominent stress instress inphrasesphrases In English,In English, contentcontent wordword areare normallynormally prominentprominent

ififthethe conceptconcept expressedexpressed isis newnew In German,In German, contentcontent wordswords formform groupsgroups,, whichwhich

containcontain onlyonly aa singlesingle prominent stress.prominent stress. ThereforeTherefore adjectivesadjectives andand verbsverbs areare moremore oftenoften

nonnon--prominentprominent in Germanin German thanthan in Englishin English

ResultsResults in ain a foreignforeign accentaccent butbut doesdoes notnotcausecause miscommunicationmiscommunication::

TheThe oldold manman camecame homehome atat sixsix oclockoclockinin thethemorningmorning.. CHCH2T4c2T4clzmlzm jdHljdHl g2Tl{?sg2Tl{?srHjrrHjr ??jkPjjkPj HmC?HmC?

[[lN9mhMlN9mhM{{{{

Der alte Mann ist um sechs Uhr morgensDer alte Mann ist um sechs Uhr morgensnach Hause gekommen.nach Hause gekommen. cd`cd` `ks?`ks?l`m{HrsTll`m{HrsTl yDjryDjr t9`t9`{{lN`fmrlN`fmr{{m`9wm`9w

[[g`nyg`ny??f?jNl?mf?jNl?m{{{{

ResultsResults ofofinterferenceinterference:: y?y?n9ksn9ks lDmlDm{{jd-ljd-l gn9lgn9l{Ds{DsrHjrrHjr n9jkNjn9jkNj{hmy?{hmy?

[[ln`mHMln`mHM{{{{

cD?qcD?q U4s?U4s?[[lUmlUm{HrsTl{HrsTlyDjryDjr T`T` [[lN9f?mylN9f?my{{mUjmUj

g`Ty`g`Ty`{{f?j@f?j@ [[l?ml?m{{{{

FallingFalling intonationintonation FallingFalling intonationintonation posepose fewfew problemsproblems, apart, apart

fromfrom fromfrom differentdifferent rolesroles ofofdynamicdynamic andandpitchpitch rangerange:: EnglishEnglish speakersspeakers useuse pitchpitch rangerange forfor emphasisemphasis GermanGerman speakersspeakers useuse dynamicdynamic rangerange forfor emphasisemphasis As aAs a resultresult, English, English peoplepeople maymay interpretinterpret GermanGerman

speakersspeakers attemptattempt toto introduceintroduce varietyvariety bybyincreasedincreased volumevolume asas angeranger,, thethe purposepurpose forfor whichwhichloudnessloudness isis usedused in Englishin English

RisingRising intonationintonation RisingRising intonationintonation isis usedused differentlydifferently

In German:In German: RisingRising intonationintonation inin yesyes/no/no questionsquestions UsuallyUsually a higha high riserise,, veryvery rarelyrarely a falla fall riserise intonationintonation NoNo risingrising intonationsintonations atat thethe end ofend ofnonnon--interrogativeinterrogative

sentencessentences

In English:In English: UsuallyUsually aa lowlow riserise thanthan a higha high riserise inin yesyes/no/no questionsquestions English alsoEnglish also usesuses risingrising intonationsintonations atat thethe end ofend ofnonnon--

interrogativeinterrogative sentencessentences

ThisThis cancan bebe interpretetdinterpretetd asas unfinishedunfinished sentencessentencesbyby GermansGermans


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In EnglishIn English risingrising intonationsintonations cancan implyimply AA lowlow riserise: a: a relationrelation ofofconsequenceconsequence A fallA fall riserise: a: a relationrelation ofofcontrastcontrast

In EnglishIn English wewe thusthus havehave withwith imperativesimperatives(and(and withwith statementsstatements):): FallingFalling intonationintonation indicatesindicates an orderan order ComeComeherehere!!

AA lowlow riserise isis reassuringreassuring oror encouragingencouraging ComeComeherehere(and(andIllIllgivegiveyouyousoemthingsoemthingnicenice)) A fallA fall riserise conveysconveys aa warningwarning oror aa threatthreat ComeComeherehere((ororyouyouwontwontgetgetaasweetsweet))

TheseThese usesuses areare unknownunknown toto GermansGermans

ConsequencesConsequences/Problems/Problems

For EnglishFor English speakersspeakers:: TheThe feelingfeeling ofofimpositionimposition isis createdcreated byby thethe useuse ofof

fallingfalling intonationsintonations,, becausebecause theythey areare perceivedperceived asasbeingbeing completivecompletivePossibilityPossibility ofofdisagreementdisagreement feltfelt toto bebe excludedexcludedFreedomFreedom ofofresponseresponse feltfelt toto bebe restrictedrestricted

ForFor GermansGermans:: ManyMany modificationsmodifications areare missedmissed

DifferentDifferent politenesspoliteness strategiesstrategies

TenseTense,, aspectaspect, and, and aktionsartaktionsart

DifficultDifficult categoriescategoriesTerminologicalTerminological andand conceptualconceptual confusionconfusion

Joan wasJoan wassingingsingingvs. Johnvs. Johnisissingingsinging: TENSE: TENSE

Joan wasJoan wassingingsingingvs. John sang: ASPECTvs. John sang: ASPECT

Time andTime and languagelanguageGrammaticalisationGrammaticalisation vs.vs. lexicalisationlexicalisation

Time andTime and languagelanguage

ConceptualisationConceptualisation of timeof time CultureCulture--specificspecific TimeTime arrowarrow// straightstraight timetime lineline vs.vs. cyclecycle Impact onImpact on oror relevancerelevance forfor grammaticalgrammatical

categoriescategories??

All humanAll human languageslanguages havehave waysways ofoflocatinglocating

in timein time

RepresentationRepresentation of timeof time

PAST FUTUREPRESENT

Present moment

RepresentationsRepresentations ofofsituationssituationsSituations: Processes

EventsStates

A B C D

E

G

F

H

I

Cf. Comrie 1985: 6

1. Location of situations in relationto some other point or segment ofline

2. Internal temporal contour of asituation: point on the line vs.stretch of the time line


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ExpressionsExpressions of timeof time

ExpressionsExpressions cancan bebe divideddivided intointo threethree classesclasses:: LexicallyLexically compositecomposite expressionsexpressions

LargestLargest setset,, potentiallypotentially infiniteinfiniteLastLastyearyear,, fivefiveminutesminutesafterafterJ.J. leftleft

LexicalLexical itemsitemsFiniteFinite setset

NowNow,, todaytoday,, yesterdayyesterday, , GrammaticalGrammatical categoriescategories: TENSES: TENSES

FiniteFinite setsetPresentPresent,,pastpast, ,

GrammaticalisationGrammaticalisation vs.vs. lexicalisationlexicalisation

GrammaticalisationGrammaticalisation:: IntegrationIntegration intointo thethe grammaticalgrammatical systemsystem of aof a languagelanguage ObligatoryObligatory expressionexpression MorphologicalMorphological boundnessboundness JoanJoanrunsrunsvs. Joan ranvs. Joan ran

LexicalisationLexicalisation:: IntegrationIntegration intointo thethe lexiconlexicon of aof a languagelanguage withoutwithout effecteffect onon thethe

grammaticalgrammatical structurestructure

NonNon--obligatoryobligatory FreeFree lexicallexical itemsitems NowNow,, yesterdayyesterday

BorderlineBorderline casescases, , continuumcontinuum:: Auxiliaries,Auxiliaries, preverbalpreverbal markersmarkers DiachronicDiachronic developmentsdevelopments

TenseTense

TenseTense relatesrelates thethe time oftime ofthethe situationsituationreferredreferred toto toto somesome otherother time,time, ususallyususally thethemomentmoment ofofspeakingspeaking. (. (ComrieComrie))

GrammaticalisedGrammaticalised locationlocation in timein timeCommonestCommonest tensestenses crosscross--linguisticallylinguistically::

PresentPresent:: situationsituation describeddescribed isis locatedlocated temporallytemporally asassimultaneoussimultaneous withwith thethe momentmoment ofofspeakingspeakingPastPast:: situationsituation describeddescribed isis locatedlocated priorprior toto thethe

momentmoment ofofspeakingspeakingFutureFuture:: situationsituation describeddescribed isis locatedlocated subsequentsubsequent toto

thethe momentmoment ofofspeakingspeaking

TenseTense isis almostalmost alwaysalways indicatedindicated onon thetheverbverbVerbVerb morphologymorphology GrammaticalGrammatical wordswords ((e.ge.g.. auxiliariesauxiliaries)) adjacentadjacent toto

thethe verbverb

TenseTense isis aa deicticdeictic systemsystem DeicticDeictic centrecentre ((usuallyusually presentpresent momentmoment ofof

speakingspeaking butbut cfcf.. belowbelow forfor relativerelative tensestenses))

AbsoluteAbsolute tensestenses vs. relativevs. relative tensestensesAbsoluteAbsolute tensestenses relaterelate thethe time oftime ofthethe

situationsituation describeddescribed toto thethe presentpresent momentmoment,,i.ei.e.. presentpresent momentmoment == deicticdeictic centrecentre E.gE.g.: Finite.: Finite verbverb formsforms in Englishin English

RelativeRelative tensestenses relaterelate thethe time of atime of a situationsituationtoto thethe time oftime ofsomesome otherother situationsituation E.gE.g.:.: NonNon--finitefinite verbverb formsforms in Englishin EnglishWhenWhenwalkingwalking downdownthetheroadroad, ., .

I IoftenoftenmeetmeetHarryHarry

I IoftenoftenmetmetHarryHarry

Basic andBasic and secondarysecondary meaningsmeaningsAA givengiven grammaticalgrammatical categorycategory maymay havehave

moremore thanthan oneone meaningmeaning: a: a basicbasicmeaningmeaningandandperipheralperipheralmeaningsmeaningsoror usesuses

PrototypePrototype theorytheoryExampleExample: English: English PastPast TenseTense

BasicBasic meaningmeaning:: locationlocation of aof a situationsituation priorprior totothethe momentmoment ofofspeakingspeaking

PeripheralPeripheral useuse:: counterfactualcounterfactual

IfIfyouyoudiddidthisthis, I, Iwouldwouldbebeveryveryhappyhappy(potential(potentialactionaction inin thethe presentpresent oror futurefuture))


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PeripheralPeripheral useuse:: politenesspolitenessI justI justwantedwantedtotoaskaskyouyou

PastPast timetime referencereference isis thethe basicbasic meaningmeaning ofofthethe PastPast TenseTense

PolitenessPoliteness isis aa secondarysecondary meaningmeaning

QuestionQuestion ofofdegreedegree ( >( > prototypeprototype))

MeaningMeaning andand implicatureimplicature

MeaningMeaning of aof a linguisticlinguistic itemitem vs.vs. implicaturesimplicatures ExampleExample:: JoanJoanusedusedto live in Londonto live in London

ImplicatureImplicature:: JoanJoandoesntdoesntlive in L.live in L. anymoreanymore BUT:BUT: J.J. usedusedto live in London, andto live in London, andsheshestillstilldoesdoesisis possiblepossible

ExampleExample::Joan hasJoan hasbrokenbrokenher legher leg

JoanJoanbrokebrokeher legher leg

JoanJoanhadhadbrokenbrokenher legher leg

Impression ofImpression ofmovementmovement backwardsbackwards in timein time DegreesDegrees ofofremotenessremoteness

TheThe apparentapparent degreedegree ofofremotenessremoteness isis illusionaryillusionary:: TheThe perfectperfect indicatesindicates currentcurrent relevancerelevance asas opposedopposed toto

simplesimple pastpast and:and: ItIt isis moremore likelylikely thatthat recentrecent eventsevents havehave currentcurrent

relevancerelevance ThusThus: out of: out ofcontextcontext interpretationinterpretation ofofpresentpresent perfectperfect asas

lessless remoteremote HoweverHowever,, nonnon--occurrenceoccurrence of timeof time adverbialsadverbials withwith pastpast

tensetense:: J.J. brokebrokeher legher legfivefiveminutesminutesagoago..

J. hasJ. hasbrokenbrokenher legher legitithappenedhappenedfivefiveweeksweeksagoago, and, andititstillstillhasnthasnthealedhealed

TensesTenses receivereceive particularparticular interpretationsinterpretations ininparticularparticular contextscontexts

TheThe difficultydifficulty toto distinguishdistinguish betweenbetween meaningmeaning andandimplicatureimplicature oftenoften impedesimpedes anan adequateadequatecharacterisationcharacterisation ofoftensestenses

PresentPresent tensetense

AbsoluteAbsolute tensetense BasicBasic meaningmeaning:: locationlocation of aof a situationsituation atat thethe presentpresent momentmoment

((cfcf.. diagramdiagram)) 100%100% simultaneitysimultaneity rarerare

PerformativePerformative sentencessentences:: IIpromisepromiseyouyou IInamenamethisthisshipship

SimultaneousSimultaneous reportsreports UsuallyUsually:: PresentPresent tensetense usedused toto referrefer toto situationssituations whichwhich

occupyoccupy aa muchmuch longerlonger periodperiod of timeof time thanthan thethe presentpresentmomentmoment,, butbut whichwhich includeinclude thethe presentpresent momentmoment TheTheEiffel TowerEiffel Towerstandsstandsin Parisin Paris TheTheauthorauthorisisworkingworkingononchapterchaptertwotwo

ImplicatureImplicature:: whetherwhether aa situationsituation isis partpart of a largerof a larger situationsituationextendingextending toto thethe pastpast oror futurefuture isis anan implicatureimplicature thatthat isisworkedworked out onout on thethe basisbasis ofofthethe contextcontext,, structurestructure ofofthethesentencesentence and/and/oror onesones knowledgeknowledge ofofthethe worldworld

ManyMany languageslanguages useuse thethe presentpresent tensetense toto referrefer totohabitualhabitual situationssituations JoanJoangoesgoestotoworkworkatateighteightoclockoclock((everyeverydayday))

Johanna steht (jeden Tag) um sieben Uhr auf.Johanna steht (jeden Tag) um sieben Uhr auf.

ContradictionContradiction toto definitiondefinition ofofbasicbasic meaningmeaning?? ReferenceReference to ato a habithabit andand notnot to ato a sequencesequence ofofsituationssituations TheThe habithabit doesdoes hold athold at thethe presentpresent momentmoment Habituality alsoHabituality also aspectualaspectual ((seesee belowbelow))

PresentPresent tensetense = universal= universal tensetense?? CowsCowseateatgrassgrass

Interpretation of universalInterpretation of universal truthtruth onon thethe basisbasis ofoffactorsfactors

beyondbeyond thethe basicbasic meaningmeaning ofofpresentpresent tensetense =>=>implicatureimplicature

PastPast tensetenseAbsoluteAbsolute tensetense BasicBasic meaningmeaning:: locationlocation of aof a situationsituation in timein time priorprior

toto thethe presentpresent momentmoment SituationSituation maymay occupyoccupy

aa singlesingle pointpoint AtAtsevensevenoclockoclockyesterdayyesterdayJ.J.promisedpromisedtotogivegivememetentenpoundspounds

anan extendedextended timetime periodperiod priorprior toto thethe presentpresent momentmoment J.J. livedlivedin Manchesterin Manchesterfromfrom1962 to 19821962 to 1982

oror thethe wholewhole periodperiod up toup to thethe presentpresent momentmoment Up toUp tothisthismomentmomentthisthisdiseasediseasewaswasincurableincurable

BasicBasic meaningmeaning doesdoes notnot includeinclude anyany referencereference totowhetherwhether thethe situationsituation continuescontinues toto thethe presentpresent ororeveneven intointo thethe futurefuture!!

ConversationalConversational implicatureimplicature thatthat pastpast tensetense doesdoesnotnot continuecontinue toto oror beyondbeyond thethe presentpresent


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FutureFuture tensetenseAbsoluteAbsolute tensetense BasicBasic meaningmeaning:: locationlocation of aof a situationsituation at a timeat a time subsequentsubsequent

toto thethe presentpresent momentmoment TenseTense oror moodmood??

MoodMood: a: a grammaticalgrammatical categorycategory whichwhich expressesexpresses thethe degreedegree oror kindkind ofofrealityreality asas perceivedperceived byby thethe speakerspeaker

SpeculativeSpeculative PredictionPrediction

RealisRealis vs.vs. irrealisirrealis ManyMany languageslanguages havehave aa clearclear grammaticalgrammatical distinctiondistinction

betweenbetween pastpast andand nonnon--pastpast ((i.ei.e.. presentpresent andand futurefuture timetimereferencereference))

DistinctionDistinction betweenbetween futurefuture andand nonnon--futurefuture isis lessless distinctdistinct;;inin particularparticular betweenbetween futurefuture andand presentpresent

InIn manymany languageslanguages,, presentpresent tensetense thethe normalnormal verbverbformform usedused toto indicateindicate futurefuture (German,(German, FinnishFinnish):):

German:German: ich gehe morgen vs. ich werde morgen gehenich gehe morgen vs. ich werde morgen gehen

AlsoAlso possiblepossible in Englishin English forfor scheduledscheduled situationssituations:: TheThetraintrainleavesleavestomorrowtomorrow

**ItItrainsrainstomorrowtomorrow

BinaryBinary tensetense systemssystems Future vs.Future vs. nonnon--futurefuture PastPast vs.vs. nonnon--pastpast

PresentPresent tensetense cancan alwaysalways bebe usedused withwith futurefuture timetime referencereference((FinnishFinnish, German), German)

SevereSevere constraintsconstraints onon thethe useuse ofofpresentpresent tensetense toto referrefer to timeto time(English)(English)

AbsoluteAbsolute--relativerelative tensetense SomeSome verbverb formsforms cancan combinecombine absolute timeabsolute time

locationlocation of aof a referencereference pointpoint withwith relative timerelative timelocationlocation of aof a situationsituation

AsAs withwith pure relativepure relative tensetense,, thethe referencereference pointpoint isisgivengiven byby thethe contextcontext

ExampleExample:: EnglishEnglishPluperfectPluperfectMeaningMeaning:: therethere isis aa referencereference point inpoint in thethe pastpast

((beforebefore thethe presentpresent momentmoment) and) and thethe situationsituationreferredreferred toto isis locatedlocated priorprior toto thatthat referencereference point;point;

establishmentestablishment ofofthethe referencereference pointpoint isis donedone bybythethe contextcontext

John had already left when Mary emerged from the cupboard

Reference pointSituation located prior to:

Interpretation as Interpretation as remoteremote pastpast isis ananimplicatureimplicature TemporalTemporal locationlocation doesdoes notnot havehave toto bebe remoteremoteThisThisparticleparticlehadhadbeenbeencreatedcreated22secondssecondsbeforebeforethisthis

otherotherparticleparticlewaswascreatedcreated1 second1 secondagoago..

InterveningIntervening referencereference pointpoint isis alwaysalways necessarynecessary**TheyTheyhadhadbuiltbuiltthetheGreat Wall of China.Great Wall of China.

SimilarSimilar:: FutureFutureperfectperfect ReferenceReference pointpoint isis inin thethe futurefuture ((anterioranterior toto

presentpresent momentmoment))

I will have finished this term paper by the end of this week.

Reference pointSi tuation located prior to:


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PerfectPerfect

FormalFormal similaritiessimilarities betweenbetween perfectperfect andand absoluteabsolute--relativerelative tensestenses

LocationLocation in timein time priorprior to ato a referencereference pointpoint whichwhich ininthisthis casecase isis simultaneoussimultaneous withwith thethe presentpresent momentmoment

ThusThus:: locateslocates aa situationsituation priorprior toto thethe presentpresentmomentmoment == pastpast tensetense

PerfectPerfect differsdiffers fromfrom pastpast butbut notnot withwith regardregard tototimetime locationlocation PerfectPerfect in Englishin English cannotcannot collocatecollocate withwith timetime

adverbialsadverbials whichwhich referrefer to ato a specificspecific pointpoint oror periodperiodinin thethe pastpast ((pastpast and and pluperfectpluperfect andand futurefutureperfectperfect))

ParticularityParticularity ofofthethe EnglishEnglish languagelanguage indicatesindicates thatthatperfectperfect constitutesconstitutes aa categorycategory apartapart fromfrom pastpast andandfromfrom absoluteabsolute--relativerelative tensestenses

Also:Also: crosscross--linguisticallylinguistically somesome languageslanguages maymay havehaveaa distinctdistinct perfectperfect categorycategory whilewhile lackinglacking aapluperfectpluperfect oror futurefuture perfectperfect

DiachronicDiachronic changeschanges affectingaffecting thethe perfectperfect maymay havehavenono repercussionsrepercussions onon thethe pluperfectpluperfect andand futurefutureperfectperfect German and French:German and French: perfectperfect takestakes overover functionsfunctions

originallyoriginally coveredcovered byby pastpast tensetense butbut pluperfectpluperfect andandfuturefuture perfectperfect remainremain

FrequentFrequent implicatureimplicature:: moremore recentrecent timetime referencereference

AspectAspect

AspectsAspects areare differentdifferent waysways ofofviewingviewing thetheinternalinternal temporaltemporal constituencyconstituency of aof asituationsituation. (. (ComrieComrie 1976:3)1976:3)

CharacterisationCharacterisation ofofthethe internalinternal structurestructure ofofanan eventevent Sue wasSue wasreadingreadingwhenwhenIIenteredentered..

SuzanneSuzannelisaitlisaitquantquantjentraijentrai..

Background vs.Background vs. eventeventNoNo referencereference toto thethe beginningbeginning oror thethe endend

vs.vs. presentationpresentation ofoftotalitytotality ofofthethe situationsituation

Suzanne was reading when I entered

PerfectivePerfective vs.vs. imperfectiveimperfectiveAspectAspect insistsinsists onon oppositionsoppositions;; forfor exampleexample::

PerfectivePerfective aspectaspect:: lookslooks atat thethe situationsituation fromfrom thetheoutsideoutside,, withoutwithout distinguishingdistinguishing anyany ofofthetheinternalinternal structurestructure ofofthethe situationsituationExternalExternal focusfocus

ImperfectiveImperfective aspectaspect:: lookslooks atat thethe situationsituation fromfromthethe insideinside,, isis cruciallycrucially concernedconcerned withwith thetheinternalinternal structurestructure ofofthethe situationsituation;; cancan looklookbackwardsbackwards towardstowards thethe start,start, oror looklookforwardforward totothethe end ofend ofthethe situationsituationInternalInternal focusfocus

time

Situationchange

Situationchange

boundary boundary

Situation

beginning endingduration


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ClassificationClassification ofofaspectualaspectual oppositionsoppositions

Perfective Imperfective

Habitual Continuous

Nonprogressive Progressive

Cf. Comrie (1976: 25)

Joan used to work hereJoan worked here

Joan was working

Joan worked here

The Eifel Tower stands in Paris

AspectAspect isis oftenoften usedused toto referrefer lexicallexical realisationsrealisations ofofthisthissemanticsemantic categorycategory as well as toas well as to grammaticalgrammatical categoriescategoriescorrespondingcorresponding toto thisthis semanticsemantic distinctiondistinction

Not allNot all aspectualaspectual distinctionsdistinctions areare expressedexpressed ororgrammaticalised in allgrammaticalised in all languageslanguages ExampleExample: English: English isis saidsaid to lackto lackthethe oppositionopposition perfectiveperfective vs.vs.

imperfectiveimperfective

DistinctionDistinction progressive vs.progressive vs. nonnon--progressiveprogressive realisedrealised withinwithin aa limitedlimitedsetset ofofverbsverbs ((i.ei.e.. nonnon--stativestative), and), and onlyonly ififhabitualhabitual meaningmeaning isisexcludedexcluded

ExampleExample: German: German basicallybasically lackslacks aa grammaticalgrammatical realisationrealisation ofofaspectaspect

SheShereadreadthethebookbook> Sie las das Buch> Sie las das Buch

SheShewaswasreadingreadingthethebookbook> Sie las im Buch> Sie las im Buch

MeaningMeaning and formand form

LexicalisationLexicalisation GermanGermangerade, im Buchgerade, im Buch

InflectionInflection SpanishSpanishleyleyvs.vs. lealea

PeriphrasisPeriphrasis EnglishEnglishsheshewaswasreadingreading

VeryVery oftenoften combinationcombination ofofaspectaspect andand tensetense::SpanishSpanish lealeacombinescombines imperfectiveimperfective meaningmeaning withwith

pastpast timetime referencereference

PerfectPerfect

DifferentDifferent typetype ofofaspectaspectNoNo informationinformation aboutabout thethe internalinternal temporaltemporal

constitutionconstitution of aof a situationsituationReferenceReference to ato a pastpast situationsituation whichwhich hashas

presentpresent relevancerelevanceIndicationIndication ofofcontinuingcontinuing presentpresent relevanerelevane ofof

aa pastpast situationsituation

AktionsartAktionsart1. A1. A distinctiondistinction ofofaspectaspect whichwhich isis

expressedexpressed lexicallylexically,, ratherrather thanthangrammaticallygrammatically:: eateat,, nibblenibble,, devourdevour..

2. A2. A distinctiondistinction ofofaspectaspect whichwhich isis expressedexpressedbyby derivationalderivational morphologymorphology ((e.ge.g.. RussianRussian).).

((TraskTrask,, DictionaryDictionaryofofGrammaticalGrammaticalTerms inTerms inLinguisticsLinguistics))

ExamplesExamples

beginning ending

Der Baum erblht Der Baum blht Der Baum verblht

ingressive progressive egressive


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AktionsartAktionsart

AA situationsituation maymay bebe eithereither staticstatic oror dynamicdynamic,,punctualpunctual oror durativedurative

NormallyNormally expressedexpressed inin thethe lexicallexical meaningmeaningofofthethe verbverb andand itsits argumentsarguments

AktionsartAktionsart categoriescategories

BestBest knownknown categorisationcategorisation byby ZenoZenoVendlerVendler(1967)(1967)

StatesStates:: lovelove,, hatehateActivitiesActivities:: runrun, walk, walk

AccomplishmentsAccomplishments:: runrunaamilemile,, readreadaabookbookAchievementsAchievements:: winwinaaracerace,, recognizerecognize


TelicTelic vs.vs. atelicatelic JoanJoanisissingingsingingvs. Joanvs. Joanisissingingsingingaasongsong

Joan sang vs. JoanJoan sang vs. Joansungsungaasongsong..

WhenWhenIIcrossedcrossedthethebridgebridge, a man, a mandrowneddrowned..

WhenWhenIIcrossedcrossedthethebridgebridge, a man was, a man wasdrowningdrowning..

essen vs. aufessenessen vs. aufessen kmpfen vs. erkmpfenkmpfen vs. erkmpfen


PunctualPunctual He wasHe wascoughingcoughing

Also:Also:flashflash

reachreach: *Joan: *Joanisisreachingreachingthethesummitsummit

WordWord formationformationStudentsStudents presentationpresentation

NegationNegationStudentsStudents presentationpresentation


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Word orderWord order

ConstituentConstituent order?order?Free vs.Free vs. strictstrict wordword orderorderDiachronicDiachronic developmentdevelopment

CaseCase vs.vs. wordword orderorder

Word orderWord order freedomfreedom?? ClauseClause externalexternal:: crossingcrossing clauseclause boundariesboundaries ClauseClause internalinternal:: withinwithin clauseclause boundariesboundaries

Word orderWord order

German hasGerman has clauseclause--internalinternal wordword orderordermovementmovement rulesrules whichwhich dodo notnot existexist ininEnglishEnglish

German and EnglishGerman and English havehave aa numbernumber ofofsimilarsimilar clauseclause--internalinternal movementmovement rulesrules butbutthesethese areare moremore productiveproductive in Germanin German

ExampleExample

{Peter} {gab} {zu Weihnachten} {dem{Peter} {gab} {zu Weihnachten} {demBruder} {das Buch}.Bruder} {das Buch}.

{Peter} {{Peter} {gavegave} {} {thethebookbook} {to his} {to hisbrotherbrother}}{{forforChristmas}.Christmas}.

2424 possiblepossible relativerelative orderingsorderings ofofthethe fourfourconstituentsconstituents??

DegreesDegrees ofofgrammaticalitygrammaticality??EffectsEffects of stress?of stress?

GermanGerman

EnglishEnglish* Peter* Peter gavegave forfor Christmas (to) hisChristmas (to) his brotherbrother

thethe bookbook..* To his* To his brotherbrother PeterPeter gavegave forfor ChristmasChristmas

thethe bookbook..* To his* To his brotherbrother gavegave thethe bookbookPeterPeter forfor

Christmas.Christmas.


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EnglishEnglish

ResultsResults

EffectEffect of stress?of stress? GermanGerman examplesexamples::

WithoutWithout stress: 8stress: 8 ungrammaticalungrammatical sentencessentences and 16and 16grammaticalgrammatical

WithWith appropriateappropriate stress, all 24stress, all 24 werewerejudgedjudged grammaticalgrammaticalin anin an experimentexperiment carriedcarried outout byby Bierwisch (1963)Bierwisch (1963)

VaryingVarying degreesdegrees ofofgrammaticalitygrammaticality EnglishEnglish examplesexamples::

OnlyOnly 1010 sentencessentencesjudgedjudged asas grammaticalgrammatical

FixedFixed wordword orderorder replacesreplaces morphologicallymorphologically encodedencodedgrammaticalgrammatical relationrelation PragmaticPragmatic consequencesconsequences ??

PragmaticPragmatic consequencesconsequences

AmbiguityAmbiguity of Englishof English constructionsconstructions withwith respectrespect totopragmaticpragmatic functionsfunctions

PragmaticPragmatic differencesdifferences areare syntacticallysyntactically encodedencoded ininGermanGerman

ThemeTheme ((oldold informationinformation) and) and RhemeRheme ((newnewinformationinformation))

ExamplesExamples:: Ich habe ein Kleid an den Kleiderhaken gehngt.Ich habe ein Kleid an den Kleiderhaken gehngt.

Ich habe an den Kleiderhaken ein Kleid gehngt.Ich habe an den Kleiderhaken ein Kleid gehngt. I hang aI hang adressdressononthetheclothesclothes--hookhook..

BasicBasic verbverb positionpositionTheThe order oforder ofsubjectsubject,, verbverb andand objectobject playsplays

aa majormajor rolerole inin thethe typologicaltypological classificationclassificationofoflanguageslanguages

MajorMajor contrastcontrast inin basicbasic sentencesentence structurestructurebetweenbetween English and GermanEnglish and German

EnglishEnglish basicbasic wordword order: SVOorder: SVOGerman:German: complexcomplex situationsituation withwith SVO inSVO in

mainmain clausesclauses and SOV inand SOV in subordinatesubordinateclausesclauses

English:English: examplesexamplesJohnJohnsawsawthetheboyboy(S V O)(S V O)

John hasJohn hasseenseenthetheboyboy(S(SAuxAuxV O)V O)

IIknowknowthatthatJohnJohnsawsawthetheboyboy(S V O)(S V O)

IIknowknowthatthatJohn hasJohn hasseenseenthetheboyboy(S(SAuxAuxV O)V O)


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German:German: examplesexamples

Johann sah den Jungen. (S V O)Johann sah den Jungen. (S V O)

Johann hat den Jungen gesehen.Johann hat den Jungen gesehen.(S(SAuxAuxO V)O V)

Ich wei, dassIch wei, dassJohann den Jungen sah.Johann den Jungen sah.

(S O V)(S O V)Ich wei, dassIch wei, dassJohann den Jungen gesehenJohann den Jungen gesehen

hat.hat. (S O V(S O VAuxAux))

DifferenceDifference betweenbetween finitefinite verbverb positionposition andandnonnon--finitefinite verbverb positionposition in Germanin German

InIn declarativedeclarative mainmain sentencessentences: finite: finite verbverboccupiesoccupies secondsecond positionposition,, otherother verbverb formsformsoccupyoccupy thethe finalfinal positionposition (verbale Klammer)(verbale Klammer)

InIn subordinatesubordinate clausesclauses,, thethe finitefinite verbverb formformoccupiesoccupies finalfinal positionposition,, followingfollowing allall otherother

verbverb formsforms

ExamplesExamples

JohannaJohannahattehattegestern in Leipzig ihremgestern in Leipzig ihremFreund das BuchFreund das Buchgegebengegeben..

, (weil) Johanna gestern in Leipzig ihrem, (weil) Johanna gestern in Leipzig ihremFreund das BuchFreund das Buchgegebengegebenhattehatte..

VerbVerb--finalfinal in Germanin German

GermanGerman assumedassumed toto bebe aa verbverb--finalfinal (SOV)(SOV)languagelanguage

ExamplesExamples withwith finite andfinite and nonnon--finitefinite verbverb formsforms , dass Johann den Jungen, dass Johann den Jungensahsah..

Der Mann, der die Frau vor einigen TagenDer Mann, der die Frau vor einigen Tagenbesuchtebesuchte, ,

Ich freue mich darauf, heute nach HauseIch freue mich darauf, heute nach Hausezu fahrenzu fahren..

Der Versuch, im Haus einen passenden SchlsselDer Versuch, im Haus einen passenden Schlsselzuzu

findenfinden

FrontingFronting rulerule forfor thethe finitefinite verbverb intointo secondsecond oror firstfirstpositionposition inin mainmain clausesclauses JohannJohannsahsahden Jungen.den Jungen.

SahSahJohann den Jungen?Johann den Jungen?

Mein VaterMein Vaterististvor einigen Tagen nach London gefahren.vor einigen Tagen nach London gefahren.

Vor einigen TagenVor einigen Tagenististmein Vater nach L. gefahren.mein Vater nach L. gefahren.

AbendsAbendskannkannich in der Wirtschaft ein Bier trinken.ich in der Wirtschaft ein Bier trinken.

NonNon--finitefinite verbverb formsforms inin mainmain clausesclauses remainremain ininfinalfinal positionposition Mein Vater ist vor einigen Tagen nach LondonMein Vater ist vor einigen Tagen nach Londongefahrengefahren..

Ist mein Vater vor einigen Tagen nach L.Ist mein Vater vor einigen Tagen nach L. gefahrengefahren??

VerbVerb--finalfinal in Englishin EnglishIn PDE,In PDE, wewe dodo notnot findfind verbverb--finalfinal sentencesentence

structuresstructuresDiachronicDiachronic developmentdevelopmentIn PDE,In PDE, verbverb--finalfinal patternspatterns inin compoundscompounds::

lionlion--hunterhunter,, quickquick--dryingdrying, ., .


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DifferencesDifferences inin informaticinformatic structurestructure

German:German: Ich wei, du bist ein intelligentes Mdchen.Ich wei, du bist ein intelligentes Mdchen.

Ich wei, dass du ein intelligentes MdchenIch wei, dass du ein intelligentes Mdchenbist.bist.

*Ich bin keineswegs berzeugt, du bist ein*Ich bin keineswegs berzeugt, du bist ein

intelligentes Mdchen.intelligentes Mdchen. Ich bin keineswegs berzeugt, dass du einIch bin keineswegs berzeugt, dass du ein

intelligentes Mdchen bist.intelligentes Mdchen bist.

Main vs.Main vs. subordinatesubordinate clauseclause

DifferencesDifferences inin informaticinformatic structurestructure

English:English: IIknowknow,, youyouarearean intelligentan intelligentgirlgirl..

*I am*I ambybynonomeansmeansconvincedconvinced,, youyouareareananintelligentintelligentgirlgirl..

IIknowknow((thatthat))youyouarearean intelligentan intelligentgirlgirl..

I amI ambybynonomeansmeansconvincedconvinced((thatthat))youyouareareananintelligentintelligentgirlgirl..

CommaComma intonationintonationGreaterGreater ambiguityambiguity in Englishin English

GermanGerman alternationsalternations

TheThe follwoingfollwoing alternationsalternations withoutwithout parallel inparallel inEnglish:English: Schliee mir ja heuteSchliee mir ja heuteabendabenddie Haustr.die Haustr.

Dass du mir ja heuteDass du mir ja heuteabendabenddie Haustr schliet.die Haustr schliet.

CloseClosethethefrontfrontdoordoorforformemethisthiseveningevening..

**ThatThatyouyoucloseclosethethefrontfrontdoordoorforformemethisthiseveningevening..

In German,In German, verbverb positionposition isis sufficientsufficient toto indicateindicate

thethe subordinatesubordinate statusstatus of aof a clauseclause andand thusthus totocarrycarry thethe associatedassociated pragmaticpragmatic meaningmeaning..

RaisingRaising structuresstructures

ClauseClause externalexternal movementsmovements SubjectSubject--toto--subjectsubject raisingraising SubjectSubject--toto objectobject raisingraising ObjectObject--toto--subjectsubject raisingraising ((toughtough movementmovement))

Joan seems ( to be ill).

It seems that Joan is ill.

SubjectSubject--toto--SubjectSubject raisingraising JoanJoanseemsseemstotobebeill.ill.TheThenoisenoiseseemsseemstotogetgeton heron hernervesnerves..

JoanJoanhappenshappenstotobebeill.ill.

TheThenoisenoisehappenshappenstotogetgeton heron hernervesnerves..

JoanJoancontinuedcontinuedtotobebeill.ill.

TheThenoisenoisecontinuedcontinuedtotogetgeton heron hernervesnerves..

JoanJoanceasedceasedtotobebeillill--

TheThenoisenoiseceasedceasedtotogetgeton heron hernervesnerves..


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Johanna scheint krank zu sein.Johanna scheint krank zu sein.

Der Lrm scheint sie aufzuregen.Der Lrm scheint sie aufzuregen.

*Johanna geschieht krank zu sein.*Johanna geschieht krank zu sein.

* Der* DerLmLmgeschieht sie aufzuregen.geschieht sie aufzuregen.

* Johanna fuhr weiter fort krank zu sein.* Johanna fuhr weiter fort krank zu sein.

anfangenanfangen

beginnenbeginnen

scheinenscheinen

SubjectSubject--toto--subjectsubject raisingraising:: summarysummary

ProductiveProductive in Englishin EnglishPossiblePossible withwith aa fairlyfairly largelarge classclass ofof

predicatespredicates in Englishin EnglishPossiblePossible withwith onlyonly aa fewfew predicatespredicates inin

GermanGerman

I believe Joan ( to be ill).

I believe that Joan is ill.

SubjectSubject--toto--objectobject raisingraising IIbelievebelieveJoan toJoan tobebeill.ill.IIbelievebelievethethefarmerfarmertotohavehavekilledkilled thethecowcow..IIunderstandunderstandhimhimtotobebestupid.stupid.

*Ich glaube Johanna krank zu*Ich glaube Johanna krank zusein.sein.*Ich glaube den Bauer die Kuh*Ich glaube den Bauer die Kuh

gettet zu haben.gettet zu haben.*Ich verstehe ihn dumm zu sein.*Ich verstehe ihn dumm zu sein.

SubjectSubject--toto--objectobject raisingraising:: summarysummaryFairlyFairly productiveproductive in Englishin EnglishPossiblePossible withwith aa comparativelycomparatively largelarge classclass ofof

predicatespredicates in Englishin EnglishNoNo tranlationtranlation equivalentsequivalents in Germanin German

Linguistics is easy (to study)

It is easy to study Linguistics.

ObjectObject--toto--subjectsubject raisingraising


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HeHeisiseasyeasytotoconvinceconvince..

LinguisticsLinguisticsisisboringboringtotostudystudy..

TheTheboyboyisiseasyeasytotohelphelp/ to/ toworkworkwithwith..

ThisThisbookbookisiseasyeasyforformemeto force Helena toto force Helena toreadread..

Er ist leicht zu berzeugen.Er ist leicht zu berzeugen.

* Linguistik ist langweilig zu studieren.* Linguistik ist langweilig zu studieren.

* Der Junge ist leicht zu helfen/ mit zu arbeiten.* Der Junge ist leicht zu helfen/ mit zu arbeiten. * Dieses Buch ist leicht fr mich Helena zu lesen* Dieses Buch ist leicht fr mich Helena zu lesen

zu zwingen.zu zwingen.

ObjectObject--toto--subjectsubject raisingraising:: summarysummary

ProductiveProductive in Englishin English withwith comparativelycomparativelylargelarge numbernumber ofofpossiblepossible triggerstriggers

In GermanIn German onlyonly applicableapplicable to ato a limitedlimiteddegreedegree leicht, einfach, schwer, schwierig, interessantleicht, einfach, schwer, schwierig, interessant

In English,In English, directdirect objectsobjects as well as andas well as andobliqueoblique NPsNPs cancan bebe raisedraised

In German,In German, onlyonly directdirect objectsobjects cancan bebe raisedraised

RaisingRaising structuresstructures:: summarysummary

MovementsMovements areare freerfreer in Englishin EnglishAllAll possiblepossible triggerstriggers in Germanin German constituteconstitute aa

subsetsubset ofofthethe possiblepossible triggerstriggers in Englishin EnglishClauseClause--externalexternal movementmovement isis freerfreer inin

EnglishEnglish

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