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4    

Background  to  the  Project  The   project   is   going   forward   in   stages,   eventually   integrating   policies   at   Union   (national)   with   state,  region  and   township   levels.   Statements  have  already  been  agreed  and  drafted   in  Mon  and  Kayin   and  work  has   commenced   in  Kachin  and  planning  work   is  underway   for  Chin,  Kayah  and  Shan   states,   and  eventually  all  territories,  regions  and  districts  of  the  country,  through  2016.  

At   the   national   level   useful   input   and   influence   was   offered   to   legislators,   and   in   research   projects,  program  design  as  well  as  policy  debates  and  public  understanding  of  what  a  language  policy  entails  and  how  it  can  benefit  the  whole  society.  The  key  methods  used  in  this  process  are  research,  consultations  and  collective  decision  making  through  ‘facilitated  dialogues’.    

These   facilitated   dialogues   include   three   groups   of   people:   i)   officials,   representing   government;   ii)  community   representatives,  who  bring   the   voices  of  ordinary  people,   and   iii)   experts,  who   contribute  the  findings  of  research.  The  dialogues  are  mediated  by  a  guide  who  helps  participants  discuss  language  problems   and   challenges,   identifies   research   relevant   to   the   topics   being   discussed   and   explores  alternative  responses  and  best  practices  (from  other  countries  or  from  other  parts  of  Myanmar).    

At   these   dialogues   participants   resolve   misunderstandings   and   disagreements,   discuss   research  evidence   and   explore   viable   alternatives.     Topics   include   multilingualism   in   society,   literacy   learning,  equal   access   to   schooling,   how   to   raise   education   standards,   mother   tongue   teaching,   endangered  languages,  acquisition  of  Myanmar  language,  the  role  of  English,  inclusive  education,  the  special  needs  of   disadvantaged   groups,   as   well   as   communication   needs   in   health,   law,   diplomacy,   trade   and  commerce.    

Initially  four  Facilitated  Dialogues  were  held  (Mae  Sot,  Thailand,  12-­‐14  February  2014,  Mawlamyine  27-­‐28  May  and  6-­‐7  November,  2014  and  Naypyitaw,  29-­‐30  July  2014).    These  proved  so  successful  the  LESC  Initiative   was   expanded   in   late   2014   and   December   2015,   at   the   request   of   the   Naypyitaw   dialogue  partners,   and   UNICEF-­‐Myanmar   and   the   Ministry   of   Education   have   requested   the   preparation   of   a  ‘peace  promoting  national  language  policy’.      To  date  16  facilitated  dialogues  have  been  held  across  the  country,  along  with  several  research  projects,  many  direct  consultations  and  site  visits,  interviews,  observations  and  professional  training  activities.  

The  basic  philosophy  guiding   the  approach   is   that   language   is   a   key  and  valuable   resource   that   every  society  should  value  in  the  same  way  it  values  its  natural  resources.  

The  Mandalay  Conference   is   the   first  of   its  kind   in  Myanmar.   It   is  an   important  step   in   the  process  of  discussing  options  for  a  national  language  policy.    At  the  conference  national  and  international  delegates  will  debate  a  variety  of  language  issues,  compare  multilingual  education  practices  across  countries  and  reflect  on  what  has  been  achieved  so  far  and  what  still  needs  to  be  done.  

 

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6    

Language  Policy  Process  The  following  diagram  shows  the  various  steps  that  are  contributing  to  the  discussion  and  drafting  of  ideas  for  government  to  consider  on  national  language  policy,  as  well  as  the  intended  final  outcome.    

 

 

 

 

An  agreed  dra@  language  policy    

(Approval  will  be  requested  from  government  of  the  principles,  policy  aims  and  implementagon  plans)  

ConsultaDon  *  Observagons,  field  visits,  interviews  all  across  Myanmar  2013-­‐2016  *  Circulagon  of  principles  with  working  groups  at  the  state  and  Union  level  *  Incorporagon  of  feedback  and  quesgonnaire  responses    

~  20  Facilitated  Dialogues  

at  Union,  region  and  state  levels  

Specialist  inputs  *  The  languages  of  Myanmar    *  English  in  Myanmar  and  ASEAN  *  Special  needs  (Sign  Language  and  educagon  for  disadvantaged  groups)  *  Case  studies  of  mulglingualism,  at  community  and  local  school    level  *  Policy  Environment  Scan  

The  Mandalay  Conference  Feb  8-­‐11,  2016  

Combining  all  these  inputs  into  a  consolidatedpolicy  proposal  

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9    

Education  Myanmar  is  the  sole  language  of  government  administration  and  the  mass  media  and  the  main  language  of   instruction   for  education.  Exceptions  do  exist   for  medium  of   instruction   for   schooling   including   the  use  of  English  and  Chinese  in  private  schools  and  the  use  of  mother  tongues  in  certain  local  contexts.    

The  Myanmar  Language  Commission,  a  department  of  the  Ministry  of  Education,  is  responsible  for  the  development  of  the  Myanmar   language.  Ethnic  Burmans  situated   in  the  central  areas  of  Myanmar  are  largely   monolingual,   while   the   ethnically   diverse   peoples   in   the   border   areas   also   know   Myanmar  language  (Bradley,  2015).      

Although  English  became  the  official  language  during  British  rule,  indigenous  groups  continued  to  speak  and   learn   their   languages.    After   some  years  of  being  discouraged,  English   is   again  popular,  mostly   in  urban  areas  and  among  more  educated  populations  (Kirkpatrick,  2015).      

During   the   colonial   period,   writing   systems   for  many   languages   such   as   Chin,   Kachin   and   Lahu   were  developed   by   missionaries.   The   first   constitution   of   the   Union   of   Burma   (1947)   guaranteed   that   all  citizens   could   practice   their   own   cultures   and   religions.   Public   schools   taught   in   some   of   the   major  ethnic   languages   such   as   Chin,   Karen,   Kayah,   Mon,   and   Shan,   and   some   Buddhist   monasteries   and  Christian  churches  taught  in  some  of  the  smaller  ethnic  languages  (Hlaing,  2007).      

In  1962,  the   language  then  called  Burmese  became  the  only   language  of   instruction  for  university  and  pre-­‐university  classes  (except  for  English  language  classes).    Some  allowance  for  the  teaching  of  minority  languages   at   the   early   primary   level   in   a   small   number   of   areas   continued,   with   the   Ministry   of  Education  publishing  textbooks  in  some  minority  languages  until  the  early  1980s.      

Over   time   increasing  restrictions  applied  and  by  the  mid  1980s  many  schools  had  stopped  teaching   in  minority   languages   (Aye   and   Sercombe,   2014).   In   1989   the   government   changed   the   name   of   the  country   from   Burma   to   Myanmar   and   the   name   of   the   main   national   language   from   Burmese   to  Myanmar.  Many  other  place  names  were  also  changed  from  the  British  equivalents  in  use  since  the  time  of   the   establishment   of   the   British   colony   in   1886.       These   are   examples   of   language   status   planning  which  set  up  the  roles  of  different  languages  in  society,  discussed  below.  

Education   is   important   in   alleviating   and   preventing   poverty,   increasing   health,   political   participation  and   social   tolerance.   Universal   quality   education   is   a   key   goal   of   creating   a   fair,   healthy   and   socially  inclusive   world.   UNESCO   has   argued,   ‘education   enables   people   to   escape   from   the   trap   of   chronic  poverty  and  prevents  the  transmission  of  poverty  between  generations’  (UNESCO,  2014,  p.144).    

There  is  a  strong  link  between  education  and  healthier  populations  due  to  a  range  of  factors   including  the  willingness  to  seek  professional  help  in  health  issues,  including  vaccinations,  and  awareness  of  basic  health   standards   in   relation   to   the   transmission   of,   and   protection   from   diseases   (UNESCO,   2014;   Lo  Bianco,  2016).      Languages  can  pass  into  disuse  and  die,  or  they  can  be  killed,  but  languages  can  also  be  revived   and   restored   to   health.     The  most   famous   example   of   this   is   Hebrew   during   the   nineteenth  

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11    

Language  Planning  The   process   of   producing   language   policy   is   called   language   planning.   There   are   many   aspects   to  language  planning  but  mostly  it  is  a  response  to  language  problems,  with  three  main  activities  language.    

Status   language   planning:     the   constitutions   and   laws   of   different   societies   vary   a   great   deal   with  respect  to  language  recognition.  Different  languages  can  have  different  social,  economic  and  legal  roles.      There  are  eleven  official  languages  in  South  Africa:  Afrikaans,  English,  Ndebele,  Northern  Sotho,  Sotho,  Swazi,  Tsonga,  Tswana,  Venda,  Xhosa  and  Zulu.      Canada  has  English  and  French  across  all   its  national  territory  but  differing  arrangements  in  some  provinces.  Switzerland  has  three  official  languages  (French,  German  and   Italian)   and   four   ‘national   languages’,   the  official   languages  plus  Romansch.     Some   cities  have  official  languages  recognizing  districts  or  areas  according  to  language.        The  status  of  a  language  is  also  influenced  by  the  strength  economies  where  that  language  is  used,  or  its  spread  across  the  world,  or  its  strength  in  science,  technology,  research  or  other  fields.    

Corpus  language  planning:  Unlike  status  language  planning  which  is  work  mostly  done  by  legislators,  or  which   recognizes   social   power   of   different   languages,   another   kind   of   language   planning   is   done   by  professional  linguists  working  directly  with  a  community  of  speakers.  This  work  is  technical  in  nature  but  it  must   always   be   done   in   close   collaboration   the   speakers   of   the   language   being   developed.   Corpus  planning  means   finding   new  words   for   a   language,   to   extend   the   topics   that   can   be   discussed,   or   to  introduce   that   language   into   education,   or   to   expand   its   role   in   education.   Other   kinds   of   corpus  planning  are  when  speakers  and  expert  supporters  produce  a  writing  system  for  a  language  that  is  only  spoken,  or  when  an  existing  writing  system  is  reformed  or  changed.    

Language-­‐in-­‐education  planning:  This  kind  of  language  planning  happens  mostly  in  schools,  colleges  and  universities,  but  not  exclusively.  It  involves  literacy  and  language  study.    When  people  make  language  in  education  planning  decisions  they  are  deciding  which  languages  will  be  taught  in  school,  whether  they  will   be   taught   as   a   subject   or   used   to   teach   concepts   and   material   in   the   school,   as   a   medium   of  instruction  and  examination,  which   languages   literacy  will  be   taught   in,  what   language  will  be  used   in  higher  education  lectures  or  tutorials  or  for  reading  and  research.    There  are  many  kinds  of  language  in  education  planning    

Myanmar  has  a  very  rich  language  situation,  and  at  any  time  all  of  these  kinds  of  language  planning  are  occurring.    When   the  outcome  of   language  planning   is   decided   that   becomes   a   language  policy.     The  most  effective  policies  are   those   that  are  constantly  evaluated  and   reviewed   to  make  sure   they  meet  the  needs  of  the  society  and  its  people.    The  most  effective   language  planning   is  that  which  combines  ‘bottom  up’  processes,  in  which  ordinary  people  along  with  technical  experts,  work  with  public  officials  to   make   decisions   about   language   choices.     Top-­‐down   language   policy   is   when   authorities   decide  language   questions   without   consultation   and   impose   these   on   the   community.     The   most   effective  language   planning   and   policy   combines   bottom   up   processes   with   clear   decisions   by   the   national  authorities.    

12    

Comprehensive  Language  Planning  Because   language   and   communication   are   part   of   all   social,   personal,   and   economic   life,   the   ideal  approach  to  language  policies  is  to  integrate  action  at  local,  regional  and  national  levels  and  to  address  all  the  language  questions  of  a  community.  In  this  way,  all  action  can  be  coordinated.    

This  is  the  approach  we  are  taking  in  Myanmar  that  is  discussed  in  this  brief  report  and  at  the  Mandalay  conference.      One  way  to  think  about  this  is  set  out  below:  

Sub-­‐National  

This   involves   the   ‘ethnic   races’   in   Myanmar   discussing   their   ethnic   languages   and   their   place   in   the  education  of  their  children,  but  also  in  the  delivery  of  services  and  in  the  local  economy.    This  has  been  done  so   far   in   the  Facilitated  Dialogues  across  Myanmar.    Part  of   this  discussion   is   the  relationship  of  local  languages  with  the  Myanmar  language  for  national  participation  and  with  English.        The  state  and  township   level   is   a   suitable   level   to  discuss   language  policy.     The   language  planning  can  be   related   to  language  in  education,  language  status  and  also  corpus  development.    To  be  most  effective  this  should  link  to  the  Union  level.  

National  

This  refers  to  access  to  the  official  language  for  all  citizens,  literacy  for  all  and  English  for  the  mainstream  education  system.    Through  Facilitated  Dialogues  held  in  the  national  capital,  Naypyitaw,  the  project  has  been  coordinating  national  and  state   level  policy  discussion.    The  scope  of   the  planning  work  extends  beyond  education  to  health,  law  and  the  economy.      

Extra-­‐National  

This   refers   to   the   role   of   English   and   other   languages   of   opportunities   for   international   relations,  development,  diplomacy  and  trade.      The  world  beyond  any  nation  today  is  a  source  of  influence  on  the  choices  that  individuals  and  nations  make  about  language.    Whether  it  is  through  social  media  or  other  communication   technologies,   through   travel,   study,   and  work  abroad,   the   ‘extra’  national   links   to   the  language  choices  a  country  makes  domestically,    

 

In  summary,  and  guided  by  the  Naypyitaw  Principles,  we  are  aiming  for  a  policy  of  shared  knowledge  of  Myanmar,  widespread  knowledge  of  English,  strong  support  for  mother  tongues,  and  ethnic  education  rights  and  high  standards  of  literacy  for  all  learners  in  Myanmar  education,  as  well  as  a  wider  culture  of  appreciation  of  linguistic  and  cultural  diversity  and  language  rights.    

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21    

Mandalay  Conference    This   flyer   announces   the   Conference,   an   important   step   in   the   “peace   promoting   national   language   policy”   for  Myanmar.  Over  300  delegates,  many  from  abroad,  will  discuss  options,  research  and  principles  and  contribute  to  language  policy  for  the  children  and  community  of  Myanmar,  and  all  its  peoples.  

   

22    

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