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WWW.AVDRWEBINARS.NL WEBINAR 0292 BESTUURSSTRAFRECHT READER I SPREKER MR. J.F. RENSE, ADVOCAAT LEIJNSE ARTZ 27 JUNI 2013 12:00 – 14:15 UUR

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BESTUURSSTRAFRECHT READER I

SPREKER MR. J.F. RENSE, ADVOCAAT LEIJNSE ARTZ

27 JUNI 2013

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Inhoudsopgave reader I

Mr. J.F. Rense

Definitie criminal charge door EHRM Jurisprudentie Engel, EHRM 8 juni 1976, NJ 1978/223 p. 8 Özturk, EHRM 21 februari 1984, NJ 1988/937 p. 33 Lutz, EHRM 25 augustus 1987, NJ 1988/938 p. 42

Aanbevolen literatuur Saunders, EHRM 17 december 1996, NJ 1996/725 R. Strijnen, Rechtsbescherming tegen bestraffing in het strafrecht en bestuursrecht, Kluwer, paragraaf 2.2

Definitie criminal charge in Nederlandse wet en jurisprudentie Aanbevolen literatuur

R. Strijnen, Rechtsbescherming tegen bestraffing in het strafrecht en bestuursrecht, Kluwer, paragraaf 2.3 D.R. Doorenbos, Naming & Shaming, Onderneming & Recht, Kluwer, 2007, p. 59-67 E.C. Pietermaat, Actieve openbaarmaking van sanctiebesluiten, JB plus, 2009, p. 247-248 A.M.P.J.H. Sauvé, Naming en shaming, Uitgeverij Paris, 2010, p. p. 42-46

Definitie criminal charge door EHRM Jurisprudentie DeWeer, EHRM 27 februari 1980, NJ 1980/561 p. 52 Foti en Corigliano, EHRM 10 december 1982, NJ 1987/828 p. 55 Aanbevolen literatuur Saunders, EHRM 17 december 1996, NJ 1996/725 P. van Dijk e.a., Theory and Practice of the European Convention on Human

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Rights, Intersentia, 2006, paragraaf 10.3.2 Spronken/Spronken & De Vocht, Tekst en Commentaar Strafvordering, artikel 6 EVRM, aant. 3b

Definitie criminal charge in Nederlandse wet en jurisprudentie Jurisprudentie Hoge Raad, 29 oktober 1996, NJ 1997/232 p. 69 Hoge Raad, 5 oktober 2007, LJN: BB4753 p. 83 CBB, 16 september 2010, LJN BO5309 p. 86 CBB, 11 september 2012, LJN: BX8156 p. 94

Aanvullende literatuur R. Stijnen, Rechtsbescherming tegen bestraffing in het strafrecht en het bestuursrecht, Kluwer, 2011, p. 617-618 Waarborgen artikel 6 EVRM – nemo teneturbeginsel en zwijgrecht Jurisprudentie

Funke, EHRM 25 februari 1993, NJ 1993/485 p.101 Saunders, EHRM 17 december 1996, NJ 1997/699 p.109 Heaney en McGuiness, 21 december 2000, nr. 34720/97 p.140 JB, EHRM 3 mei 2001, NJ 2003/354 p.160 Allen, EHRM 10 september 2002, nr.76574/01 p.175 Weh, EHRM 8 april 2004, nr. 38544/97 p.181 Shannon, EHRM 4 oktober 2005, nr. 6563/03 p.193 Jalloh, EHRM 11 juli 2006, NJ 2007/226 p.204 O’Halloran and Francis, EHRM 29 juni 2007, NJ 2008/25 p.223 Lückhof and Spanner, EHRM 10 januari 2008, nrs. 58452/00 en 61920/00 p.239 Bykov, EHRM 10 maart 2009, nr. 4378/02 p.251 Chambaz, EHRM 5 april 2012, nr. 11663/04 p.295 Conclusie PG Wattel 1 maart 2013, LJN: BZ3640 p.319

Aanbevolen literatuur Abas, ECRM 26 februari 1997, nr. 27943/95 Marttinen, EHRM 21 april 2009, NJ 2009/557 A.E. Wilbrink, De reikwijdte en de toepassing van het nemo-teneturbeginsel, Celsus, 2013

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Nemo teneturbeginsel en zwijgrecht in Nederlandse wet en jurisprudentie Jurisprudentie

Hoge Raad, 15 februari 1977, NJ 1977/557 p.383 Hoge Raad, 29 oktober 1996, NJ 1997/232 p.389 Hoge Raad, 21 oktober 1997, NJ 1998/173 p.403 Hoge Raad, 22 juni 1999, NJ 1999/648 p.410 Hoge Raad, 27 juni 2001, BNB 2002/27 p.415 Hoge Raad, 27 februari 2004, BNB 2004/225 p.424 Hoge Raad, 19 september 2006, NJ 2007/39 p.440

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NJ 1978, 223

Instantie: Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens Datum: 8 juni 1976

Magistraten:

Mosler, Verdross, Zekia, Cremona, O’ Wiarda Donoghue, Pedersen, Vilhjalmsson, Petren, Bozer, Ganshof van der Meersch, Bindschedler-Robert, Evrigenis

Zaaknr: [1976-06-08/NJ_56893]

Conclusie: - LJN: AC0386

Noot: - Roepnaam: -

Wetingang: EVRM art. 1; EVRM art. 5 lid 1; EVRM art. 5 lid 1 onder b; EVRM art. 6; EVRM art. 6 lid 2; EVRM art. 10 lid 2; EVRM art. 14

Snel naar: EssentieSamenvattingPartij(en)Uitspraak

EssentieNaar boven

Verdrag Rechten van de Mens geldt ook voor militairen. Karakter militaire tuchtprocedure. Beperkingen vrijheid van meningsuiting voor militairen. Geen discriminatie tussen burgers en militairen als gevolg van militaire tucht.

* Zie Publications de la Cour Europeenne des Droits de l'Homme (CEDH) serie A (Arrets et decisions) 1976 Vol. 22. Daar zijn ook opgenomen de afzonderlijke meningen van verschillende rechters. Voor de ontvankelijkheidsbeslissing van de Commissie in deze zaak zie Annuaire XV, 508. Zie ook de noot onder het hierna opgenomen arrest. (Red.)

SamenvattingNaar boven

Het Europees Verdrag voor de rechten van de mens geldt in beginsel ook voor militairen en niet alleen voor burgers. Dit volgt uit de artt. 1 en 14 Verdrag waarin gesproken wordt over het verzekeren van de rechten en vrijheden van het Verdrag aan ‘een ieder die onder de rechtsmacht’ van de Hoge Verdragsluitende Partijen ressorteert ‘zonder enig onderscheid’. Bovendien volgt dit uit de uitzonderingsbepalingen met betrekking tot militaire dienst en militairen in de artt. 4, lid 3, sub b, en 11, lid 2, in fine. Niettemin dient bij de interpretatie en toepassing van het Verdrag rekening te worden gehouden met de bijzonderheden van de militaire staat en de gevolgen daarvan op de positie van de militair.

Teneinde na te gaan of iemand van zijn vrijheid is beroofd dient als uitgangspunt genomen te worden de concrete situatie waarin iemand zich bevindt. Zo kan een tuchtstraf of tuchtmaatregel die, wanneer toegepast op een burger, ongetwijfeld als vrijheidsberoving zou worden beschouwd, een dusdanig karakter missen wanneer zij wordt opgelegd aan een militair. Een dergelijke maatregel valt niettemin onder art. 5 Verdrag wanneer de beperkingen die eruit voortvloeien in belangrijke mate afwijken van de normale levensomstandigheden in de strijdkrachten van de Verdragsluitende Staten. Of hiervan sprake is hangt af van factoren als de aard, de duur, het gevolg en de wijze van tenuitvoerlegging van de betreffende straf of maatregel.

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Uitgaande van deze maatstaf dienen de Nederlandse militaire tuchtstraffen streng arrest en plaatsing in een tuchtklasse (beide afgeschaft bij Rijkswet van 12 september 1974, Stb. 537) wel, maar licht arrest en verzwaard arrest niet als vrijheidsberoving te worden beschouwd.

De woorden ‘teneinde de nakoming van een door de wet voorgeschreven verplichting te verzekeren’ in art. 5, lid 1, sub b, betreffen alleen die gevallen waar de wet iemands detentie toestaat teneinde hem te dwingen ‘a executer une obligation specifique et concrete qu'il a neglige jusqu'ici de remplir’. Een ruime interpretatie van deze bepaling zou gevolgen met zich kunnen brengen die onverenigbaar zijn met de idee van de rechtsstaat waardoor het gehele Verdrag is geinspireerd. Door een zodanige interpretatie zou bijvoorbeeld administratieve internering, bedoeld om een burger te dwingen zijn algemene plicht de wetten te gehoorzamen na te komen op elk willekeurig punt, zijn gerechtvaardigd.

Een staat kan zich niet onttrekken aan de fundamentele verplichting om bij een strafvervolging een eerlijk proces te verzekeren door te verklaren dat een overtreding tot de sfeer van het tuchtrecht behoort.

Een tuchtprocedure wordt als een strafvervolging in de zin van art. 6 Verdrag beschouwd wanneer zij daarmee bepaalde kenmerken gemeen heeft. Deze kenmerken zijn: de aard van het delict en de ernst van de straf. Verder behoren vrijheidsberovingen, die kunnen worden opgelegd als repressieve maatregel, behalve die welke uit hun aard, hun duur of hun wijze van executie geen belangrijk nadeel tot gevolg kunnen hebben, in een rechtsstaat tot de sfeer van het strafrecht.

Het vermoeden van onschuld zoals neergelegd in art. 6, lid 2, Verdrag ziet enkel op de bewijslast en niet op de hoogte van de straf of de soort straf. Het belet een rechter niet bij de strafoplegging rekening te houden met de persoonlijkheid van verdachte.

Een beperking van de vrijheid van meningsuiting van militairen kan gerechtvaardigd zijn terwille van de openbare orde (waaronder eveneens begrepen dient te worden de orde zoals die behoort te gelden binnen de — in casu Nederlandse — krijgsmacht) en nodig in een democratische samenleving gezien de specifieke ‘plichten en verantwoordelijkheden’ die rusten op leden van de gewapende macht.

Weliswaar geldt de bij art. 10 Verdrag gewaarborgde vrijheid van meningsuiting evenzeer voor militairen als voor andere personen die onder de rechtsmacht van de Verdragsluitende Staten vallen, maar men kan zich de doelmatige functionering van een leger nauwelijks voorstellen zonder rechtsregels die erop gericht zijn militairen te beletten de krijgstucht te ondermijnen, met name door geschriften.

Het onderscheid tussen militairen van verschillende rangen (een onderscheid inherent aan de hierarchische structuur van de strijdkrachten) is geworteld in de traditie van de Verdragsluitende Staten en wordt bovendien erkend door het internationale humanitaire recht (zie art. 88 Verdrag van Geneve van 18 augustus 1949 betreffende de behandeling der krijgsgevangenen, Stb. 277/1969). Een dergelijk onderscheid ten aanzien van de aard en uitvoeringswijze van de tuchtstraffen, gebaseerd op een op zichzelf objectief element te weten rang, kan door een wettig doel gedicteerd worden: de orde bewaren door middel van aan elke categorie van militairen aangepaste methoden.

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Het onderscheid tussen burgers en militairen als gevolg van de militaire tucht is niet onverenigbaar met het Verdrag, want de omstandigheden en eisen van het militaire leven verschillen naar hun aard van die van het burgerleven.

Het Europese Hof voor de rechten van de mens is in beginsel niet geroepen om verschillende nationale rechterlijke uitspraken, zelfs indien gewezen in ogenschijnlijk dezelfde zaken, met elkaar te vergelijken. Evenzeer als de Hoge Verdragsluitende Partijen dient het Hof de onafhankelijkheid van de nationale rechterlijke instanties te respecteren. Een nationale rechterlijke uitspraak heeft pas dan een discriminatoir karakter, indien deze zozeer afwijkt van andere beslissingen dat gesproken kan worden van rechtsweigering of van duidelijk misbruik.*

* Zie de noot onder het volgende arrest. (Red.)

Partij(en)Naar boven

Engel, en anderen,

tegen

Nederland.

UitspraakNaar boven

I.

Sur les violations alleguees de l'article 5:

A. Sur la violation alleguee du paragraphe 1 de l'article 5, considere isolement.

56.

Les requerants avancent les uns et les autres que la ou les sanctions et mesures disciplinaires prononcees contre eux ont enfreint l'article 5 p 1, aux termes duquel

‘Toute personne a droit a la liberte et a la surete. Nul ne peut etre prive de sa liberte, sauf dans les cas suivants et selon les voies legales:

a.

s'il est detenu regulierement apres condamnation par un tribunal competent;

b.

s'il a fait l'objet d'une arrestation ou d'une detention regulieres pour insoumission a une ordonnance rendue, conformement a la loi, par un tribunal ou en vue de garantir l'execution d'une obligation prescrite par la loi;

c.

s'il a ete arrete et detenu en vue d'etre conduit devant l'autorite judiciaire competente, lorsqu'il y a des raisons plausibles de soupconner qu'il a commis une infraction ou qu'il y a des motifs raisonnables de croire a la necessite de l'empecher de commettre une infraction ou de s'enfuir apres l'accomplissement de celle-ci;

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d.

s'il s'agit de la detention reguliere d'un mineur, decidee pour son education surveillee ou de sa detention reguliere, afin de la traduire devant l'autorite competente;

e.

s'il s'agit de detention reguliere d'une personne susceptible de propager une maladie contagieuse, d'un aliene, d'un alcoolique, d'un toxicomane ou d'un vagabond;

f.

s'il s'agit de l'arrestation ou de la detention regulieres d'une personne pour l'empecher de penetrer irregulierement dans le territoire, ou contre laquelle une procedure d'expulsion ou d'extradition est en cours.’

1.

Sur le droit a la liberte dans le contexte du service militaire.

57.

Quand ils ont elabore puis conclu la Convention, les Etats contractants possedaient dans leur tres grande majorite des forces de defense et, par consequent, un systeme de discipline militaire impliquant, par nature, la possibilite d'apporter a certains des droits et libertes des membres de ces forces des limitations ne pouvant etre imposees aux civils. L'existence de pareil systeme, qu'ils ont conserve depuis lors, ne se heurte pas en soi a leurs obligations.

La discipline militaire ne sort pas pour autant du domaine de l'article 5 p 1. Non seulement ce texte doit se lire a la lumiere des articles 1 et 14 (paragraphe 54 ci-dessus), mais la liste des privations de liberte qu'il enumere revet un caractere exhaustif dont temoignent les mots ‘sauf dans les cas suivants’. Une sanction ou mesure disciplinaire peut par consequent violer l'article 5 p 1; le Gouvernement le reconnait d'ailleurs.

58.

En proclamant le ‘droit a la liberte’, le paragraphe 1 de l'article 5 vise la liberte individuelle dans son acception classique, c'est-a-dire la liberte physique de la personne. Il a pour but d'assurer que nul n'en soit depouille de maniere arbitraire; ainsi que l'ont releve Gouvernement et Commission, il ne concerne pas les simples restrictions a la liberte de circuler (article 2 du Protocole no 4). Cela ressort a la fois de l'emploi des termes ‘prive de sa liberte’, ‘arrestation’ et ‘detention’, qui figurent egalement aux paragraphes 2 a 5, et d'une comparaison entre l'article 5 et les autres disposition normatives de la Convention et des Protocoles.

59.

Pour etablir si quelqu'un se trouve ‘prive de sa liberte’ au sens de l'article 5, il faut partir de sa situation concrete. Tel qu'on le rencontre dans les Etats contractants, le service militaire ne constitue point par lui-meme une privation de liberte au regard de la Convention puisqu'elle le consacre expressement en son article 4 p 3b). Or il entraine, en raison de ses imperatifs specifiques, d'assez amples limitations a la liberte de

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mouvement des membres des forces armees; les restrictions normales dont il s'accompagne ne tombent donc pas davantage sous le coup de l'article 5.

Chaque Etat a competence pour organiser son systeme de discipline militaire; il jouit en la matiere d'une certaine marge d'appreciation. Les bornes que l'article 5 lui enjoint de ne pas depasser ne sont pas identiques pour les militaires et pour les civils. Une sanction ou mesure disciplinaire qui s'analyserait sans conteste en une privation de liberte si on l'appliquait a un civil peut ne pas en avoir le caractere si on l'inflige a un militaire. Elle n'echappe cependant pas a l'article 5 quand elle se traduit par des restrictions s'ecartant nettement des conditions normales de la vie au sein des forces armees des Etats contractants. Pour savoir s'il en est ainsi, il y a lieu de tenir compte d'un ensemble d'elements tels que la nature, la duree, les effets et les modalites d'execution de la sanction ou mesure consideree.

2.

Sur l'existence de privations de liberte en l'espece.

60.

C'est en se fondant sur ces premisses que la Cour recherchera s'il y a eu en l'espece une ou plusieurs privations de liberte. Selon la these principale du Gouvernement, la question appelle une reponse negative pour l'ensemble des sanctions et mesures litigieuses (paragraphes 15–19 du memoire et plaidoiries), tandis qu'aux yeux de la Commission seuls les arrets simples ne soulevent pas de probleme sur le terrain de l'article 5 p 1 (paragraphes 67–76 du rapport).

61.

Aucune privation de liberte n'a decoule des trois et quatre jours d'arrets simples, prononces respectivement contre MM. Engel (…) et Van der Wiel (…). Quoique consignes, en dehors de leurs heures de service, chez eux ou dans un batiment ou emplacement a usage militaire, suivant le cas, les militaires frappes d'une telle sanction ne se trouvent pas enfermes et continuent a s'acquitter de leurs taches (article 8 de la loi de 1903 ...); ils restent, a peu de chose pres, dans le cadre ordinaire de leur existence a l'armee.

62.

Les arrets aggraves ne different des arrets simples que sur un point: en dehors de leurs heures de service, les soldats les subissent en un local specialement fixe qu'ils ne peuvent quitter pour se rendre a la cantine, au cinema ou aux salles de loisirs, mais ils ne sont pas incarceres (article 9–B de la loi de 1903 ...). La Cour ne considere par consequent pas non plus comme une privation de liberte les douze jours d'arrets aggraves dont se plaint M. de Wit (…).

63.

Les arrets de rigueur, abolis en 1974, se distinguaient des arrets simples et aggraves en ce que les sous-officiers et hommes de troupe les purgeaient de jour et de nuit enfermes dans une cellule et, partant, etaient ecartes de l'accomplissement de leur service normal (article 10–B de la loi de 1903 ...). Ils avaient donc un caractere privatif de liberte. Ont des lors revetu le meme caractere, malgre leur courte duree (20–22 mars 1971), les

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arrets provisoires imposes a M. Engel sous la forme d'arrets de rigueur (article 44 de la loi de 1903; ...).

64.

L'affectation a une unite disciplinaire, egalement supprimee en 1974 mais infligee en 1971 a MM. Dona et Schul, representait la sanction la plus lourde en droit disciplinaire militaire neerlandais. Les soldats contre lesquels on l'avait ordonnee par la voie disciplinaire n'etaient pas separes de ceux qui s'y etaient vu condamner au penal, a titre de peine complementaire, et pendant un mois ou davantage ils n'avaient pas le droit de sortir de l'etablissement. L'affectation valait pour une periode de trois a six mois, duree de beaucoup superieure a celle des autres sanctions, y compris les arrets de rigueur qui pouvaient etre prononces pour une periode d'un a quatorze jours. Il appert en outre que MM. Dona et Schul ont passe la nuit enfermes en cellule (article 5, 18 et 19 de la loi de 1903, ordonnance royale du 14 juin 1971...). Pour ces diverses raisons, la Cour estime qu'il y a eu en l'occurrence privation de liberte.

65.

Il n'en va pas de meme de la mesure qui du 8 octobre au 3 novembre 1971 avait precede ladite affectation: MM. Dona et Schul ont subi leurs arrets transitoires sous la forme d'arrets aggraves (article 20 de la loi de 1903; ...).

66.

La Cour arrive donc a la conclusion que ni les arrets simples de MM. Engel et van der Wiel, ni les arrets aggraves de M. de Wit ni les arrets transitoires de MM. Dona et Schul n'appellent un examen plus approfondi sous l'angle du paragraphe 1 de l'article 5.

Quant a la peine de deux jours d'arrets de rigueur infligee a M. Engel le 7 avril 1971 et confirmee par la Haute Cour militaire le 23 juin 1971, elle a coincide en pratique avec une mesure anterieure: l'interesse fut cense l'avoir purgee par avance du 20 au 22 mars 1971, pendant ses arrets provisoires (…).

Par contre, il incombe a la Cour de verifier si ces derniers, ainsi que l'affectation de MM. Dona et Schul a une unite disciplinaire, ont respecte l'article 5 p 1.

3.

Sur la compatibilite des privations de liberte constatees en l'espece avec le paragraphe 1 de l'article 5.

67.

Le Gouvernement a soutenu, en ordre subsidiaire, que l'affectation de MM. Dona et Schul a une unite disciplinaire satisfaisait aux exigences de l'alinea a) de l'article 5 p 1 et que les arrets provisoires de M. Engel repondaient a celles de l'alinea b) (paragraphes 21–23 du memoire); il n'a pas invoque les alineas c) a f).

68.

En son alinea a), l'article 5 p 1 autorise la detention ‘reguliere’ d'un individu ‘apres condamnation par un tribunal competent’.

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La Cour releve, avec le Gouvernement (audience du 29 octobre 1975), que ce texte ne distingue pas selon le caractere juridique de l'infraction dont une personne a ete declaree coupable. Il s'applique a toute ‘condamnation’ privative de liberte prononcee par un ‘tribunal’, que le droit interne de l'Etat en cause la qualifie de penale ou de disciplinaire.

MM. Dona et Schul ont bien ete prives de leur liberte ‘apres’ leur condamnation par la Haute Cour militaire. L'article 64 de la loi de 1903 attribuait a leur recours contre les decisions de leur chef de corps (8 octobre 1971) et du beklagmeerdere (19 octobre 1971) un effet suspensif qui semble avoir echappe a la Commission (paragraphe 85 et annexe IV du rapport), mais sur lequel le Gouvernement a insiste a juste titre (paragraphe 21 du memoire). En consequence, leur envoi au depot de discipline de Nieuwersluis n'a eu lieu qu'en vertu des sentences definitives du 17 november 1971 (…).

Encore faut-il s'assurer que lesdites sentences emanaient d'un ‘tribunal competent’ au sens de l'article 5 p 1a).

La Haute Cour militaire, dont la competence n'a point prete a discussion, constitue un tribunal du point de vue organique. Sans doute ses quatre membres militaires ne sont-ils pas inamovibles en droit, mais comme les deux membres civils ils jouissent de l'independance inherente a la notion de ‘tribunal’ telle que la concoit la Convention (arret De Wilde, Ooms et Versyp du 18 juin 1971, serie A no. 12, p. 41, p 78 ...).

En outre, il ne ressort pas du dossier (…) que MM. Dona et Schul n'aient pas beneficie aupres de la Haute Cour militaire de garanties judiciaires adequates au regard de l'article 5 p 1 a), disposition autonome dont les exigences ne coincident pas toujours avec celles de l'article 6; les garanties accordees aux deux requerants se revelent ‘suffisantes’ sous l'angle de l'article 5 p 1a) si l'on tient compte de ‘la nature particuliere des circonstances’ dans lesquelles se deroulait l'instance (arret precite du 18 juin 1971, serie A no. 12, pp. 41–42, p 78). Quant a l'article 6, la Cour recherchera plus loin s'il s'appliquait en l'occurrence et, dans l'affirmative, s'il a ete respecte.

Enfin, la sanction prise a ete ordonnee puis executee ‘regulierement’ et ‘selon les voies legales’; en resume, elle n'a pas meconnu l'article 5 p 1.

69.

Les arrets provisoires de M. Engel, eux, ne relevent manifestement pas de l'alinea a) de l'article 5 p 1.

Le Gouvernement a tire argument de l'alinea b) en tant que ce dernier permet ‘une arrestation ou (…) detention regulieres’ destinees a ‘garantir l'execution d'une obligation prescrite par la loi’.

La Cour estime que les mots ‘garantir l'execution d'une obligation prescrite par la loi’ concernent seulement les cas ou la loi autorise a detenir quelqu'un pour le forcer a executer une obligation specifique et concrete qu'il a neglige jusqu'ici de remplir. Une interpretation extensive entrainerait des resultats incompatibles avec l'idee de preeminence du droit dont s'inspire la Convention tout entiere (arret Golder du 21 fevrier 1975, serie A no 18, pp. 16–17, p 34 — zie NJ 1975, 462. Red.). Elle justifierait, par exemple, un internement administratif tendant a contraindre un citoyen a s'acquitter, sur un point quelconque, de son devoir general d'obeissance a la loi.

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Or les arrets provisoires de M. Engel n'avaient point pour but d'assurer a l'avenir l'execution de pareille obligation. L'article 44 de la loi de 1903, applicable quand un officier a ‘des raisons suffisantes de penser qu'un subordonne a gravement enfreint la discipline militaire’, a trait a un comportement passe. La mesure qu'il autorise represente une etape preparatoire de la procedure disciplinaire militaire et se place donc dans un cadre repressif. Peut-etre a–t-elle aussi pour objet ou effet accessoires, a l'occasion, d'inciter un membre des forces armees a respecter desormais ses obligations, mais on ne saurait sans artifice la rattacher pour autant a l'alinea b); a ce compte, on pourrait du reste en arriver a englober dans cet alinea, au nom de leurs vertus dissuasives, de veritables peines privatives de liberte que l'on soustrairait de la sorte aux garanties fondamentales de l'alinea a).

En realite, ladite mesure s'apparente plutot a celle dont parle l'alinea c) de l'article 5 p 1 de la Convention. Elle ne satisfait cependant pas, en l'espece, a l'une des exigences de ce texte car M. Engel n'a pas ete detenu, du 20 au 22 mars 1971, ‘en vue d'etre conduit devant l'autorite judiciaire competente’ (paragraphes 86–88 du rapport de la Commission).

Les arrets provisoires de M. Engel n'ont pas davantage ete reguliers au sens de l'article 5 p 1 en tant qu'ils ont excede — de vingt-deux a trente heures, selon les renseignements receuillis a l'audience du 28 octobre 1975 — la duree maximale de vingt-quatre heures fixee par l'article 45 de la loi de 1903.

D'apres le Gouvernement, l'officier de recours a corrige apres coup cette irregularite en considerant comme purgee par avance, du 20 au 22 mars 1971, la sanction disciplinaire de deux jours d'arrets de rigueur dont il a frappe le requerant le 5 avril 1971 et que la Haute Cour militaire a confirmee le 23 juin 1971. Il ressort toutefois de la jurisprudence de la Cour europeenne que l'imputation d'une detention provisoire (Untersuchungshaft) sur une peine ulterieure ne peut eliminer une violation du paragraphe 3 de l'article 5, mais seulement avoir une repercussion sur le terrain de l'article 50 pour avoir limite le prejudice cause (arret Stogmuller du 10 novembre 1969, serie A no. 9, pp. 27, 36 et 39–45; arrets Ringeisen des 16 juillet 1971 et 22 juin 1972, serie A no. 13, pp. 20 et 41–45, et no. 15, p. 8, p 21; arret Neumeister du 7 mai 1974, serie A no. 17, pp. 18–19, pp 40–41). La Cour n'apercoit aucun motif d'adopter une solution differente en appreciant la compatibilite des arrets provisoires de M. Engel avec le paragraphe 1 de l'article 5.

En conclusion, la privation de liberte imposee a l'interesse du 20 au 22 mars 1971 a eu lieu dans des conditions contraires a ce paragraphe.

B. Sur la violation alleguee des articles 5 p 1 et 14 combines.

70.

A en croire les requerants, les sanctions et mesures litigieuses ont enfreint aussi l'article 5 p 1 combine avec l'article 14, aux termes duquel

‘La jouissance des droits et libertes reconnus dans la (…) Convention doit etre assuree, sans distinction aucune, fondee notamment sur le sexe, la race, la couleur, la langue, la religion, les opinions politiques ou toutes autres opinions, l'origine nationale ou sociale, l'appartenance a une minorite nationale, la fortune, la naissance ou toute autre situation.’

71.

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Certaines desdites sanctions et mesures n'ayant pas revetu un caractere privatif de liberte (paragraphes 61, 62 et 65 ci-dessus), les discriminations alleguees a leur sujet ne soulevent aucun probleme au regard de l'article 14 : elles n'ont pas porte sur la jouissance du droit reconnu a l'article 5 p 1. Il n'en va pas de meme des arrets provisoires de M. Engel, ni de l'affectation de MM. Dona et Schul a une unite disciplinaire (paragraphes 63 et 64 ci-dessus).

72.

MM. Engel, Dona et Schul se plaignent d'abord de distinctions de traitement entre militaires : d'apres les articles 10 et 44 de la loi de 1903, les arrets provisoires infliges sous la forme d'arrets de rigueur etaient subis par les officiers chez eux, sous leur tente ou dans leurs quartiers, tandis que les sous-officiers et hommes de troupe demeuraient enfermes dans une cellule (…); quant a l'affectation a une unite disciplinaire, seuls l'encouraient les simples soldats (articles 3 a 5 de la loi de 1903 ...).

Une distinction fondee sur le grade peut se heurter a l'article 14. La liste que renferme ce texte revet un caractere indicatif, et non limitatif, dont temoigne l'adverbe ‘notamment’ (en anglais ‘any ground such as’); le mot ‘situation’ (en anglais ‘status’) se revele du reste assez large pour comprendre le grade. En outre, une distinction concernant les modalites d'execution d'une sanction ou mesure privative de liberte n'echappe pas de ce fait a l'empire de l'article 14 car elle ne manque pas de se repercuter sur la maniere dont est ..assuree’ la ‘jouissance’ du droit consacre par l'article 5 p 1. Sur ces deux points, la Cour ne souscrit pas a la these du Gouvernement (paragraphe 40, premier alinea, du rapport de la Commission); elle marque son accord avec la Commission (ibidem, paragraphes 133–134).

La Cour n'ignore pas que les legislations respectives de nombre d'Etats contractants semblent evoluer, bien qu'a des degres varies, vers une plus grande egalite entre officiers, sous-officiers et hommes de troupe en matiere disciplinaire. La loi neerlandaise du 12 septembre 1974 offre un exemple frappant de cette tendance; en particulier, elle a supprime pour l'avenir les distinctions critiquees par MM. Engel, Dona et Schul puisqu'elle abolit arrets de rigueur et affectation a une unite disciplinaire.

Pour savoir si lesdites distinctions constituaient des discriminations contraires aux articles 5 et 14 combines, il faut cependant se placer au moment ou elles existaient. La Cour examinera la question a la lumiere de son arret du 23 juillet 1968 dans l'affaire ‘linguistique belge’ (serie A no 6, pp. 33–35, pp 9–10).

La structure hierarchique inherente aux armees entraine des differenciations selon le rang. Aux divers grades correspondent des responsabilites dissemblables qui justifient a leur tour certaines inegalites de traitement en matiere disciplinaire. De telles inegalites se rencontrent traditionnellement dans les Etats contractants et le droit international humanitaire s'en accommode (paragraphe 140 du rapport de la Commission: article 88 de la Convention de Geneve du 12 aout 1949 relative au traitement des prisonniers de guerre). A cet egard, la Convention europeenne reserve aux autorites nationales competentes une marge considerable d'appreciation.

A l'epoque dont il s'agit, les distinctions denoncees par les trois requerants avaient leur equivalent dans l'ordre juridique interne de presque tous les Etats contractants. S'appuyant sur un element par lui-meme objectif, le grade, elles pouvaient etre dictees par un but legitime: preserver la discipline par des methodes adaptees a chacune des

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categories de militaires. Si seuls les simples soldats risquaient de se voir affecter a une unite disciplinaire, en revanche ils ne se trouvaient evidemment pas exposes a une sanction grave menacant les autres membres des forces armees: la degradation. Quant a l'incarceration en cellule pendant les arrets de rigueur, le legislateur neerlandais pouvait avoir des motifs plausibles de ne pas l'appliquer aux officiers. Au total, il parait ne pas avoir abuse en l'occurrence de la latitude que lui laissait la Convention. La Cour n'estime pas non plus que le principe de proportionnalite, tel qu'elle l'a defini dans son arret precite du 23 juillet 1968 (serie A no. 6, p. 3, p 10, deuxieme alinea in fine), ait ete transgresse en l'espece.

73.

MM. Engel, Dona et Schul s'en prennent en second lieu a des inegalites de traitement entre militaires et civils. De fait, meme des civils soumis de par leur profession a un regime disciplinaire particulier ne sauraient subir aux Pays-Bas des sanctions analogues aux privations de liberte litigieuses. Il n'en resulte pourtant nulle discrimination incompatible avec la Convention, les conditions et imperatifs de la vie militaire differant par nature de ceux de la vie civile (paragraphes 54 et 57 ci-dessus).

74.

La Cour n'apercoit donc aucune violation des articles 5 p 1 et 14 combines.

C. Sur la violation alleguee de l'article 5 p 4.

75.

En sus du paragraphe 1 de l'article 5, les requerants invoquent le paragraphe 4 aux termes duquel

‘Toute personne privee de sa liberte par arrestation ou detention a le droit d'introduire un recours devant un tribunal, afin qu'il statue a bref delai sur la legalite de sa detention et ordonne sa liberation si la detention est illegale.’

76.

La question ne se pose que pour l'affectation de MM. Dona et Schul a une unite disciplinaire: M. Engel ne l'a pas soulevee, meme sur le terrain des faits, pour ses arrets provisoires; quant aux autres sanctions ou mesures incriminees, elles n'ont ‘prive’ personne ‘de sa liberte par arrestation ou detention’ (paragraphes 61–66 ci-dessus).

77.

La Cour rappelle que l'affectation de MM. Dona et Schul a une unite disciplinaire decoulait de leur ‘condamnation par un tribunal competent’, au sens de l'article 5 p 1 a) (paragraphe 68 ci-dessus). Or si ‘l'article 5 p 4 astreint (…) les Etats a ouvrir (…) un recours aupres d'un tribunal’ quand ‘la decision privative de liberte emane d'un organe administratif’, ‘rien n'indique qu'il en aille de meme quand elle est rendue par un tribunal (…) a l'issue d'une procedure judiciaire’: ‘dans cette derniere hypothese’, par exemple ‘une ‘condamnation’ a l'emprisonnement prononcee ‘par un tribunal competent’ (article 5 p 1 a) de la Convention)’, ‘le controle voulu par l'article 5 p 4 se trouve incorpore a la decision’ (arret De Wilde, Ooms et Versyp du 18 juin 1971, serie A no. 12, pp. 40–41, p

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76). La Cour en deduit, avec le Gouvernement (paragraphe 21 du memoire), qu'il n'y a pas eu violation de l'article 5 p 4 dans le cas de MM. Dona et Schul.

II.

Sur les violations alleguees de l'article 6:

A. Sur la violation alleguee de l'article 6 considere isolement.

78.

Les cinq requerants alleguent des violations de l'article 6, aux termes duquel

‘1.

Toute personne a droit a ce que sa cause soit entendue equitablement, publiquement et dans un delai raisonnable, par un tribunal independant et impartial, etabli par la loi, qui decidera, soit des contestations sur ses droits et obligations de caractere civil, soit du bien-fonde de toute accusation en matiere penale dirigee contre elle. Le jugement doit etre rendu publiquement, mais l'acces de la salle d'audience peut etre interdit a la presse et au public pendant la totalite ou une partie du proces dans l'interet de la moralite, de l'ordre public ou de la securite nationale dans une societe democratique, lorsque les interets des mineurs ou la protection de la vie privee des parties au proces l'exigent, ou dans la mesure jugee strictement necessaire par le tribunal, lorsque dans des circonstances speciales la publicite serait de nature a porter atteinte aux interets de la justice.

2.

Toute personne accusee d'une infraction est presumee innocente jusqu'a ce que sa culpabilite ait ete legalement etablie.

3.

Tout accuse a droit notamment a:

a.

etre informe, dans le plus court delai, dans une langue qu'il comprend et d'une maniere detaillee, de la nature et de la cause de l'accusation portee contre lui;

b.

disposer du temps et des facilites necessaires a la preparation de sa defense;

c.

se defendre lui-meme ou avoir l'assistance d'un defenseur de son choix et, s'il n'a pas les moyens de remunerer un defenseur, pouvoir etre assiste gratuitement par un avocat d'office, lorsque les interets de la justice l'exigent;

d.

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interroger ou faire interroger les temoins a charge et obtenir la convocation et l'interrogation des temoins a decharge dans les memes conditions que les temoins a charge;

e.

se faire assister gratuitement d'un interprete, s'il ne comprend pas ou ne parle pas la langue employee a l'audience,’

79.

Pour le Gouvernement et la Commission, les procedures intentees contre MM. Engel, Van der Wiel, de Wit, Dona et Schul n'avaient trait ni a des ‘contestations sur des droits et obligations de caractere civil’, ni a des ‘accusations en matiere penale’.

Amenee ainsi a s'interroger sur l'applicabilite de l'article 6 en l'espece, la Cour examinera d'abord si lesdites procedures concernaient des ‘accusations en matiere penale’ au sens de ce texte: quoique disciplinaires d'apres la legislation neerlandaise, elles tendaient a reprimer au moyen de sanctions des manquements reproches au requerants, objectif analogue au but general du droit penal.

1.

Sur l'applicabilite de l'article 6.

a.

Sur l'existence d’‘accusations en matiere penale’.

80.

Tous les Etats contractants distinguent de longue date, encore que sous des formes et a des degres divers, entre poursuites disciplinaires et poursuites penales. Pour les individus qu'elles visent, les premieres offrent d'habitude sur les secondes des avantages substantiels, par exemple quant aux condamnations infligees: en general moins lourdes, celles-ci ne figurent pas au casier judiciaire et entrainent des consequences plus limitees. Il peut cependant en aller autrement; en outre, les instances penales s'entourent d'ordinaire de garanties superieures.

Aussi faut-il se demander si la solution retenue en ce domaine a l'echelle nationale est ou non decisive au regard de la Convention: l'article 6 cesse-t-il de jouer pour peu que les organes competents d'un Etat contractant qualifient de disciplinaires une action ou omission et les poursuites engagees par eux contre son auteur, ou s'applique-t-il au contraire dans certains cas nonobstant cette qualification? Le probleme, souleve a juste titre par la Commission et dont le Gouvernement reconnait l'importance, surgit notamment quand une action ou omission s'analyse selon le droit interne de l'Etat defendeur en une infraction mixte, a la fois penale et disciplinaire, et qu'il existe donc pour elle une possibilite d'option, voire de cumul, entre poursuites penales et poursuites disciplinaires.

81.

La Cour a prete attention aux theses respectives des requerants, du Gouvernement et de la Commission sur ce qu'ils ont denomme l’‘autonomie’ de la notion d’‘accusation en

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matiere penale’, mais elle ne souscrit entierement a aucune d'entre elles (rapport de la Commission, paragraphes 33–34, paragraphes 114–119 et opinion separee de M. Welter; memoire du Gouvernement, paragraphes 25–34; memoire de la Commission, paragraphes 9–16, paragraphes 14–17 de l'annexe I et paragraphes 12–14 de l'annexe II; compte rendu des audiences des 28 et 29 octobre 1975).

Par son arret Neumeister du 27 juin 1968, la Cour a deja juge que le mot ‘accusation’ doit se comprendre ‘au sens de la Convention’ (serie A no. 8, p. 41, p 18, a rapprocher du deuxieme alinea de la p. 28 et du premier alinea de la p. 35; cf. aussi l'arret Wemhoff du 27 juin 1968, serie A no. 7, pp. 26–27, p 19, et l'arret Ringeisen du 16 juillet 1971, serie A no. 13, p. 45, p 110).

La question de l’‘autonomie’ de la notion de ‘matiere penale’ n'appelle pas exactement la meme reponse.

La Convention permet sans nul doute aux Etats, dans l'accomplissement de leur role de gardiens de l'interet public, de maintenir ou etablir une distinction entre droit penal et droit disciplinaire ainsi que d'en fixer le trace, mais seulement sous certaines conditions. Elle les laisse libres d'eriger en infraction penale une action ou omission ne constituant pas l'exercice normal de l'un des droits qu'elle protege; cela ressort, specialement, de son article 7. Pareil choix, qui a pour effet de rendre applicables les articles 6 et 7, echappe en principe au controle de la Cour.

Le choix inverse, lui, obeit a des regles plus strictes. Si les Etats contractants pouvaient a leur guise qualifier une infraction de disciplinaire plutot que de penale, ou poursuivre l'auteur d'une infraction ‘mixte’ sur le plan disciplinaire de preference a la voie penale, le jeu des clauses fondamentales des articles 6 et 7 se trouverait subordonne a leur volonte souveraine. Une latitude aussi etendue risquerait de conduire a des resultats incompatibles avec le but et l'objet de la Convention. La Cour a donc competence pour s'assurer, sur le terrain de l'article 6 et en dehors meme des articles 17 et 18, que le disciplinaire n'empiete pas indument sur le penal.

En resume, l’‘autonomie’ de la notion de ‘matiere penale’ opere pour ainsi dire a sens unique.

82.

Des lors, la Cour doit preciser, en se limitant au domaine du service militaire, comment elle verifiera si une ‘accusation’ donnee, a laquelle l'Etat en cause attribue — comme en l'espece — un caractere disciplinaire, releve neanmoins de la ‘matiere penale’ telle que l'entend l'article 6.

A ce sujet, il importe d'abord de savoir si le ou les textes definissant l'infraction incriminee appartiennent, d'apres la technique juridique de l'Etat defendeur, au droit penal, au droit disciplinaire ou aux deux a la fois. Il s'agit cependant la d'un simple point de depart. L'indication qu'il fournit n'a qu'une valeur formelle et relative; il faut l'examiner a la lumiere du denominateur commun aux legislations respectives des divers Etats contractants.

La nature meme de l'infraction represente un element d'appreciation d'un plus grand poids. Si un militaire se voit reprocher une action ou omission qui aurait transgresse une norme juridique regissant le fonctionnement des forces armees, l'Etat peut en principe

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utiliser contre lui le droit disciplinaire plutot que le droit penal. A cet egard, la Cour marque son accord avec le Gouvernement.

La ne s'arrete pourtant pas le controle de la Cour. Il se revelerait en general illusoire s'il ne prenait pas egalement en consideration le degre de severite de la sanction que risque de subir l'interesse. Dans une societe attachee a la preeminence du droit, ressortissent a la ‘matiere penale’ les privations de liberte susceptibles d'etre infligees a titre repressif, hormis celles qui par leur nature, leur duree ou leurs modalites d'execution ne sauraient causer un prejudice important. Ainsi le veulent la gravite de l'enjeu, les traditions des Etats contractants et la valeur que la Convention attribue au respect de la liberte physique de la personne (cf., mutatis mutandis, l'arret De Wilde, Ooms et Versyp du 18 juin 1971, serie A no. 12, p. 36, dernier alinea, et p. 42 in fine).

83.

C'est en se fondant sur ces criteres que la Cour recherchera si les requerants, ou certains d'entre eux, ont fait l'objet d'une ‘accusation en matiere penale’ au sens de l'article 6 p 1.

En l'occurrence, l'accusation pouvant entrer en ligne de compte residait dans la decision du chef de corps telle que l'officier de recours l'avait confirmee ou attenuee. Comme le tribunal appele a statuer, a savoir la Haute Cour militaire, n'avait pas competence pour ordonner une sanction plus rigoureuse (…), c'est bien cette decision qui fixait definitivement l'enjeu.

84.

Les infractions reprochees a MM. Engel, van der Wiel, de Wit, Dona et Schul tombaient sous le coup de textes appartenant au droit diciplinaire d'apres la legislation neerlandaise (loi de 1903 et reglement de discipline militaire), encore que celles dont avaient a repondre MM. Dona et Schul (article 147 du code penal militaire), voire MM. Engel et de Wit (article 96 et 114 dudit code selon Me van der Schans, (raadsman van de klagers tijdens het proces en assistent van de Commissie-gedelegeerden. Red.), audience du 28 octobre 1975), se pretassent aussi a des poursuites penales. En outre, elles avaient toutes transgresse, aux yeux du commandement militaire, des normes juridiques regissant le fonctionnement des forces armees neerlandaises. Le choix de la voie disciplinaire se justifiait sous ce rapport.

85.

Quant a la sanction maximale que pouvait prononcer la Haute Cour militaire, elle consistait en quatre jours d'arrets simples pour M. van der Wiel, en deux jours d'arrets de rigueur pour M. Engel (troisieme peine) et en trois ou quatre mois d'affectation a une unite disciplinaire pour MM. de Wit, Dona et Schul.

M. van der Wiel n'etait donc passible que d'une peine legere et non privative de liberte (paragraphe 61 ci-dessus).

De son cote, la sanction privative de liberte dont M. Engel se voyait en theorie menace etait de trop courte duree pour ressortir a la ‘matiere penale’; il ne risquait du reste pas de devoir la subir a l'issue de l'instance engagee par lui devant la Haute Cour militaire le 7 avril 1971 puisqu'il l'avait deja purgee du 20 au 22 mars (paragraphes ... 63 et 66 ci-dessus).

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En revanche, les ‘accusations’ portees contre MM. de Wit, Dona et Schul relevaient bien de la ‘matiere penale’ car elles tendaient a l'infliction de lourdes peines privatives de liberte (paragraphe 64 ci-dessus). Sans doute la Haute Cour militaire n'a–t-elle frappe M. de Wit que de douze jours d'arrets aggraves, c'est-a-dire d'une sanction non privative de liberte (paragraphe 62 ci-dessus), mais le resultat final du recours ne saurait amoindrir l'enjeu initial.

La Convention n'astreignait certes pas les autorites competentes a poursuivre MM. de Wit, Dona et Schul en vertu du code penal militaire devant un conseil de guerre (…), solution qui aurait pu se reveler moins avantageuse pour eux; elle les obligeait cependant a leur accorder les garanties de l'article 6.

b.

Sur l'existence de ‘contestations’ relatives a des droits ‘de caractere civil’.

86.

Trois des cinq requerants alleguent, en ordre subsidiaire, que les procedures ouvertes contre eux concernaient des ‘contestations’ relatives a des droits ‘de caractere civil’: M. Engel attribue ce caractere a sa liberte de reunion et d'association (article 11), MM. Dona et Schul a leur liberte d'expression (article 10).

87.

L'article 6 se montre moins exigeant pour de telles ‘contestations’ que pour les ‘accusations en matiere penale’: si son paragraphe 1 vaut pour les unes et les autres, les paragraphes 2 et 3 ne protegent que les ‘accuses’. Comme MM. Dona et Schul faisaient l'objet d’‘accusations en matiere penale’ (paragraphe 85 in fine ci-dessus), l'article 6 s'appliquait a eux en entier; la Cour estime superflu de rechercher si le paragraphe 1 entrait en ligne de compte a un second titre, la question n'offrant pas d'interet pratique.

Quant a M. Engel, qui n'avait pas la qualite d’‘accuse’ (paragraphe 85 ci-dessus, troisieme alinea), les poursuites intentees contre lui n'etaient determinees que par des infractions a la discipline militaire consistant a s'etre absente de son domicile le 17 mars 1971, puis a avoir passe outre aux sanctions prononcees contre lui le lendemain et le surlendemain. Dans ces conditions, il n'y a pas lieu de statuer en l'espece sur le ‘caractere civil’ de la liberte de reunion et d'association.

88.

En resume, il incombe a la Cour d'examiner sous l'angle de l'article 6 le traitement reserve a MM. de Wit, Dona et Schul, mais non celui dont se plaignent MM. Engel et van der Wiel.

2.

Sur l'observation de l'article 6.

89.

La Haute Cour militaire, devant laquelle ont comparu MM. de Wit, Dona et Schul, constitue un ‘tribunal independant et impartial etabli par la loi’ (paragraphe ... 68 ci-dessus) et rien n'indique qu'elle n'ait pas entendu leur cause ‘equitablement’. De son cote

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le ‘delai’ ecoule entre l’‘accusation’ et la decision ultime se revele ‘raisonnable’: il n'a guere excede un mois et demi pour MM. Dona et Schul (8 octobre — 17 novembre 1971) et deux pour M. de Wit (22 fevrier — 28 avril 1971). En outre, la sentence a ete ‘rendue publiquement’.

Par contre, les debats contradictoires s'etaient deroules a huis clos conformement a la pratique constante de la Haute Cour militaire en matiere disciplinaire (…). A la verite , les requerants ne semblent pas en avoir pati; ladite Cour a d'ailleurs ameliore le sort de deux d'entre eux, M. Schul et plus encore M. de Wit. Dans le domaine qu'il regit, l'article 6 p 1 impose cependant de maniere tres generale la publicite de la procedure judiciaire. Sans doute menage-t-il des exceptions qu'il enumere, mais le Gouvernement n'a pas plaide et il ne ressort pas du dossier que l'on se trouvat en l'occurrence dans l'une des situations ou il permet d'interdire ‘l'acces de la salle d'audience (…) a la presse et au public’. Sur ce point precis, il y a donc eu violation du paragraphe 1 de l'article 6.

90.

MM. Dona et Schul reprochent a la Haute Cour militaire d'avoir tenu compte de ce qu'ils avaient contribue a publier deux ecrits anterieurs au no. 8 d’‘Alarm’, dont la diffusion n'avait ete interdite qu'a titre provisoire, en vertu du decret du 21 decembre 1967, et pour lesquels on ne les avait jamais poursuivis (…). Elle aurait meconnu de la sorte la presomption d'innocence que proclame le paragraphe 2 de l'article 6 (rapport de la Commission, paragraphe 45, antepenultieme alinea).

En realite, cette clause n'a pas la portee que lui pretent les deux requerants. Ainsi que le prouve son libelle, elle a trait a la declaration de culpabilite, non a la nature ni au taux de la peine. Elle n'empeche donc pas le juge national d'avoir egard, en se prononcant sur la sanction a infliger a un accuse qu'il a regulierement convaincu de l'infraction soumise a son verdict, a des elements relatifs a la personnalite de l'interesse.

Or la Haute Cour militaire a ‘legalement etabli’ la culpabilite de MM. Dona et Schul quant au manquement dont ils repondaient devant elle (no. 8 d’‘Alarm’). C'est a seule fin de fixer leur peine en fonction de leur caractere et de leurs antecedents qu'elle a pris aussi en consideration certains faits analogues, averes et dont ils ne contestaient pas la materialite; elle ne les a pas frappes pour ces faits eux-memes (article 37) de la loi de 1903 et memoire adresse par le Gouvernement a la Commission le 24 aout 1973).

91.

MM. de Wit, Dona et Schul ne nient pas que l'on a respecte a leur endroit l'alinea a) du paragraphe 3 de l'article 6 et ils n'invoquent evidemment pas l'alinea e). En revanche, ils affirment ne pas avoir joui des garanties prescrites par les alineas b), c) et d).

Leurs allegations se revelent pourtant beaucoup trop vagues pour amener la Cour a conclure qu'ils n'ont pas dispose, au sens de l'alinea b), ‘du temps et des facilites necessaires a la preparation de leur defense’.

D'autre part, les trois requerants ont eu la latitude de ‘se defendre’ en personne aux divers stades de la procedure. Ils ont beneficie en outre devant la Haute Cour militaire et, pour le premier d'entre eux, devant l'officier de recours, de ‘l'assistance d'un defenseur de (leur) choix’, appele du contingent mais avocat dans la vie civile. Assurement, les services de Me Eggenkamp se limitaient a l'etude des problemes

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juridiques litigieux; dans les circonstances de la cause, cette restriction pouvait cependant se concilier avec les interets de la justice car les requerants n'etaient certes pas incapables de s'expliquer par leurs propes moyens sur les faits tres simples dont on les accusait. En consequence, aucune atteinte au droit protege par l'alinea c) ne se degage du dossier.

Les renseignements recueillis par la Cour, notamment a l'occasion des debats des 28 et 29 octobre 1975, ne decelent pas davantage une violation de l'alinea d). Nonobstant l'opinion contraire des requerants, ce texte ne commande pas la convocation et l'interrogation de tout temoin a decharge. Ainsi que l'indiquent les mots ‘dans les memes conditions’, il a pour but essentiel une complete ‘egalite des armes’ en la matiere; sous cette reserve, il laisse aux autorites nationales competentes le soin de juger de la pertinence d'une offre de preuve dans la mesure compatible avec la notion de proces equitable qui domine l'ensemble de l'article 6. Or l'article 65 de la loi de 1903 et l'article 56 de l’‘instruction provisoire’ du 20 juillet 1814 placent l'accusation et la defense sur un pied d'egalite: les temoins proposes par l'une comme par l'autre ne sont cites que si l'officier de recours ou la Haute Cour militaire l'estiment necessaire. En ce qui concerne la maniere dont cette legislation a ete appliquee en l'espece, la Cour releve que nulle audition de temoins a charge n'a eu lieu devant la Haute Cour militaire dans le cas de MM. de Wit, Dona et Schul et qu'il ne ressort pas du dossier que ces requerants aient demande a ladite Cour d'entendre des temoins a decharge. Sans doute M. de Wit reproche-t-il a l'officier de recours d'avoir oui un seul des trois temoins a decharge qu'il aurait proposes, mais ce fait ne peut en soi justifier la constatation d'une violation de l'article 6 p 3 d).

B. Sur la violation alleguee des articles 6 et 14 combines.

92.

Selon les requerants, la procedure disciplinaire dont ils se plaignent ne cadrait pas avec les articles 6 et 14 combines car elle ne s'entourait pas d'autant de garanties que les instances penales introduites contre des civils (rapport de la Commission, paragraphe 37).

Si la procedure disciplinaire militaire ne s'accompagne pas des memes garanties que les actions penales intentees contre les civils, elle offre en revanche des avantages substantiels a ceux qui en font l'objet (paragraphe 80 ci-dessus). Les distinctions qui existent entre ces deux types de procedures dans la legislation des Etats contractants s'expliquent par les differences entre les conditions de la vie militaire et celles de la vie civile. On ne peut considerer qu'elles entrainent a l'egard des membres des forces armees une discrimination au sens de l'article 14 combine avec l'article 6.

C. Sur la violation alleguee des articles 6 et 18 combines.

93.

A en croire MM. Dona et Schul, la decision de les poursuivre par la voie disciplinaire plutot qu'au penal a eu pour effet, voire pour but de les priver du benefice de l'article 6. Le choix des autorites competentes aurait revetu un caractere arbitraire inconciliable avec l'article 18 (rapport de la Commission, paragraphe 53).

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Les conclusions auxquelles la Cour aboutit quant a l'applicabilite et a l'observation de l'article 6 dans le cas des deux requerants (paragraphes 85 et 89–91 ci-dessus) la dispensent de statuer sur ce grief.

III.

Sur les violations alleguees de l'article 10:

A. Sur la violation alleguee de l'article 10 considere isolement.

94.

MM. Dona et Schul alleguent la violation de l'article 10, selon lequel

‘1.

Toute personne a droit a la liberte d'expression. Ce droit comprend la liberte d'opinion et la liberte de recevoir ou de communiquer des informations ou des idees sans qu'il puisse y avoir ingerence d'autorites publiques et sans consideration de frontiere. Le present article n'empeche pas les Etats de soumettre les entreprises de radiodiffusion, de cinema ou de television a un regime d'autorisations.

2.

L'exercise de ces libertes comportant des devoirs et des responsabilites peut etre soumis a certaines formalites, conditions, restrictions ou sanctions, prevues par la loi, qui constituent des mesures necessaires, dans une societe democratique, a la securite nationale, a l'integrite territoriale ou a la surete publique, a la defense de l'ordre et a la prevention du crime, a la protection de la sante ou de la morale, a la protection de la reputation ou des droits d'autrui, pour empecher la divulgation d'informations confidentielles ou pour garantir l'autorite et l'impartialite du pouvoir judiciaire.’

Tel que la Commission l'a declare recevable, le grief concerne uniquement la peine disciplinaire que les requerants ont subie apres le 17 novembre 1971 pour avoir contribue a editer et diffuser le no. 8 d’‘Alarm’. Il ne porte pas sur l'interdiction dont ce numero, le no 6 et le ‘bulletin d'information’ destine aux jeunes recrues avaient fait l'objet en vertu du decret du 21 decembre 1967, ni sur les arrets de rigueur infliges aux requerants le 13 aout 1971 pour avoir participe a la distribution d'un pamphlet a l'occasion des incidents d'Ermelo (…).

95.

La sanction litigieuse a represente sans conteste une ‘ingerence’ dans l'exercice de la liberte d'expression de MM. Dona et Schul, garantie par le paragraphe 1 de l'article 10; elle appelle par consequent un controle sous l'angle du paragraphe 2.

96.

Elle etait a n'en pas douter ‘prevue par la loi’, a savoir les articles 2 p 2, 5–A-8e, 18, 19 et 37 de la loi de 1903, combines avec l'article 147 du code penal militaire. Meme quant au role joue par les accuses dans la redaction et la diffusion d'ecrits anterieurs au no. 8 d’‘Alarm’ et que le commandement militaire avait prohibes, elle se fondait sur la loi de 1903 (paragraphe 90 ci-dessus) et non sur le decret du 21 decembre 1967. La Cour n'a

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donc pas a examiner la these des requerants quant a la validite de ce decret (rapport de la Commission, paragraphe 45, cinquieme alinea).

97.

Pour montrer que l'ingerence incriminee repondait egalement aux autres conditions du paragraphe 2 de l'article 10, le Gouvernement a plaide que les mesures prises en l'espece etaient ‘necessaires, dans une societe democratique’, ‘a la defense de l'ordre’; il n'a invoque l'article 10 p 2 qu'au titre de ce dernier imperatif.

98.

La Cour souligne d'abord, avec le Gouvernement et la Commission, que le terme ‘ordre’., tel qu'il figure dans cette dispostion, ne designe pas seulement l’‘ordre public’ au sens des articles 6 p 1 et 9 p 2 de la Convention et de l'article 2 p 3 du Protocole no. 4: il vise aussi l'ordre devant regner a l'interieur d'un groupe social particulier; il en est ainsi notamment lorsque, comme dans le cas des forces armees, le desordre dans ce groupe peut avoir des incidences sur l'ordre dans la societe entiere. Il en resulte que les sanctions litigieuses ont rempli cette condition si et pour autant qu'elles ont eu pour objectif la defense de l'ordre au sein des forces armees neerlandaises.

Selon MM. Dona et Schul, il est vrai, l'article 10 p 2 ne prend en consideration la ‘defense de l'ordre’ qu'en liaison avec ‘la prevention de crime’. La Cour ne souscrit pas a cette opinion. Si la version francaise utilise la conjonction copulative ‘et’, la version Anglaise emploie la conjunction disjonctive ‘or’; compte tenu du contexte et de l'economie de l'article 10, elle fournit en l'occurrence un guide plus sur. Dans ces conditions, la Cour estime superflu de rechercher si le traitement subi par les requerants avait pour but la ‘prevention du crime’ en sus de la ‘defense de l'ordre’.

99.

Reste a savoir si l'atteinte portee a la liberte d'expression de MM. Dona et Schul etait ‘necessaire, dans une societe democratique’, ‘a la defense de l'ordre’.

100.

Bien entendu, la liberte d'expression garantie par l'article 10 vaut pour les militaires comme pour les autres personnes relevant de la juridiction des Etats contractants. Toutefois, le fonctionnement efficace d'une armee ne se concoit guere sans des regles juridiques destinees a les empecher de saper la discipline militaire notamment par des ecrits. L'article 147 du code penal militaire (…) derive de cette exigence legitime; il ne se heurte pas en lui-meme a l'article 10 de la Convention.

Sans doute la Cour a–t-elle competence pour verifier, sous l'angle de la Convention, la maniere dont le droit interne des Pays-Bas a ete applique en l'espece, mais il ne lui faut negliger a cet egard ni les particularites de la vie militaire (paragraphe 54 in fine ci-dessus), les ‘devoirs’ et ‘responsabilites’ specifiques incombant aux membres des forces armees, ni la marge d'appreciation que l'article 10 p 2, comme l'article 8 p 2, laisse aux Etats contractants (arret De Wilde, Ooms et Versyp du 18 juin 1971, serie A no. 12, p. 45, p 93, et arret Golder du 21 fevrier 1975, serie A no. 18, p. 22).

101.

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La Cour constate que les requerants ont contribue, a un moment ou une certaine tension regnait dans la caserne d'Ermelo, a editer et a y diffuser un ecrit (…). Dans ces circonstances, la Haute Cour militaire a pu avoir des raisons fondees d'estimer qu'ils avaient tente de saper la discipline militaire et qu'il etait necessaire a la defense de l'ordre de leur infliger la sanction dont elle les a frappes. Il ne s'agissait donc pas pour elle de les priver de leur liberte d'expression, mais uniquement de reprimer l'abus qu'ils avaient commis dans l'exercice de cette liberte. Des lors, il n'apparait pas que sa decision ait enfreint l'article 10 p 2.

B. Sur la violation alleguee des articles 10 et 14 combines.

102.

MM. Dona et Schul alleguent une double violation des articles 10 et 14 combines: ils soulignent qu'aux Pays-Bas un civil ne risque pas la moindre sanction dans un cas semblable au leur; ils affirment, de surcroit, avoir ete punis plus severement que nombre de militaires neerlandais non affilies a la VVDM et poursuivis, eux aussi, pour avoir redige ou diffuse des ecrits propres a saper la discipline militaire.

103.

Sur le premier point, la Cour souligne que la distinction litigieuse s'explique par les differences entre les conditions de la vie militaire et celles de la vie civile, et plus precisement par les ‘devoirs’ et ‘responsabilites’ propres aux membres des forces armees dans le domaine de la liberte d'expression (paragraphes 54 et 100 ci-dessus). Sur le second, elle releve qu'il ne lui appartient pas, en principe, de comparer les diverses decisions rendues, meme dans des litiges de prime abord voisins, par des tribunaux nationaux dont l'independance s'impose a elle comme aux Etats contractants. A la verite, pareille decision revetirait un caractere discriminatoire si elle s'ecartait des autres au point de constituer un deni de justice ou un abus manifeste, mais les renseignements fournis a la Cour ne permettent de deceler rien de tel.

C. Sur la violation alleguee de l'article 10 combine avec les articles 17 et 18.

104.

MM. Dona et Schul pretendent encore avoir subi dans l'exercice de leur liberte d'expression, au mepris des articles 17 et 18, ‘des limitations plus amples que celles prevues’ a l'article 10 et poursuivant un ‘but’ dont il ne parle pas.

Le grief ne resiste pas a l'examen, la Cour ayant deja conclu que lesdites limitations se justifiaient au regard du paragrahe 2 de l'article 10 (paragraphes 96–101 ci-dessus).

IV.

Sur la violation alleguee de l'article 11:

105.

A en croire MM. Dona et Schul, beaucoup d'appeles du contingent membres de la VVDM se sont vu, apres eux, infliger des sanctions pour avoir ecrit ou/et diffuse des publications de nature a saper la discipline au sens de l'article 147 du code penal

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militaire. Il s'agirait de mesures systematiques destinees a entraver le fonctionnement de la VVDM et enfreignant par consequent l'article 11 de la Convention, selon lequel

‘1.

Toute personne a droit a la liberte de reunion pacifique et a la liberte d'association, y compris le droit de fonder avec d'autres des syndicats et de s'affilier a des syndicats pour la defense de ses interets.

2.

L'exercice de ces droits ne peut faire l'objet d'autres restrictions que celles qui, prevues par la loi, constituent des mesures necessaires, dans une societe democratique, a la securite nationale, a la surete publique, a la defense de l'ordre et a la prevention du crime, a la protection de la sante ou de la morale, ou a la protection des droits et libertes d'autrui. Le present article n'interdit pas que des restrictions legitimes soient imposees a l'exercice de ces droits par les membres des forces armees, de la police ou de l'administration de l'Etat.’

106.

La Cour ne peut prendre en consideration que le cas des deux requerants et non la situation d'autres personnes et d'une association qui ne les ont pas mandates pour saisir la Commission en leur nom (arret De Becker du 27 mars 1962, serie A no. 4, p. 26 in fine, et arret Golder du 21 fevrier 1975, serie A no. 18, p. 19, p 39 in fine — zie NJ 1975, 462. Red.).

107.

Pour autant que MM. Dona et Schul invoquent egalement leur propre liberte d'association, la Cour souligne qu'ils n'ont pas ete punis en raison de leur qualite d'adherents de la VVDM, ni de leur participation a ses activites y compris la redaction et la publication de la revue ‘Alarm’: si la Haute Cour militaire les a frappes, c'est uniquement parce qu'elle a estime qu'ils avaient use de leur liberte d'expression dans le but de saper la discipline militaire.

108.

Vu l'absence de toute atteinte au droit reconnu aux deux requerants par le paragraphe 1 de l'article 11, la Cour n'a pas a se placer sur le terrain du paragraphe 2, ni sur celui des articles 14, 17 et 18.

V.

Sur l'application de l'article 50:

109.

D'apres l'article 50 de la Convention, si la Cour declare ‘qu'une decision prise ou une mesure ordonnee’ par une autorite quelconque d'un Etat contractant ‘se trouve entierement ou partiellement en opposition avec des obligations decoulant de la (…) Convention, et si le droit interne (dudit Etat) ne permet qu'imparfaitement d'effacer les consequences de cette decision ou (…) mesure’, la Cour ‘accorde, s'il y a lieu, a la partie lesee une satisfaction equitable’.

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Le reglement de la Cour precise que quand celle-ci ‘constate une violation de la Convention, elle statue par le meme arret sur l'application de l'article 50 de la Convention si la question, apres avoir ete soulevee en vertu de l'article 47 bis du (…) reglement, est en etat; sinon, elle la reserve en tout ou partie et determine la procedure ulterieure’ (article 50 p 3, premiere phrase, combine avec l'article 48 p 3).

110.

A l'audience du 29 octobre 1975, la Cour a invite les comparants, en vertu de l'article 47 bis de son reglement, a formuler leurs observations sur la question de l'application de l'article 50 de la Convention en l'espece.

De la reponse du delegue principal de la Commission, il ressort que les requerants ne presentent aucune demande de reparation pour prejudice materiel; ils comptent cependant se voir octroyer une satisfaction equitable si la Cour conclut a l'existence d'un ou plusieurs manquements aux exigences de la Convention, mais n'indiquent pas pour le moment a quelle somme se monteraient leurs pretentions dans l'hypothese ou pareille satisfaction devrait revetir la forme d'une indemnite.

Le Gouvernement a declare de son cote, par la bouche de son agent, s'en remettre completement sur ce point a la sagesse de la Cour.

111.

La question de l'application de l'article 50 de la Convention ne se pose pas pour M. van der Wiel, ni pour ceux des griefs de MM. Engel, de Wit, Dona et Schul que la Cour a ecartes. Elle surgit en revanche pour la violation de l'article 5 p 1 dans le cas de M. Engel et de l'article 6 p 1 dans celui de MM. de Wit, Dona et Schul (paragraphes 69 et 89 ci-dessus). Les renseignements fournis par le delegue principal de la Commission montrent toutefois qu'elle n'est pas en etat; il echet donc de la reserver et de determiner la procedure ulterieure la concernant.

Par ces motifs, la Cour,

1

Dit, a l'unanimite, que l'article 5 ne s'appliquait pas aux arrets simples de MM. Engel (deuxieme peine) et van der Wiel;

2

Dit, par douze voix contre une, qu'il ne s'appliquait pas davantage aux arrets aggraves de M. de Wit, ni aux arrets aggraves transitoires de MM. Dona et Schul;

3

Dit, par onze voix contre deux, que l'affectation de MM. Dona et Schul a une unite disciplinaire n'a pas viole l'article 5 p 1;

4

Dit, par neuf voix contre quatre, que les arrets provisoires de rigueur de M. Engel ont viole l'article 5 p 1 pendant toute leur duree, car ils ne trouvaient de justification dans aucun des alineas de ce texte;

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5

Dit, par dix voix contre trois, qu'ils ont viole d'autre part l'article 5 p 1 en tant qu'ils ont depasse le delai de vingt-quatre heures prescrit par l'article 45 de la loi neerlandaise du 27 avril 1903 sur la discipline militaire;

6

Dit, a l'unanimite, que l'affectation de MM. Dona et Schul a une unite disciplinaire et les arrets provisoires de M. Engel n'ont pas viole les articles 5 p 1 et 14 combines;

7

Dit, par douze voix contre une, qu'il n'y a pas eu violation de l'article 5 p 4 quant a l'affectation de MM. Dona et Schul a une unite disciplinaire;

8

Dit, par onze voix contre deux, que l'article 6 ne s'appliquait pas a M. Engel au titre des mots ‘accusation en matiere penale’;

9

Dit, a l'unanimite, qu'il ne s'appliquait pas davantage a ce requerant au titre des mots ‘droits et obligations de caractere civil’;

10

Dit, a l'unanimite, qu'il ne s'appliquait pas non plus a M. van der Wiel;

11

Dit, par onze voix contre deux, qu'il y a eu violation de l'article 6 p 1 dans le cas de MM. de Wit, Dona et Schul en tant que les debats de la Haute Cour militaire se sont deroules a huis clos;

12

Dit, a l'unanimite, qu'il n'y a pas eu violation de l'article 6 p 2 dans le cas de MM. Dona et Schul;

13

Dit, a l'unanimite, qu'il n'y a pas eu violation de l'article 6 p 3 b) dans le cas de MM. de Wit, Dona et Schul;

14

Dit, par neuf voix contre quatre, qu'il n'y a pas eu violation de l'article 6 p 3 c) dans le cas de ces trois requerants;

15

Dit, par neuf voix contre quatre, qu'il n'y a pas eu violation de l'article 6 p 3 d) dans le cas de M. de Wit;

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16

Dit, par douze voix contre une, qu'il n'y a pas eu violation de l'article 6 p 3 d) dans le cas de MM. Dona et Schul;

17

Dit, a l'unanimite, qu'il n'y a pas eu violation des articles 6 et 14, combines, dans le cas de MM. de Wit, Dona et Schul;

18

Dit, a l'unanimite, qu'il n'y a pas lieu de statuer sur le grief tire par MM. Dona et Schul de la violation alleguee des articles 6 et 18 combines;

19

Dit, a l'unanimite, qu'il n'y a pas eu violation de l'article 10, considere isolement ou combine avec les articles 14, 17 ou 18, dans le cas de MM. Dona et Schul;

20

Dit, a l'unanimite, qu'il n'y a pas eu violation de l'article 11 dans le cas de MM. Dona et Schul;

21

Dit, a l'unanimite, que la question de l'application de l'article 50 ne se pose pas pour M. van der Wiel, ni pour ceux des griefs de MM. Engel, de Wit, Dona et Schul que la Cour a ainsi ecartes (points 1 a 3, 6 a 10 et 12 a 20 ci-dessus);

22

Dit, par douze voix contre une, qu'elle n'est pas encore en etat quant aux violations constatees dans le cas de M. Engel (article 5 p 1, points 4 et 5 ci-dessus) et dans celui de MM. de Wit, Dona et Schul (article 6 p 1, point 11 ci-dessus);

En consequence,

a.

reserve en entier la question de l'application de l'article 50 telle qu'elle se pose pour ces quatre requerants;

b.

invite les delegues de la Commission a formuler par ecrit, dans le delai d'un mois a compter du prononce du present arret, leurs observations sur cette meme question;

c.

decide que le Gouvernement aura la faculte de repondre par ecrit a ces observations dans le delai d'un mois a compter de la date a laquelle le greffier les lui aura communiquees;

d.

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reserve la procedure a suivre ulterieurement sur cet aspect de l'affaire.

Rendu en francais et en anglais, le texte francais faisant foi, au Palais des Droits de l'Homme a Strasbourg, le huit juin mil neuf cent soixante-seize

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NJ 1988, 937

Instantie: Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens Datum: 21 februari 1984

Magistraten:

Wiarda, Ryssdal, Cremona, Vilhjalmsson, Ganshof Van Der Meersch, Bindschedler-Robert, Evrigenis, Liesch, Golcuklu, Matscher, Pinheiro Farinha, Garcia De Enterria, Pettiti, Walsh, Evans, Macdonald, Russo, Bernhardt

Zaaknr: PUBLCEDHSERIEAVOL73

Conclusie: - LJN: AC9954

Noot: - Roepnaam: Öztürk

Wetingang: EVRM art. 6

Snel naar: EssentieSamenvattingPartij(en)UitspraakNoot

EssentieNaar boven

Administratieve afdoening van lichte overtredingen. Criteria voor vaststelling van ‘criminal charge’ in de zin van art. 6 Verdrag tot bescherming van de rechten van de mens en de fundamentele vrijheden (EVRM). I.c. art. 6 lid 3 sub e van toepassing. Recht op kosteloze bijstand door een tolk geschonden.

SamenvattingNaar boven

I.c. sprake van strafvervolging (‘criminal charge’/‘accusation en matière pénale’ resp. ‘charged with a criminal offence’/‘accusé’) in de zin van art. 6 lid 1 en lid 3 EVRM? (§ 46–48).

Het EVRM staat niet in de weg aan tendenzen in de richting van decriminalisering. Indien de verdragsstaten echter vrij zouden zijn om een vergrijp nu, door het als administratief te kwalificeren, van de werking van de grondbeginselen van art. 6 en 7 uit te sluiten, zou de toepasselijkheid van deze bepalingen ondergeschikt worden gemaakt aan hun soevereine beslissing, hetgeen een met ‘object and purpose’ van het verdrag strijdig resultaat zou kunnen opleveren.

Bij de vaststelling of sprake is van een ‘criminal charge’ in de autonome betekenis van art. 6, steunt het Hof op criteria uit het Engel-arrest. Ten eerste moet worden vastgesteld of de bepaling die het vergrijp in kwestie definieert volgens het nationale rechtssysteem tot het strafrecht behoort; vervolgens moeten het karakter van het vergrijp en tenslotte, de aard en zwaarte van de sanctie welke betrokkene riskeerde, worden onderzocht. Daarbij moeten ‘object and purpose’ van art. 6, de normale betekenis van de termen in art. 6 en de wetgeving van de verdragsstaten in het oog worden gehouden (§ 49–50).

Vergrijpen als i.c. zijn door de Duitse wetgever uit de sfeer van het strafrecht gehaald. Er is echter geen scherpe scheiding tussen het Duitse strafrecht en het recht betreffende

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‘Ordnungswidrigkeiten’; sommige regels van het commune strafprocesrecht zijn analoog van toepassing op de voor ,Ordnungswidrigkeiten’ geldende procedure (§ 51).

De indicatie welke het nationale recht van de verdragsstaat geeft heeft overigens maar een beperkte waarde. Het tweede criterium — de wezenlijke aard van het vergrijp, mede bezien in samenhang met de aard van de bijbehorende sanctie — weegt bij de beoordeling zwaarder (§ 52).

Volgens de gewone betekenis van de termen van art. 6 behoren tot het strafrecht overtredingen die worden bedreigd met sancties die o.m. afschrikking beogen en gewoonlijk bestaan uit boetes en vrijheidsbenemende maatregelen.

In de grote meerderheid van de verdragsstaten worden vergrijpen als het onderhavige nog steeds tot het strafrecht gerekend. Bovendien heeft de bijbehorende sanctie, een geldboete, een — voor strafsancties kenmerkend — punitief karakter. De rechtsregel die door klager is overtreden is niet gericht tot een bepaalde groep personen met een bijzondere hoedanigheid — zoals bijv. het tuchtrecht — maar tot alle burgers in hun kwaliteit als weggebruikers. Van weinig belang is of het wettelijk voorschrift dat door klager is overtreden beoogt de rechten en belangen van anderen te beschermen of slechts aan de eisen van het wegverkeer tegemoet wil komen. Deze twee doeleinden sluiten elkaar niet uit. Bovendien wordt door het algemene karakter van de rechtsregel en doordat het oogmerk van de sanctie zowel bestraffing als afschrikking is voldoende aangetoond dat het onderhavige vergrijp van strafrechtelijke aard was. Feit dat het i.c. om een klein vergrijp ging kan niet leiden tot niet-toepasselijkheid van art. 6. Geen aanwijzingen dat een ‘strafbaar feit’ in de zin van het EVRM een zekere mate van ernst moet bezitten. Ware dit anders, dan zou een verdragsstaat, door bepaalde feiten als lichte overtredingen aan te merken, de mogelijkheid hebben ze van de werking van art. 6 uit te zonderen, hetgeen in strijd met ‘object and purpose’ van art. 6 zou zijn (§ 53).

Klagers overtreding van strafrechtelijke aard in de zin van art. 6 EVRM; niet nodig de overtreding te toetsen aan het laatste in § 50 genoemde criterium. De relatieve lichtheid van de sanctie kan een strafbaar feit zijn inherente karakter niet ontnemen (§ 54).

Art. 6 lid 3 onder e i.c. van toepassing. Het opdragen van vervolging en bestraffing van lichte overtredingen aan administratieve autoriteiten is niet in strijd met het EVRM mits de betrokken persoon in staat wordt gesteld elke zodanige beslissing aangaande hemzelf voor te leggen aan een rechterlijke instantie die hem de waarborgen van art. 6 biedt (§ 56).

I.c. is klager door de Duitse rechter veroordeeld in de kosten van de bijstand door een tolk tijdens de rechtzitting. Art. 6 lid 3 onder e geschonden (§ 57-58).

Partij(en)Naar boven

Öztürk,

tegen

Bondsrepubliek Duitsland.

UitspraakNaar boven

Feiten

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Op 27 jan. 1978 reed Ozturk, een Turkse staatsburger woonachtig in de Bondsrepubliek, met zijn auto een geparkeerde auto aan en veroorzaakte schade ter grootte van ongeveer 5000 DM. Ozturk maakte gebruik van zijn recht om te zwijgen en een advocaat te raadplegen, waarop politieambtenaren hem met behulp van een schriftelijke mededeling in de Turkse taal hadden gewezen. Op 6 april 1978 legde de bevoegde autoriteit, de Verwaltungsbehorde in Heilbronn, klager een administratieve boete op van 60 DM wegens het begaan van de verkeersovertreding. Klager tekende tegen deze beslissing bezwaar aan en stelde dat hij geen afstand deed van zijn recht op een openbare behandeling van zijn zaak voor een rechter.

Overeenkomstig de ‘Ordnungswidrigkeitengesetz’ werd klagers dossier overgebracht naar de Staatsanwalt bij het Landesgericht in Heilbronn. De Staatsanwalt verklaarde niet deel te zullen nemen aan een mondelinge procedure voor de Rb. in deze zaak. Op 3 augustus trok klager zijn bezwaarschrift in tijdens een zitting van het Amtsgericht in Heilbronn, waarbij hij ondersteuning van een tolk had. Het Amtsgericht bepaalde dat klager alle proceskosten diende te dragen. Daaronder werd blijkens een rekening van de Gerichtskasse van 12 sept. 1978 ook 63,90 DM aan salaris voor de tolk begrepen.

Op 4 okt. 1978 ging klager tegen de rekening, voor zover het de kosten voor de tolk betrof, in beroep. Het Landesgericht in Heilbronn verwierp het beroep op 25 okt. 1978, overwegende dat de verplichting voor een verdachte om de kosten van een tolk te betalen verenigbaar was met art. 6 lid 3 onder e EVRM. De proceskosten werden uiteindelijk door een rechtsbijstandverzekeraar voldaan.

Op 14 febr. 1978 diende Ozturk tegen de veroordeling in de kosten van een tolk een klacht in bij de Europese Commissie voor de rechten van de mens. Hij stelde dat deze veroordeling in strijd was met art. 6 lid 3 onder e EVRM. De klacht werd op 15 dec. 1981 ontvankelijk verklaard. De Commissie was in haar rapport d.d. 12 mei 1982 (met acht tegen vier stemmen) van oordeel dat een schending van art. 6 lid 3 onder e EVRM had plaatsgevonden.

Op 13 sept. 1982 legde de Bondsrepubliek Duitsland de zaak voor aan het Hof; zij werd hierin op 15 okt. 1982 gevolgd door de Commissie.

Bij arrest van 23 okt. 1984 (CEDH-A Vol. 85), gewezen na het hiernavolgende arrest, is aan Ozturk een vergoeding toegekend ten bedrage van de boete. De kosten van de tolk waren daarin niet begrepen, aangezien die door de verzekeringsmaatschappij werden gedragen.

As to the law

45

Under the terms of Art. 6 Convention:

‘1.

In the determination ... of any criminal charge against him, everyone is entitled to a fair ... hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal...

2.

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Everyone charged with a criminal offence shall be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law.

3.

Everyone charged with a criminal offence has the following minimum rights:

...

e.

to have the free assistance of an interpreter if he cannot understand or speak the language used in court.’

In the applicant's submission, the Heilbronn District Court had acted in breach of Art. 6 para. 3 (e) in ordering him to pay the costs incurred through recourse to the services of an interpreter at the hearing on 3 August 1978.

I.

Applicability of Art. 6 para. 3 (e)

46

According to the Government, Art. 6 para. 3 (e) is not applicable in the circumstances since Mr. Ozturk was not ‘charged with a criminal offence’. Under the 1968/1975 Act, which ‘decriminalised’ petty offences, notably in the road traffic sphere, the facts alleged against Mr. Ozturk constituted a mere ‘regulatory offence’ (Ordnungswidrigkeit). Such offences were said to be distinguishable from criminal offences not only by the procedure laid down for their prosecution and punishment but also by their juridical characteristics and consequences.

The applicant disputed the correctness of this analysis. Neither was it shared by the Commission, which considered that the offence of which Mr. Ozturk was accused was indeed a ‘criminal offence’ for the purposes of Art. 6.

47

According to the French version of Art. 6 para. 3 (e), the right quaranteed is applicable only to an ‘accuse’. The corresponding English expression (person ‘charged with a criminal offence’) and para. 1 of Art. 6 (‘criminal charge’/‘accusation en matiere penale’) — this being the basic text of which para. 2 and 3 represent specific applications (see the Deweer judgment of 27 Febr. 1980, Series A no. 35, para. 56, NJ 1980, 561)— make it quite clear that the ‘accusation’ (‘charge’) referred to in the French wording of Art. 6 para. 3 (e) must concern a ‘criminal offence’ (see, mutatis mutandis, the Adolf judgment of 26 March 1982, Series A no. 49, p. 15, para. 30).

Under German law, the misconduct committed by Mr. Ozturk is not treated as a criminal offence (Straftat) but as a ‘regulatory offence’ (Ordnungswidrigkeit). The question arises whether this classification is the determining factor in terms of the Convention.

48

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The Court was confronted with a similar issue in the case of Engel and others, which was cited in argument by the representatives. The facts of that case admittedly concerned penalties imposed on conscript servicemen and treated as disciplinary according to Netherlands law. In its judgment delivered on 8 June 1976 in that case, the Court was careful to state that it was confining its attention to the sphere of military service (NJ 1978, 223, para. 82). The Court nevertheless considers that the principles set forth in that judgment (ibid., paras. 80–82) are also relevant, mutatis mutandis, in the instant case.

49

The Convention is not opposed to States, in the performance of their task as quardians of the public interest, both creating or maintaining a distinction between different categories of offences for the purposes of their domestic law and drawing the dividing line, but it does not follow that the classification thus made by the States is decisive for the purposes of the Convention.

By removing certain forms of conduct from the category of criminal offences under domestic law, the law-maker may be able to serve the interests of the individual (see, mutatis mutandis, the above-mentioned Engel and others judgment, ibid., p. 33, para. 80) as well as the needs of the proper administration of justice, in particular in so far as the judicial authorities are thereby relieved of the task of prosecuting and punishing contraventions — which are numerous but of minor importance — of road traffic rules. The Convention is not opposed to the moves towards ‘decriminalisation’ which are taking place — in extremely varied forms — in the member States of the Council of Europe. The Government quite rightly insisted on this point. Nevertheless, if the Contracting States were able at their discretion, by classifying an offence as ‘regulatory’ instead of criminal, to exclude the operation of the fundamental clauses of Art. 6 and 7, the application of these provisions would be subordinated to their sovereign will. A latitude extending thus far might lead to results incompatible with the object and purpose of the Convention.

50

Having thus reaffirmed the ‘authonomy’ of the notion of ‘criminal’ as conceived of under Art. 6, what the Court must determine is whether or not the ‘regulatory offence’ committed by the applicant was a ‘criminal’ one within the meaning of that Article. For this purpose, the Court will rely on the criteria adopted in the above-mentioned Engel and others judgment (ibid., para. 82). The first matter to be ascertained is whether or not the text defining the offence in issue belongs, according to the legal system of the respondent State, to criminal law; next, the nature of the offence and, finally, the nature and degree of severity of the penalty that the person concerned risked incurring must be examined, having regard to the object and purpose of Art. 6, to the ordinary meaning of the terms of that Article and to the laws of the Contracting States.

51

Under German law, the facts alleged against Mr. Ozturk — non-observance of Regulation 1 para. 2 of the Road Traffic Regulations — amounted to a ‘regulatory offence’ (Regulation 49 para. 1, no. 1, of the same Regulations). They did not fall within the ambit of the criminal law, but of section 17 of the Ordnungswidrigkeitengesetz and of section 24 sub-section 2 of the Road Traffic Act.

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The 1968/1975 legislation marks an important step in the process of ‘decriminalisation’ of petty offences in the Federal Republic of Germany. Although legal commentators in Germany do not seem unanimous in considering that the law on ‘regulatory offences’ no longer belongs in reality to criminal law, the drafting history of the 1968/1975 Act nonetheless makes it clear that the offences in question have been removed from the criminal law sphere by that Act (see Deutscher Bundestag, Drucksache V/1269 and, inter alia, the judgment of 16 july 1969 by the Constitutional Court, Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts, vol. 27, p. 18–36).

Whilst the Court thus accepts the Government's arguments on this point, it has nonetheless not lost sight of the fact that no absolute partition separates German criminal law from the law on ‘regulatory offences’, in particular where there exists a close connection between a criminal offence and a ‘regulatory offence’.

Nor has the Court overlooked that the provisions of the ordinary law governing criminal procedure apply by analogy to ‘regulatory’ proceedings notably in relation to the judicial stage, if any, of such proceedings.

52

In any event, the indications furnished by the domestic law of the respondent State have only a relative value. The second criterion stated above — the very nature of the offence, considered also in relation to the nature of the corresponding penalty — represents a factor of appreciation of greather weight.

In the opinion of the Commission — with the exception of five of its members — and of Mr. Ozturk, the offence committed by the latter was criminal in character.

For the Government in contrast, the offence in question was beyond doubt one of those contraventions of minor importance — numbering approximately five million each year in the Federal Republic of Germany — which came within a category of quite a different order from that of criminal offences. The Government's submissions can be summarised as follows. By means of criminal law, society endeavoured to safequard its very foundations as well as the rights and interests essential for the life of the community. The law on Ordnungswidrigkeiten, on the other hand, sought above all to maintain public order. As a general rule and in any event in the instant case, commission of a ‘regulatory offence’ did not involve a degree of ethical unworthiness such as to merit for its perpetrator the moral value-judgment of reproach (Unwerturteil) — that characterised penal punishment (Strafe). The difference between ‘regulatory offences’ and criminal offences found expression both in procedural terms and in relation to the attendant penalties and other legal consequences.

In the first place, so the Government's argument continued, in removing ‘regulatory offences’ from the criminal law the German legislature had introduced a simplified procedure of prosecution and punishment conducted before administrative authorities save in the event of subsequent appeal to a court. Although general laws on criminal procedure were in principle applicable by analogy, the procedure laid down under the 1968/1975 Act was distinguishable in many respects from criminal procedure. For example, prosecution of Ordnungswidrigkeiten fell within the discretionary power of the competent authorities and the 1968/1975 Act greatly limited the possibilities of restricting the personal liberty of the individual at the stage of the preliminary investigations.

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In the second place, instead of a penal fine (Geldstrafe) and imprisonment the legislature had substituted a mere ‘regulatory’ fine (Geldbusse). Imprisonment was not an alternative (Ersatzfreiheitsstrafe) to the latter type of fine as it was to the former and no coercive imprisonment (Erzwingungshaft) could be ordered unless the person concerned had failed to pay the sum due without having established this inability to pay (see para. 33 above). Furthermore, a ‘regulatory offence’ was not entered in the judicial criminal records but solely, in certain circumstances, on the central traffic register.

The reforms accomplished in 1968/1975 thus, so the Government concluded, reflected a concern to ‘decriminalise’ minor offences to the benefit not only of the individual, who would no longer be answerable in criminal terms for his act and who could even avoid all court proceedings, but also of the effective functioning of the courts, henceforth relieved in principle of the task of dealing with the great majority of such offences.

53

The Court does not underestimate the cogency of this argument. The Court recognises that the legislation in question marks an important stage in the history of the reform of German criminal law and that the innovations introduced in 1968/1975 represent more than a simple change of terminology.

Nonetheless, the Court would firstly note that, according to the ordinary meaning of the terms, there generally come within the ambit of the criminal law offences that make their perpetrator liable to penalties intended, inter alia, to be deterrent and usually consisting of fines and of measures depriving the person of his liberty.

In addition, misconduct of the kind committed by Mr. Ozturk continues to be classified as part of the criminal law in the vast majority of the Contracting States, as it was in the Federal Republic of Germany until the entry into force of the 1968/1975 legislation; in those other States, such misconduct, being regarded as illegal and reprehensible, is punishable by criminal penalties.

Moreover, the changes resulting from the 1968/1975 legislation relate essentially to procedural matters and to the range of sanctions, henceforth limited to Geldbussen. Whilst the latter penalty appears less burdensome in some respects than Geldstrafen, it has nonetheless retained a punitive character, which is the customary distinguishing feature of criminal penalties. The rule of law infringed by the applicant has, for its part, undergone no change of content. It is a rule that is directed, not towards a given group possessing a special status — in the manner, for example, of disciplinary law — but towards all citizens in their capacity as road-users; it prescribes conduct of a certain kind and makes the resultant requirement subject to a sanction that is punitive. Indeed, the sanction — and this the Government did not contest — seeks to punish as well as to deter. It matters little whether the legal provision contravened by Mr. Ozturk is aimed at protecting the rights and interests of others or solely at meeting the demands of road traffic. These two ends are not mutually exclusive. Above all, the general character of the rule and the purpose of the penalty, being both deterrent and punitive, suffice to show that the offence in question was, in terms of Art. 6 Convention, criminal in nature.

The fact that is was admittedly a minor offence hardly likely to harm the reputation of the offender does not take it outside the ambit of Art. 6. There is in fact nothing to suggest that the criminal offence referred to in the Convention necessarily implies a certain degree of seriousness. In this connection, a number of Contracting States still

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draw a distinction, as did the Federal Republic at the time when the Convention was opened for the signature of the Governments, between the most serious offences (crimes), lesser offences (delits) and petty offences (contraventions), whilst qualifying them all as criminal offences. Furthermore, it would be contrary to the object and purpose of Art. 6, which guarantees to ‘everyone charged with a criminal offence’ the right to a court and to a fair trial, if the State were allowed to remove from the scope of this Article a whole category of offences merely on the ground of regarding them as petty. Nor does the Federal Republic deprive the presumed perpetrators of Ordnungswidrigkeiten of this right since it grants them the faculty — of which the applicant availed himself — of appealing to a court against the administrative decision.

54

As the contravention committed by Mr. Ozturk was criminal for the purposes of Art. 6 Convention, there is no need to examine it also in the light of the final criterion stated above (at para. 50). The ralative lack of seriousness of the penalty at stake cannot divest an offence of its inherently criminal character.

55

The Government further appeared to consider that the applicant did not have the status of a person ‘charged with a criminal offence’ because the 1968/1975 Act does not provide for any ‘Beschuldigung’ (‘charge’) and does not employ the terms ‘Angeschuldigter’ (‘person charged’) or ‘Angeklagter’ (‘the accused’). On this point, the Court would simply refer back to its well-established case-law holding that ‘charge’, for the purposes of Art. 6, may in general be defined as ‘the official notification given to an individual by the competent authority of an allegation that he has committed a criminal offence’ , although ‘it may in some instances take the form of other measures which carry the implication of such an allegation and which likewise substantially affect the situation of the suspect’ (see, as the most recent authorities, the Foti and others judgment of 10 Dec. 1982, Series A no. 56, p. 18, para. 52, and the Corigliano judgment of the same date, Series A no. 57, p. 13, para. 34). In the present case, the applicant was ‘charged’ at the latest as from the beginning of April 1978 when the decision of the Heilbronn administrative authorities was communicated to him.

56

Art. 6 para. 3 (e) was thus applicable in the instant case. It in no wise follows from this, the Court would want to make clear, that the very principle of the system adopted in the matter by the German legislature is being put in question. Having regard to the large number of minor offences, notably in the sphere of road traffic, a Contracting State may have good cause for relieving its courts of the task of their prosecution and punishment. Conferring the prosecution and punishment of minor offences on administrative authorities is not inconsistent with the Convention provided that the person concerned is enabled to take any decision thus made against him before a tribunal that does offer the guarantees of Art. 6 (see, mutatis mutandis, the above-mentioned Deweer judgment, Series A no. 35, p. 25, para. 49, NJ 1980, 561, and the Le Compte, Van Leuven and De Meyere judgment of 23 June 1981, NJ 1982, 602, para. 51 first sub-paragraph).

II.

Compliance with Art. 6 para. 3 (e)

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57

Invoking the above-cited Luedicke, Belkacem and Koc judgment of 28 Nov. 1978, the applicant submitted that the decision whereby the Heilbronn District Court had made him bear the costs incurred in having recourse to the services of an interpreter at the hearing on 3 August 1978 was in breach of Art. 6 para. 3 (e).

The Commission's opinion was to the same effect. The Government, for their part, maintained that there had been no violation, but concentrated their arguments on the issue of the applicability of Art. 6 para. 3 (e), without discussing the manner in which the Court had construed this text in 1978.

58

On the basis of the above-cited judgment, the Court finds that the impugned decision of the Heilbronn District Court violated the Convention: ‘the right protected by Art. 6 para. 3 (e) entails, for anyone who cannot speak or understand the language used in court, the right to receive the free assistance of an interpreter, without subsequently having claimed back from the payment of the costs thereby incurred’ (NJ 1980, 42, para. 46).

For these reasons, the Court

1

Holds, by thirteen votes to five, that Art. 6 para. 3 (e) Convention was applicable in the instant case;

2

Holds, by twelve votes to six, that there has been breach of the said Article.

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NJ 1988, 938

Instantie: Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens Datum: 25 augustus 1987

Magistraten:

Ryssdal, Cremona, Thor Vilhjalmsson, Bindschedler-Robert, Lagergren, Golcuklu, Matscher, Pinheiro Farinha, Pettiti, Vincent Evans, Macdonald, Russo, Bernhardt, Gersing, Spielmann, De Meyer, Valticos

Zaaknr: [1987-08-25/NJ_63677]

Conclusie: - LJN: AC9955

Noot: E.A. Alkema Roepnaam: -

Wetingang: EVRM art. 6 lid 2

Snel naar: EssentieSamenvattingPartij(en)UitspraakNoot

EssentieNaar boven

Onschuldpresumptie van art. 6 lid 2 Verdrag tot bescherming van de rechten van de mens en de fundamentele vrijheden (EVRM) omvat niet het recht op restitutie van kosten na staking van de procedure.

SamenvattingNaar boven

Procedure gestaakt wegens termijnoverschrijding onder veroordeling van de verdachte in de eigen kosten. Verdachte bespeurt in de motivering van de beslissingen een schending van de onschuldpresumptie die gegarandeerd wordt in het tweede lid van art. 6 EVRM.

I.c. betreft het een overtreding (Ordnungswidrigkeit). Met het oog op art. 6 acht het Hof het karakter van de overtreding in kwestie strafrechtelijk, mede in het licht van de aard van de aan de overtreding gekoppelde straf.

Het tweede en het derde criterium uit het arrest ‘Engel e.a.’ (resp. het karakter van de overtreding en het karakter en de ernst van de straf) zijn alternatieve criteria in plaats van cumulatieve (par. 55).

Het tweede lid van art. 6 noch een andere bepaling van het EVRM garandeert aan een persoon die is vervolgd wegens een strafbaar feit het recht op restitutie van kosten als de procedure gestaakt is (par. 59). De beslissing dat restitutie wordt geweigerd, kan in strijd zijn met het tweede lid van art. 6 als de motivering daarvoor niet losgemaakt kan worden van de rechtsoverwegingen en bijdraagt tot de vaststelling van de schuld van de verdachte zonder dat diens schuld reeds wettig bewezen was, en, in het bijzonder, zonder dat de verdachte de mogelijkheid heeft gehad zijn recht op verdediging te effectueren (par. 60).

De beslissingen waarover geklaagd wordt, bevatten termen die als dubbelzinnig en onvoldoende voorkomen. Zij omschrijven echter een mate van verdenking en houden geen enkele constatering van schuld in (par. 62). Bovendien betekent de weigering van restitutie geen straf of maatregel die gelijk kan staan aan een straf. Zij geeft louter aan

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dat de kosten en uitgaven aan de zijde van de verdachte niet uit de openbare kas betaald moeten worden (par. 63).

Geen schending van art. 6 lid 2.

Partij(en)Naar boven

Lutz,

tegen

Bondsrepubliek Duitsland. (De officiele uitgave van het arrest in de authentieke talen Frans en Engels is als vol. 123 in de serie A van de publikaties van het Hof verschenen.)

UitspraakNaar boven

Op 10 sept. 1981 vocht L. deze beslissing aan voor zover zij betrekking had op de kosten. Op 25 sept. 1981 wees het Landgericht van Heilbronn het beroep als ongegrond van de hand.

L. stelde vervolgens beroep in op het Bundesverfassungsgericht, maar de kamer van drie (rechters) weigerde zijn beroep te behandelen, stellende dat het onvoldoende kans had op succes.

Op 14 juni 1982 dient L. een klacht in bij de Europese Commissie wegens overschrijding van de redelijke termijn door het Amtsgericht en omdat de beslissing over de kosten het beginsel van de onschuldpresumptie zou schenden.

De Commissie komt in haar rapport van 18 okt. 1985 met 7 tegen 5 stemmen tot de conclusie dat art. 6 lid 2 is geschonden.

As to the law

48

Mr. Lutz complained of the reasons — and of one sentence in them in particular — given for the decisions whereby the German courts refused to order reimbursement of his necessary costs and expenses. He claimed that they offended the principle of the presumption of innocence enshrined in Art. 6 para. 2 Convention, which provides:

‘Everyone charged with a criminal offence shall be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law.’

The Government disputed this contention, being of the view that Art. 6 para. 2 was inapplicable and that the application was accordingly incompatible with the provisions of the Convention; in the alternative, they submitted that there had been no breach of Art. 6 para. 2.

The Commission took the opposite view.

I.

The Government's preliminary objection

49

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After the proceedings in respect of a ‘regulatory offence’ had been stayed, Mr. Lutz had to bear his own necessary costs and expenses on the ground that if the proceedings had continued, he would ‘most probably’ or ‘almost certainly’ have been convicted; he claimed that a breach of Art. 6 para. 2 Convention resulted.

Such a complaint is not ‘clearly outside the provisions of the Convention’ (see the judgment of 9 Febr. 1967 in the ‘Belgian Linguistic’ case, Series A no. 5, p. 18); it relates to the Convention's interpretation and application (Art. 45). In order to reach a decision, the Court will have to determine whether Art. 6 para. 2 can be relied on in respect of the decisions complained of. For the Court this is a question going to the merits, which it cannot try merely as a preliminary issue (see, as the most recent authority, the Kosiek judgment of 28 August 1986, Series A no. 105, p. 19, para. 32).

II.

Alleged violation of Art. 6 para. 2

A. Applicability of Art. 6 para. 2

50

In the Government's submission, Art. 6 para. 2 had no application in the instant case, because the applicant was not ‘charged with a criminal offence’. Under the legislation of 1968/1975, which ‘decriminalised’ petty offences, including road traffic offences in particular, the charges against Mr. Lutz constituted merely a ‘regulatory offence’ (Ordnungswidrigkeit). Such an offence, the Government claimed, differed from a criminal offence both in its legal characteristics and consequences and in the procedure to be followed. The judgment delivered by the Court on 21 Febr. 1984 in the Ozturk case was confined to the issue of the free assistance of an interpreter (Art. 6 para. 3 (e)) in the circumstances of that applicant and had not, the Government maintained, in any way already decided the applicability of Art. 6 para. 2 to the present case.

In Mr. Lutz's submission, on the contrary, its applicability emerged clearly from that judgment.

The Commission agreed; the two cases were similar as to the facts, and the reasoning in that decision was likewise valid in respect of the guarantee in Art. 6 para. 2.

51

The Court notes firstly that Mr. Lutz like Mr. Ozturk — had to answer for a breach of the requirements of, inter alia, Regulations 1(2) and 49(1)(1) of the Road Traffic Regulations (see the Ozturk judgment of 21 Febr. 1984, Series A no. 73, (NJ 1988, 937), p. 9, para. 11). In German law, this was not a criminal offence (Straftat) but a ‘regulatory offence’. The question accordingly arises whether this classification is decisive for the purposes of the Convention.

52

In the Ozturk case the Court held that the applicant was ‘charged with a criminal offence’ within the meaning of Art. 6 para. 3. Admittedly, the only point it was determining was whether sub-paragraph (2) gave the applicant a right to the free assistance of an interpreter in the domestic proceedings complained of. However, with regard to the

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introductory sentence of para. 3, the Court referred to para. 1 of the same Article, the reason being that it had consistently held para. 1 to embody the basic rule of which paras. 2 and 3 represented specific applications (see the Ozturk judgment previously cited, p. 17, para. 47). After affirming the ‘autonomy’ of the concept of ‘criminal’ in Art. 6, the Court concluded that the contravention with which Mr. Ozturk was charged ‘was criminal’ for the purposes of that Article (ibid., p. 18 and 21, para. 50 and 54).

The Court thus proceeded on the basis that in using the terms ‘criminal charge’ accusation en matiere penale) and ‘charged with a criminal offence’ (accuse, accuse d'une infraction) the three paragraphs of Art. 6 referred to identical situations. It had previously adopted a similar approach to Art. 6 para. 2, albeit in a context that was undeniably a criminal one under the domestic law (see the Adolf judgment of 26 March 1982, Series A no. 49, p. 15, para. 30, and the Minelli judgment of 25 March 1983, Series A no. 62 ( NJ 1986, 698), p. 15, para. 27). The Government, moreover, have accepted that the words ‘charged with a criminal offence’ have the same meaning in all three paragraphs and must be interpreted accordingly.

53

The issue raised in the present case is therefore broadly the same as the one already decided in the judgment of 21 Febr. 1984. The Court sees no reason to depart from that decision, especially as the Government, the Commission and counsel for the applicant reiterated, or else referred to, the arguments they had put forward in the Ozturk case.

54

In order to determine whether the ‘regulatory offence’ committed by Mr. Ozturk was a ‘criminal’ one, the Court referred to the criteria adopted in its judgment of 8 June 1976 in the case of Engel and others (Series A no. 22, p. 34–35, para. 82). It summarised them as follows:

‘The first matter to be ascertained is whether or not the text defining the offence in issue belongs, according to the legal system of the respondent State, to criminal law; next, the nature of the offence and, finally, the nature and degree of severity of the penalty that the person concerned risked incurring must be examined, having regard to the object and purpose of Art. 6, to the ordinary meaning of the terms of that Article and to the laws of the Contracting States’ (Ozturk judgment, Series A no. 73, p. 18, para. 50.

Having proceeded according to those principles, it concluded that the general character of the legal provision contravened by Mr. Ozturk and the purpose of the penalty, which was both deterrent and punitive, sufficed to show that the offence in question was, for the purposes of Art. 6, criminal in nature (ibid., p. 20, para. 53). It held that there was consequently no need to examine Mr. Ozturk's contravention ‘also in the light of the final criterion stated ...’, for ‘the relative lack of seriousness of the penalty at stake ... cannot divest an offence of its inherently criminal character’ (ibid., p. 21, para. 54).

These considerations apply in the instant case too.

55.

The Government appeared, in fact, to be criticising the Ozturk judgment for not having considered the nature and degree of severity of the penalty that the person concerned

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risked incurring. They claimed that it thereby differed from the Engel and others judgment of 8 June 1976.

The Court points out that the second and third criteria adopted in the judgments in the Engel and others case and the Ozturk case are alternative and not cumulative ones: for Art. 6 to apply in virtue of the words ‘criminal charge’, it suffices that the offence in question should by its nature be ‘criminal’ from the point of view of the Convention, as in the instant case, or should have made the person concerned liable to a sanction which, in its nature and degree of severity, belongs in general to the ‘criminal’ sphere (see also the Campbell and Fell judgment of 28 June 1984, Series A no. 80, p. 35–38, para. 69–73).

56.

The Government also argued that once the statutory limitation period had expired, as it was held to have done in the Heilbronn District Court's final ruling of 24 August 1981, Art. 6 para. 2 ceased to apply because it was no longer possible to convict the applicant.

The Court cannot agree with the Government on this point, any more than the Commission could. No doubt the proceedings against the applicant had become time-barred, but that fact was given judicial recognition by the decision of 24 August 1981. This decision also settled the question of costs, as required under Art. 464 and 467 Code of Criminal Procedure taken together with section 46 of the Art on ‘regulatory offences’, and left the applicant to bear his own necessary costs and expenses. Apportionment of the costs was a consequence and necessary concomitant of the stay of proceedings (Art. 464 Code of Criminal Procedure; see also, mutatis mutandis, the Minelli judgment previously cited, Series A no. 62, p. 16 para. 30). The operative provisions of the decision clearly confirmed this: after an initial ruling that the proceedings were to be stayed, the other two dealt with the costs of the proceedings and the applicant's own necessary costs and expenses.

57.

Art. 6 para. 2 therefore applied in the instant case; the Federal Constitutional Court indeed mentioned this provision in its judgment of 2 Febr. 1982. However, it must be reiterated (see the Ozturk judgment previously cited, Series A no. 73, p. 21–22, para. 56) that it in no way follows that the very principle of the system adopted in the matter by the German legislature — and in legislation elsewhere — is being put in question. Having regard to the large number of minor offences — notably in relation to road traffic which are not so discreditable that the offenders deserve the stigma of a criminal penalty, a Contracting State may have good reasons for introducing a system which relieves its courts of the task of dealing with the great majority of them. Conferring the prosecution and punishment of minor offences on administrative authorities is not inconsistent with the Convention, provided that the person concerned is able to bring any decision thus made against him before a tribunal that does afford the safeguards of Art. 6.

B. Compliance with Art. 6 para. 2

58.

The applicant pointed out that he had never had a hearing before a court in respect of the charges against him, and consequently no determination had been made of those

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charges under a procedure prescribed by law. He claimed that the reasons given in the decisions as to costs and expenses manifestly contained a finding of guilt and thus amounted to a ‘conviction in disguise.’

In the Government's submission, the refusal to order the Treasury to bear Mr. Lutz's necessary costs and expenses did not amount to a penalty or a measure which in its effects could be equated with a penalty. The reasoning given in the decisions complained of did not contain any implied assessment of the defendant's guilt: the courts were describing a ‘state of suspicion’ with the sole aim of reaching a fair decision as to the payment of costs. Furthermore, where a prosecution was discontinued, the Convention did not oblige the Contracting States to idemnify a person ‘charged with a criminal offence’ for any detriment he might have suffered. The impugned decisions could not be contrary to the Convention on account of their supporting reasoning if their operative provisions — which alone acquired final, binding effect — were in conformity with it.

The Commission considered, like the applicant, that there had been a breach of Art. 6 para. 2, as the reasoning complained of could very well be understood as suggesting that the applicant not only remained under suspicion of having committed the offence but was guilty of it.

59

The Court points out, first of all, like the Commission and the Government, that neither Art. 6 para. 2 nor any other provision of the Convention gives a person ‘charged with a criminal offence’ a right to reimbursement of his costs where proceedings taken against him are discontinued. The refusal to reimburse Mr. Lutz for his necessary costs and expenses accordingly does not in itself offend the presumption of innocence (see, mutatis mutandis, the Minelli judgment previously cited, Series, A no. 62 (NJ 1986, 698), p. 17, para. 34–35). Counsel for the applicant moreover stated, in reply to a question from the President, that this client was not challenging that refusal but solely the reasons given for it.

60

Nevertheless, a decision refusing reimbursement of an accused's necessary costs and expenses following termination of proceedings may raise an issue under Art. 6 para. 2 if supporting reasoning which cannot be dissociated from the operative provisions (see the same judgment, p. 18, para. 38) amounts in substance to a determination of the accused's guilt without his having previously been proved guilty according to law and, in particular, without his having had an opportunity to exercise the rights of the defence (ibid., para. 37).

61

The refusal complained of by Mr. Lutz was based on Art. 467 para. 3, second sentence, sub-para. 2, Code of Criminal Procedure, which was applied in the instant case by virtue of section 46 of the 1968/1975 Act. This provision sets forth one of the exceptions to the rule in German law that, where criminal proceedings are discontinued, the necessary costs and expenses of the person ‘charged with a criminal office’ are to be awarded against the Treasury (Art. 467 para. 1). Appplying the provision means that the relevant courts, which decide the matter on an equitable basis and have a degree of discretion,

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are under an obligation to take into account, inter alia, the weight of the suspicion still falling on the person concerned.

62

In justification of its decision not to order the Treasury to pay Mr. Lutz's costs and expenses the Heilbronn District Court noted that ‘as the file (stood), the defendant would most probably have been convicted’. When dismissing the applicant's appeal, the Regional Court held, among other things, that had the prosecution not been statute-barred, the defendant ‘would almost certainly have been found guilty of an offence’. For the Federal Constitutional Court, ‘the reasons for the order as to costs in the impugned decisions are ... rightly confined to the finding that the defendant would most probably have been found guilty’.

The German courts thereby meant to indicate, as they were required to do for the purposes of the decision, that there were still strong suspicions concerning Mr. Lutz. Even if the terms used may appear ambiguous and unsatisfactory, the courts confined themselves in substance to noting the existence of ‘reasonable suspicion’ that the defendant had ‘committed an offence’ (Art. 5 para. 1 (c) Convention). On the basis of the evidence, in particular the applicant's earlier statements, the decisions described a ‘state of suspicion’ and did not contain any finding of guilt. In this respect they contrast with the more substantial, detailed decisions which the Court considered in the Minelli case (see the judgment previously cited, Series A no. 62 (NJ 1986, 698), p. 8–10, para. 12–14, and p. 11–12, para.16) and also with the decisions set aside by the Federal Constitutional Court on 26 March 1987 EuGrt 1987, p. 203–209).

63

Moreover, the refusal to order the Treasury to pay Mr. Lutz's necessary costs and expenses does not amount to a penalty or a measure that can be equated with a penalty. In this respect too, the instant case very clearly differs from the Minelli case, as also from the cases decided by the Federal Constitutional Court on 26 March 1987. The Swiss courts had directed that Mr. Minelli should bear part of the costs of the proceedings and had ordered him to pay the private prosecutors compensation in respect of their expenses (see the judgment previously cited, ibid.), thus treating him as guilty. Nothing comparable occurred in the instant case: Mr. Lutz did not have to bear the costs of the proceedings but only his own costs and expenses. The German courts, acting on an equitable basis and having regard to the strong suspicions which seemed to them to exist concerning him, did not impose any sanction on him but merely refused to order that his necessary costs and expenses should be paid out of public funds. And, as the Court has already pointed out, the Convention — more particularly Art. 6 para. 2 — does not oblige the Contracting States, where a prosecution has been discontinued, to indemnify a person ‘charged with a criminal offence’ for any detriment he may have suffered.

64

In conclusion, the decision of the Heilbronn District Court, which was upheld by the Regional Court and the Federal Constitutional Court, did not offend the presumption of innocence guaranteed to the applicant under Art. 6 para. 2.

For these reasons, the Court

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1

Rejects unanimously the objection that the application is incompatible with the provisions of the Convention;

2

Holds by fourteen votes to three that Art. 6 para. 2 applies in the instant case;

3

Holds by sixteen votes to one that there has been no breach of this Article.

Declaration by Judge Thor Vilhjalmsson

My vote in this case reflects a change from my vote in the Ozturk case. This change is prompted by the majority decision in that case.

Dissenting opinion of Judge Cremona

Whilst agreeing with the judgment as to the rejection of the Government's preliminary objection and as to the applicability of Art. 6 para. 2 Convention in the instant case, I regret I cannot do the same as to the question of compliance with that provision, and in fact, like the majority of the Commission, I find a violation of it.

In order to clear the ground at once of certain matters, I would premise the following:

1

Firstly, I concur with the judgment that neither Art. 6 para. 2 nor any other provision of the Convention gives a person charged with a criminal offence a right to reimbursement of his costs where proceedings against him are discontinued, and that the domestic courts’ refusal to order such reimbursement to the applicant does not therefore in itself offend the presumption of innocence (para. 59 of the judgment).

2

Secondly, I also concur with the judgment that a decision refusing such reimbursement following a stay of proceedings may, however, raise an issue under Art. 6 para. 2 if supporting reasoning which cannot be dissociated from the operative provisions amounts in substance to a determination (constat) of the accused's guilt (which I understand in the sense of an assessment thereof) without his having previously been proved guilty according to law and in particular without his having had an opportunity to exercise his defence rights (para. 60 of the judgment).

Having premised that, I consider that the conclusion of non-violation in this judgment rests essentially on two points:

a.

that the contested judicial pronouncements of the domestic courts described only ‘a state of suspicion’ and did not involve a finding of guilt (para. 62 of the judgment), and

b.

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that the courts’ refusal to order reimbursement of the accused's necessary costs and expenses did not amount to a penalty or a measure which could be equated with a penalty (para. 63 of the judgment).

As to the first point, clearly an element of suspicion is inherent in the very fact that a person is criminally charged, but that is of course inseparable from the essential machinery of the criminal trial itself. Indeed, among the cases where a person may be deprived of his liberty, provided this is done in accordance with a procedure prescribed by law, the Convention itself mentions ‘the lawful arrest and detention of a person effected for the purpose of bringing him before the competent authority on reasonable suspicion of having committed an offence’ (Art. 5 para. 1 (c)).

In the present case, however, the clear and explicit wording used by the courts in their judicial decisions concerning the applicant, who was charged with a criminal offence, goes much further than that.

In fact, the decision of the Heilbronn District Court, in staying the proceedings against the applicant and concurrently refusing to order reimbursement of his costs and expenses under the applicable domestic legislation, stated, in terms which, unlike my colleagues, I find unambiguous, that ‘as the file (stood), the defendant, would most probably have been convicted’. Moreover, the Regional Court in Heilbronn, in dismissing the applicant's, appeal, stated, again in unambiguous terms, that had the prosecution not been statute-barred, ‘the defendant would almost certainly have been found guilty of an offence’. That court also supported its decision by referring to the applicant's admission of certain facts to the police. The decision of the group of three judges of the Federal Constitutional Court in no way altered the situation.

Thus, in my view, what happened in the instant case is the materialisation of the situation envisaged in para. 60 of the judgment (see above). Indeed, we have here judicial decisions discontinuing proceedings for an offence and refusing, or confirming refusal of, reimbursement of the accused's costs and expenses, the supporting reasoning of which (which cannot be dissociated from the operative provisions) amounts in substance to a determination (constat) of the accused's guilt (which, as already stated, I understand in the sense of an assessment thereof) without his having been previously proved guilty according to law and in particular without his having had an opportunity to exercise his defence rights.

Like the majority of the Commission, I find that the above reasoning of the aforesaid courts is perfectly capable of being understood as meaning that the accused was in fact guilty of a criminal offence. Indeed this is the ordinary meaning conveyed by the wording actually used, and when it comes to such a basic principle as that of the presumption of innocence, what really matters is not the possible intent with which certain words were uttered in judicial decisions concerning the accused, but the actual meaning of those words to the public at large. What is decisive is that at the end of the day one is left with the impression that the courts did consider that the applicant was in fact guilty. The net result is in my view a surrogate conviction of the accused without the benefit of the protection afforded by Art. 6 para. 2.

Incidentally, the offending wording at the centre of this case is not substantially dissimilar from that which was at the centre of the Minelli case, in which this Court did find a violation of that provision. An attempt has been made to distinguish the two cases

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on the basis of a ‘punishment content’, and this brings me to the second point on which the finding of non-violation in the present judgment relies.

As to this question of the absence of a penalty or a measure which can be equated with one, I would say that of course the application of such penalty or measure would have reinforced my conclusion, but absence thereof in no way invalidates it. The principle of the presumption of innocence can be violated independently of the application of such penalty or measure. That presumption accompanies a person charged with a criminal offence throughout the whole trial until conviction. Indeed this cardinal principle of the modern criminal trial would have been lamentably improvident if its scope had to be confined to the non-application of a penalty or, to use again the wording of the judgment, a measure which can be equated with one. Punishment is usually only the last stage in the unfolding of a criminal trial and modern criminal legislation also envisages convictions without punishment or a measure which can be equated with it (cf. for instance in the British system ‘absolute discharge’).

What is decisive for the present purpose is not the non-application of punishment, but the fact of a judicial assessment of the applicant's guilt, and in the instant case it is this that the wording of the judicial decisions in question in fact entails.

I therefore find a violation of Art. 6 para. 2 Convention.

Joint dissenting opinion of Judges Bindschedler-Robert, Matscher and Bernhardt on the applicability of Art. 6

(Translation)

For the reasons indicated in the dissenting opinions we expressed in the Ozturk case, we are unfortunately not able to endorse the judgment of the Court; we continue to take the view that in a case of this kind Art. 6 Convention is not applicable.

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NJ 1980, 561: Deweer

Instantie: Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens Datum: 27 februari 1980

Magistraten:

Mosler, Zekia, Ryssdal, Ganshof van der Meersch, Teitgen, Golcuklu, Pinheiro Farinha

Zaaknr: [1980-02-27/NJ_58540]

Conclusie: - LJN: AC6833

Noot: - Roepnaam: Deweer

Wetingang: EVRM art. 6 lid 1

Snel naar: EssentiePartij(en)Uitspraak

EssentieNaar boven

Schikking met het OM onder dwang in strijd met recht op een eerlijke berechting.

Partij(en)Naar boven

Deweer,

tegen

België.

UitspraakNaar boven

Op 6 febr. 1974 diende Deweer bij de Europese Commissie een verzoekschrift in, dat op 10 maart 1977 ontvankelijk werd verklaard.

*

De volledige tekst van het arrest is gepubliceerd in Vol. 35 van de serie A van de uitgaven van het Hof.

Volgens de klager was door de reglementering van de prijzen en de toepassing daarvan in zijn geval art. 6 Verdrag geschonden: de beslissing tot sluiting was in feite een strafrechtelijke sanctie, maar was niet afkomstig van een rechterlijke instantie (art. 6 lid 1); doordat de maatregel overhaast en zonder mondelinge behandeling was getroffen was de presumptio innocentiae niet in acht genomen (art. 6 lid 2); als gevolg van de summiere procedure was hij niet behoorlijk op de hoogte gesteld van de tegen hem ingebrachte beschuldiging en onvoldoende in staat gesteld zijn verdediging voor te bereiden (art. 6 lid 3). Tevens voerde Deweer schending aan van art. 1 Eerste Protocol op grond van het feit dat de gelaste sluiting voor onbepaalde tijd gelijk stond aan confiscatie.

In haar rapport gaf de Commissie eenstemmig als haar mening:

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dat door het gecombineerde gebruik van procedures tot minnelijke schikking en voorlopige sluiting van de zaak het recht op een eerlijke behandeling van een strafvervolging was geschonden;

dat de beslissing tot voorlopige sluiting, op zichzelf beschouwd, niet in strijd was met het beginsel van de presumptio innocentiae van art. 6 lid 2, noch art. 1 Eerste Protocol had geschonden;

dat het — na het voorgaande — niet noodzakelijk was het onderzoek van de zaak in het licht van art. 6 lid 3 voort te zetten.

Het rapport werd op 5 okt. 1978 aangenomen en op 20 nov. 1978 aan het Comite van Ministers overgelegd.

Deweer overleed op 14 jan. 1978. Een maand later deelden zijn weduwe en zijn drie dochters de Commissie mee, een materieel en moreel belang te hebben bij de voltooiing van de door hem aangegane procedure.

Samenvatting van de uitspraak.*

A.

Preliminaire middelen.

De Belgische regering pleitte in de eerste plaats dat de Commissie het verzoekschrift niet-ontvankelijk had moeten verklaren vanwege het niet-uitputten van de nationale rechtsmiddelen. * Op basis van een niet‑ officiele samenvatting opgesteld door de Griffie van het Europese Hof.

Voorts verklaarde zij dat de zaak tengevolge van de vernietiging van het ministeriele besluit van 9 aug. 1974 door de Raad van State zinloos was geworden en verzocht zij het Hof de zaak van de rol te schrappen.

Het Hof verwierp deze beide middelen evenwel met algemene stemmen.

B.

Art. 6 lid 1.

Het Hof constateert allereerst dat Deweer, sinds de beslissing van de OvJ tot voorlopige sluiting van de slagerij, het onderwerp was van een ‘strafvervolging’ in de zin van het Verdrag.

Zich richtend naar zijn vroegere jurisprudentie, merkt het Hof vervolgens op dat art. 6 voor de klager het recht inhield op een rechterlijke instantie. Dit recht heeft in een democratische samenleving zo'n groot belang dat een persoon niet het voordeel daarvan mag verliezen alleen vanwege het feit dat hij heeft toegestemd in een buitengerechtelijke afdoening i.c. de betaling van 10 000 Belgische Franken bij wijze van minnelijke schikking. Vanwege het bijzonder nauwlettend toezicht dat het Hof op dit gebied dient uit te oefenen, moet het zich er met name van vergewissen dat de betrokkene niet onder dwang heeft gehandeld.

In dit verband wordt er in het arrest op gewezen, dat wanneer de klager niet besloten had de 10 000 Belgische Franken bij wijze van minnelijke schikking te betalen, zijn

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slagerij zou zijn gesloten en wel eventueel tot de dag waarop de bevoegde rechterlijke instantie beslist zou hebben over de overtreding; hij zou dan aanzienlijke schade hebben geleden. Derhalve bestond er een flagrante wanverhouding tussen de twee mogelijkheden waaruit Deweer kiezen moest. De betrekkelijke geringheid van de som die geeist werd verhoogde de druk die uitging van het bevel tot sluiting: deze druk werd hierdoor zo groot dat het niet te verwonderen is dat de betrokkene hiervoor is gezwicht.

Na nog twee andere verweren van de regering verworpen te hebben concludeert het Hof eenstemmig dat het afzien van een eerlijk proces door Deweer niet vrij van dwang was geweest en dat dus art. 6 lid 1 geschonden was.

C.

Art. 6 leden 2 en 3.

Het Hof constateert voorts dat de vraag of leden 2 en 3 in acht genomen waren i.c. van geen betekenis was en dat het derhalve niet noodzakelijk was de zaak in het licht van deze bepalingen te onderzoeken.

D.

Art. 1 Eerste Protocol.

Met zes stemmen tegen een acht het Hof het overbodig na te gaan of de inning van de 10 000 Belgische Franken, die plaats had in omstandigheden die niet in overeenstemming waren met art. 6 lid 1 Verdrag, bovendien in strijd was met art. 1 Eerste Protocol.

E.

Art. 50.

Het Hof kent met algemene stemmen aan de erfgenamen van de klager een billijke genoegdoening toe bestaande

op materieel gebied, uit de vergoeding door de Belgische Staat van de door Deweer betaalde 10 000 Belgische Franken en 800 Franse Franken voor reis‑ en verblijfkosten i.v.m. de zittingen van de Commissie;

ten aanzien van de morele schade, uit de constatering van een schending van de rechten van de klager.

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NJ 1987, 828

Instantie: Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens Datum: 10 december 1982

Magistraten:

Wiarda, Bindschedler-Robert, Evrigenis, Pinheiro Farinha, Sir Vincent Evens, Russo, Bernhardt

Zaaknr: 7604/76, 7719/76, 7781/77, 7913/77

Conclusie: - LJN: AC1731

Noot: P. van Dijk Roepnaam: -

Wetingang: EVRM art. 6; EVRM art. 13

Snel naar: EssentieSamenvattingPartij(en)UitspraakNoot

EssentieNaar boven

Bevoegdheid ex officio te toetsen aan bepalingen van de Conventie; verwerking van het recht preliminaire excepties op te werpen; fase van een procedure voorafgaande aan de erkenning van het individuele klachtrecht; redelijke termijn; art. 13 naast art. 6.

SamenvattingNaar boven

Commissie en Hof zijn niet bevoegd feiten in aanmerking te nemen die niet door de klagende staat of particuliere klager zijn aangevoerd, maar de feiten en omstandigheden die zijn aangevoerd, kunnen zij onderzoeken — in het licht van het totaal van de eisen die de Conventie stelt.

De exceptie dat door de klager niet de nationale rechtsmiddelen vooraf zijn uitgeput, dient reeds in de ontvankelijkheidsprocedure voor de Commissie te zijn opgeworpen. Heeft de verweervoerende staat dit nagelaten, dan heeft hij daarmee zijn recht verwerkt dit alsnog te doen in de procedure voor het Hof. Datzelfde geldt, indien de staat in zijn verweer wel toespelingen op de exceptie heeft gemaakt, maar daarbij niet duidelijk heeft aangegeven, welke rechtsmiddelen door de klager ten onrechte niet zijn benut.

Bij de beoordeling van de redelijkheid van de duur van een procedure kan het beginpunt van de in aanmerking te nemen periode niet liggen voor de datum waarop de erkenning door de aangeklaagde staat van het individuele klachtrecht in werking is getreden, als aan deze erkenning geen terugwerkende kracht is verleend.

De redelijkheid van de duur van een rechterlijke procedure moet beoordeeld worden aan de hand van de bijzondere omstandigheden van het geval, in het bijzonder de ingewikkeldheid van de zaak, het gedrag van de klager en de gedragingen van de autoriteiten. In de onderhavige zaken leidt toetsing daaraan tot het oordeel, dat de voorwaarde van de redelijke termijn ten aanzien van enkele onderdelen wel, maar voor de procedure in haar geheel niet in acht is genomen.

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Indien schending van art. 6 is vastgesteld, behoeft de gegrondheid van de klacht over schending van art. 13 niet meer te worden onderzocht.

Partij(en)Naar boven

Foti en anderen

tegen

Italie.

UitspraakNaar boven

Feiten

De klagers in deze zaak, alle vier Italianen, waren strafrechtelijk vervolgd in verband met door hen gepleegde feiten tijdens de ongeregeldheden welke in Reggio Calabria tussen 1970 en 1973 hadden plaatsgevonden naar aanleiding van de beslissing de hoofdstad van de provincie Calabrie van Reggio te verplaatsen naar Catanzano. De tegen hen ingebrachte beschuldigingen betroffen feiten zoals de afsluiting van een snelweg, het houden van opruiende bijeenkomsten en verzet tegen de politie, terwijl een van hen ook verdacht werd van verboden wapenbezit. Voor alle vier werden de zaken, nadat deze aanvankelijk waren voorgelegd aan de Rb. te Reggio, op verzoek van de autoriteiten ‘om dringende redenen van openbare orde’ overgeheveld naar de Rb. te Potenza.

Hoewel de eerste aanklachten dateerden van 1970, vond de eerste zitting pas in 1976 plaats. Inmiddels had Italie de verklaring ex art. 25 van de Europese Conventie voor de Rechten van de Mens (ECRM) afgelegd, waarbij het de bevoegdheid van de Europese Commissie voor de Rechten van de Mens erkende individuele tegen Italie gerichte klachten in behandeling te nemen. Deze verklaring trad in werking op 1 augustus 1973.

De procedures voor de Rb. te Potenza leidden in bijna alle gevallen tot vrijspraak of ontslag van rechtsvervolging. Alleen de tegen Foti op verdenking van verboden wapenbezit ingestelde vervolging mondde uit in een veroordeling, welk vonnis werd bevestigd door het Hof van Beroep te Potenza, terwijl ook het beroep in cassatie door het Hof van Cassatie werd verworpen.

De vier klagers hebben zich tot de Europese Commissie gewend op respectievelijk 14 maart, 2 september en 22 november 1976 en 15 april 1977. Alle vier beklaagden zij zich over de overheveling van hun zaak naar de Rb. te Potenza, hetgeen zij in strijd met art. 6, lid 1 ECRM achtten. Twee van hen dienden ook nog andere klachten in. Alleen Gulli beklaagde zich tevens expliciet over de duur van het proces, waarmee naar zijn mening de door art. 6, lid 1 voorgeschreven redelijke termijn was overschreden. Ook art. 13 ECRM werd door hem ingeroepen. De klachten van de eerste drie klagers werden door de Commissie bij beslissing van 9 mei 1977 gevoegd, waarbij de Commissie tevens aangaf ex officio de kwestie van de berechting binnen een redelijke termijn te zullen onderzoeken. Deze klagers lieten daarop in een memorie van 18 augustus 1977 weten dat zij de gronden die de Commissie tot dat onderzoek brachten, tot de hunne maakten. Daarbij stelden zij zich op het standpunt, dat zij zich over overschrijding van de redelijke termijn impliciet al hadden beklaagd via de door hen in hun klachten aangevoerde feiten. Op 11 mei 1978 zijn deze klachten, voor zover zij op de redelijke termijn betrekking hadden, door de Commissie ontvankelijk verklaard, terwijl zij voor het overige niet-

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ontvankelijk werden verklaard. De Commissie voegde nu ook de zaak van Gulli bij de andere drie.

Nadat haar pogingen een minnelijke schikking tussen de klagers en de Italiaanse regering tot stand te brengen op niets waren uitgelopen, heeft de Commissie op 15 oktober 1980 haar rapport over de hoofdzaak voorgelegd aan het Comite van Ministers van de Raad van Europa. Daarin komt zij unaniem tot de opvatting dat met de procedures waarop de klachten betrekking hadden, de voorwaarde van een redelijke termijn niet in acht is genomen, zodat art. 6, lid 1 ECRM is geschonden. Op 20 mei 1981 is de zaak door de Commissie voorgelegd aan het Europese Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens.

As to the law

I.

Preliminary objections

40.

The Government have pleaded several preliminary objections.

A number of these objections, put forward at the hearings on 21 April 1982, concern complaints that the Commission struck out on 11 May 1978 ....

The Government have requested the Court likewise to declare the complaints in question inadmissible both on the original grounds given and, as regards the transfer of the proceedings to the Potenza Regional Court, for an additional reason, namely the lack from the outset of the status of victim on the part of Mr. Foti and, at the very least, the fact of being out of time (Article 26 in fine of the Convention) in respect of Mr. Lentini, Mr. Cenerini and Mr. Gulli.

41.

It is not within the province of the Court to take cognisance of a request of this kind, for complaints rejected by the Commission fall outside the compass of the case as delimited by the decisions given on 11 May 1978 (see, inter alia, the Guzzardi judgment of 6 November 1980, Series A no. 39, p. 39, par. 106).

On the other hand, the Court must rule on the two other objections, which relate to the part of the applications accepted by the Commission.

A. Objection regarding the ex officio examination of the ‘reasonable time’ issue in the cases of Mr. Foti, Mr. Lentini and Mr. Cenerini

42.

The Government objected firstly to the Commission having on its own initiative taken into consideration the issue of ‘reasonable time’, within the mening of Article 6 par. 1, in the cases of Mr. Foti, Mr. Lentini and Mr. Cenerini. This plea, it was explained, did not extend to Mr. Gulli who himself raised the issue by letter dated 7 May 1977, less than a month after the dispatch of his initial application.

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The Government's argument was as follows. The Commission is without any doubt empowered to decide upon the characterisation in law to be given to a matter, but solely in respect of the facts impugned before it. The original complaint formulated by the three applicants under Article 6 par. 1 was directed against the transfer of their trials to the Potenza Regional Court and against that alone ....

By taking it upon itself of its own motion, as from 9 May 1977, to review observance of their right to a hearing ‘within a reasonable time’ ..., the Commission had thus failed to confine itself to applying the maxim ‘da mihi facta, dabo tibi jus’, thereby exceeding its jurisdiction.

43.

The Government had already advanced this argument before the Commission, notably in their written observations of 9 July 1977 and 12 January 1978. Accordingly, no issue of estoppel arises here (see, mutatis mutandis, the above-mentioned Guzzardi judgment, Series A no. 39, pp 21–22, par. 59).

44.

When they applied to the Commission for the first time, Mr. Foti, Mr. Lentini and Mr. Cenerini did not in any way assert, either expressly or in substance, that the criminal proceedings against them were being unduly prolonged. The international system of protection established by the Convention functions on the basis of applications, be they governmental or individual, alleging violations (see Articles 24 and 25). It does not enable the Commission and the Court either to take up a matter irrespective of the manner in which it came to their knowledge or even, in the context of pending proceedings, to seize on facts that have not been adduced by the applicant — be it a State or an individual — and to examine those facts for compatibility with the Convention.

The institutions set up under the Convention nonetheless do have jurisdiction to review in the light of the entirety of the Convention's requirements circumstances complained of by an applicant. In the performance of their task, the Convention institutions are, notably, free to attribute to the facts of the case, as found to be established on the evidence before them, a characterisation in law different from that given by the applicant or, if need be, to view the facts in a different manner; furthermore, they have to take account not only of the original application but also of the additional documents intended to complete the latter by eliminating initial omissions or obscurities (see, for example, the above-mentioned Guzzardi judgment, Series A no. 39, pp. 22–23, par. 62–63, and the Ringeisen judgment of 16 July 1971, Series A no. 13, pp. 40–41, par. 98, as compared with p. 34, par. 79, and pp. 39–40, par. 96–97).

From the outset, the information furnished by Mr. Foti, Mr. Lentini and, above all, Mr. Cenerini showed that the proceedings in question had been pending for years. Subsequently, they kept the Commission advised of the progress of these proceedings — sometimes of their own initiative ... and at other times in reply to questions by the Commission ... — — calling on the latter to rule on their grievances as a matter of urgency. It was therefore possible for the Commission to consider that the facts adduced by the applicants potentially involved an issue of trial within a ‘reasonable time’, within the meaning of Article 6 par. 1.

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Once the parties had been informed of the Commission's intention to examine the issue, the applicants declared that they were ‘adopting as their own’ the grounds that had prompted the Commission to raise the matter ex officio; this the applicants did in a memorial dated 18 August 1977 and, hence, prior to the admissibility decision of 11 May 1978 ....

They thus manifested their agreement with the approach of the Commission and supplemented their application.

Consequently, the Court, being required to give a ruling in the light of the case as it now stands, holds that it has jurisdiction to settle this issue.

B. Objection as to non-exhaustion of domestic remedies

45.

The Government also pleaded non-exhaustion of domestic remedies (Article 26), as their principal submission in respect of Mr. Gulli and in the alternative in respect of Mr. Foti, Mr. Lentini and Mr. Cenerini. The Government pointed out, citing the Van Oosterwijck judgment of 6 November 1980 (Series A no. 40, pp. 15–17, par. 30, 31 and 33), that the applicants had omitted to rely on Article 6 par. 1 before the national authorities, notwithstanding the direct applicability of that provision in Italian law. Nor had the applicants requested the national authorities to expedite the proceedings or, in the unlikely event of such action proving fruitless, attempted to establish liability on the part of those authorities under Article 328 of the Penal Code taken in conjunction with Articles 55, 56 and 74 of the Code of Civil Procedure.

46.

The Court will take cognisance of preliminary objections of this kind in so far as the respondent State may have first raised them before the Commission, in principle at the stage of the initial examination of admissibility, to the extent that their character and the circumstances permitted; if this condition is not fulfilled, the Government are estopped from raising the objection before the Court (see, inter alia, the Artico judgment of 13 May 1980, Series A no. 37, pp. 12–14, 24 par. and 27, and the above-mentioned Guzzardi judgment, Series A no. 39, p. 24, par. 67).

47.

Prior to the decision of 11 May 1978 on the admissibility of applications nos. 7604/76, 7719/76 and 7781/77 of Mr. Foti, Mr. Lentini and Mr. Cenerini, the Government had not argued non-exhaustion of domestic remedies in answer to the grievances coming under the head of ‘reasonable time’; they were, however, already aware of the Commission's intention to examine this issue. The subsequent reliance placed by the Government on Article 26 of the Convention was, moreover, different in approach from that represented by their submissions to the Court: before the Commission, the Government contended that the three individuals in question had applied to the Commission prematurely since they had not awaited the outcome of the prosecutions brought against them ....

48.

The same is not entirely true as regards Mr. Gulli. Even before the admissibility decision of 11 May 1978, the Government criticised him, if not for having omitted to pray in aid

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Article 6 par. 1 in an explicit manner before the Italian courts, at least for not having made the slightest effort to have his rights upheld by those courts (‘non risultando che l'interessato si sia in un qualsiasi modo attivato presso l'Autorita giudiziaria od altro organo per tutelare i diritti che si asseriscono lesi’). This argument related not only to the complaint regarding the transfer of the trial to the Potenza Regional Court but also to the allegation that the ‘reasonable time’ had been exceeded; as confirmation of this, the Court would refer to the original Italian text of the written observations of 10 October 1977 notwithstanding a certain discrepancy between this text and the official French translation.

Nonetheless, when a Contracting State seeks to shelter behind the duty to exhaust remedies, it is for the State to establish the existence of available remedies that have not been utilised by those concerned (see, inter alia, the Deweer judgment of 27 February 1980, Series A no. 35, p. 15, par. 26). However, the short passage cited above from the observations of 10 October 1977 went no further than vague assertions; it did not in any sense identify the means of redress to which, according to the Government, Mr. Gulli had wrongly neglected to have recourse. It was not for the Commission to ascertain what were the particular remedies alluded to (see the above-mentioned Deweer judgment, ibid.).

Subsequent observations dated 1 March 1978, which dealt with the merits and, more precisely, with Article 13 of the Convention and no longer with admissibility, referred not to Article 328 of the Penal Code and Articles 55, 56 and 74 of the Code of Civil Procedure, but to Article 298 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (supervisory duty incumbent on the public prosecutor attached to the Court of Appeal) and to the legal rules governing time-barring of criminal actions. The Government had already cited these various texts, in greater detail and together with other texts (Articles 269–276 of the Code of Criminal Procedure), in their observations of 9 July 1977 on the applications of Mr. Foti, Mr. Lentini and Mr. Cenerini; they had described these texts as being ‘incitements’ to a rapid conclusion of judicial proceedings. In a supplementary memorial of March 1979, that is subsequent to the decision of 11 May 1978 on the admissibility of application no. 7913/77, and than at the hearings before the Commission on 12 December 1979, the Government claimed that Mr. Gulli, like Mr. Foti, Mr. Lentini and Mr. Cenerini (see paragraph 47 above), had applied to the Commission prematurely.

49.

It was in their memorial of November 1981 to the Court that the Government for the first time invoked Article 26 of the Convention in the manner described at paragraph 45 above. Moreover, in paragraph 3 of that memorial and at the hearings on 21 April 1982, they acknowledged the novelty of their objection, without explaining why they had not pleaded it earlier.

The Court, concurring with the Delegate of the Commission, accordingly concludes that there is estoppel in the case of each of the four applicants.

II.

Merits

A. The alleged breach of article 6 par. 1

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50.

The Commission expressed the opinion that the applicants had been the victims of a breach of their right to a hearing ‘within a reasonable time’, within the meaning of Article 6 par. 1.

The Government disagreed with this view.

1.

The length of the proceedings

51.

The first matter that must be determined is the relevant period to be considered.

a.

Commencement of the periods to be taken into account

52.

In criminal matters, in order to assess whether the ‘reasonable time’ requirement contained in Article 6 par. 1 has been complied with, one must begin by ascertaining from which moment the person was ‘charged’; this may have occurred on a date prior to the case coming before the trial court (see, for example, the above-mentioned Deweer judgment, Series A no. 35, p. 22, par. 42), such as the date of the arrest, the date when the person concerned was officially notified that he would be prosecuted or the date when the preliminary investigations were opened (see the Wemhoff judgment of 27 June 1968, Series A no. 7, pp. 26–27, par. 19, the Neumeister judgment of the same date, Series A no. 8, p. 41, 18, and the above-mentioned Ringeisen judgment, Series A no. 13, p. 45, par. 110). Whilst ‘charge’, for the purposes of Article 6 par. 1, may in general be defined as ‘the official notification given to an individual by the competent authority of an allegation that he has committed a criminal offence’, it may in some instances take the form of other measures which carry the implication of such an allegation and which likewise substantially affect the situation of the suspect (see, inter alia, the Eckle judment of 15 July 1982, Series A no. 51, p. 33, 73).

53.

The decision to prosecute the applicants dates back to 9 October 1970 (proceedings I), September 1971 (proceedings II) and 21 March 1973 (proceedings III) for Mr. Foti, to September 1970 for Mr. Lentini and to 18 July 1970 for Mr. Cenerini and Mr. Gulli ....

In the view of the Commission, these dates mark the opening of the criminal proceedings but the periods to be considered begin only on 1 August 1973, when the recognition by Italy of the right of individual petition took effect; however, in assessing the reasonableness of the time that elapsed after 31 July 1973, account must be taken of the then state of proceedings (see paragraph 103 of the report).

The Court concurs with this line of reasoning (see notably, mutatis mutandis, the above-mentioned Ringeisen judgment, Series A no 13, pp. 41–42, par. 101). It notes in particular that the declaration made by Italy under Article 25 is, according to its own

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terms, valid only in relation to acts, decisions, facts or events occurring subsequently to 31 July 1973.

b.

End of the periods to be taken into account

54.

The closing date of the proceedings currently in issue was not a matter of contention.

With regard to Mr. Foti, the relevant dates were 15 February 1978 (proceedings I), 25 June 1979 (proceedings II) and 7 June 1977 (proceedings III), the first and third dates being those of the judgments by the Potenza Regional Court and the second date that of the judgment by the Court of Cassation ....

For the other applicants, the periods to be considered terminated on 18 January 1977 (Mr. Lentini), 7 June 1978 (Mr. Cenerini) and 2 October 1978 (Mr. Gulli) when the Potenza Regional Court delivered judgment ....

c.

Conclusion

55.

The length of time to be reviewed for compatibility with Article 6 par. 1 thus exceeds

four years and six months (1 August 1973 − 15 February 1978) in the first proceedings against Mr. Foti;

five years and ten months (1 August 1973 − 25 June 1979) in the second proceedings against him;

three years and ten months (1 August 1973 − 7 June 1977) in the third proceedings against him;

three years and five months (1 August 1973 − 18 January 1977) in the case of Mr. Lentini;

four years and ten months (1 August 1973 − 7 June 1978) in the case of Mr. Cenerini;

five years and two months (1 August 1973 − 2 October 1978) in the case of Mr. Gulli.

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2.

The reasonableness of the length of the proceedings

56.

The reasonableness of the length of the proceedings has to be assessed in each instance according to the particular circumstances. In this exercise, the Court has regard to, amongst other things, the complexity of the case, the conduct of the applicant or applicants and the conduct of the judicial authorities (see the above-mentioned Eckle judgment, Series A no. 51, p. 35, par. 80).

a.

The complexity of the case

57.

In the submission of the applicants, the prosecutions brought were uncomplicated as regards both the nature of their object and the nature of the various procedural steps taken. The Government, on the contrary, asserted that the preliminary investigation involved a large number of measures; they also drew attention to the political climate prevailing in Reggio Calabria at the time of the trials ....

58.

The Court notes, as did the Commission, that the offences of which the applicants were accused (insulting and resisting the police, possession of tear-gas grenades, obstruction of the public highway, and seditious assembly or demonstration) can in themselves scarcely be described as complex. As offences committed in public and established on the spot, they should not have given rise to a difficult process of preliminary investigation. Furthermore, except in the second Foti case, they were dealt with at one jurisdicional level alone.

The applicants’ cases were thus not especially complex and did not become so during the course of the proceedings. As far as the climate surrounding the prosecutions is concerned, this can only be taken into account when reviewing the conduct of the relevant authorities.

b.

The conduct of the applicants

59.

Of the four applicants, Mr. Foti alone exercised, in the second proceedings brought against him, his right to enter an ordinary appeal and then to apply to the Court of Cassation ....

Mr. Cenerini's objection that the decision committing him for trial was void was allowed by the Potenza Regional Court and its contribution to the duration of the proceedings was no more than five months and twelve days ....

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Accordingly, such delays as there were in the conduct of the proceedings were not imputable to the applicants.

c.

The conduct of the Italian authorities

60.

In the submission of the applicants, the blame for the delays of which they complained was to be attributed to the conduct of the Italian authorities.

61.

Before reviewing separately each set of proceedings in issue, the Court would recall the extent of the troubles that occurred in Reggio Calabria from 1970 until 1973 ...; these troubles had two important implications for the present case.

Firstly, they engendered an unusual political and social climate, and one in which the courts could legitimately fear, in the event of precipitate convictions or severe sentences, a recrudescense of tension and even a recurrence of the disorders.

Secondly, the troubles were not without effects on the workings of criminal justice. Such effect were felt mostly in the Reggio Regional Court, but the courts in Potenza, to which cases had been transferred, were also confronted with an exceptional backlog of business (see, mutatis mutandis, the Buchholz judgment of 6 May 1981, Series A no. 42, pp. 20–21, par. 61).

These circumstances must be borne in mind and, in particular, normal lapses of time stemming from the transfer of the cases are not to be regarded as unjustified.

i.

Mr. Foti

Proceedings I

62.

Mr. Foti was charged in September 1970 and acquitted in February 1978. In its report, the Commission criticised the Reggio authorities for not having severed the case of Mr. Foti from that of Mr. Aloi, who had been elected to the Chamber of Deputies, and the Potenza authorities for having been dilatory in fixing the first hearing ....

63.

On the first point, the Court would recall that between the suspension of the preliminary investigation (May 1972) and the committal of Mr. Foti for trial (March 1976) there elapsed approximately three years and ten months, including a little more than two years and seven months after 31 July 1973. The Court does not consider that it has to review the conduct of the investigating judge, that is to say, the question whether he ought to have severed the proceedings against Mr. Foti and Mr. Aloi. Nor does the Court adjudge it to be within its province to determine whether the Chamber of Deputies ought to have waived Mr. Aloi's parliamentary immunity at an earlier date. In all cases before the Court,

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what is in issue is the international responsibility of the State (see especially, mutatis mutandis, the above-mentioned Buchholz judgment, Series A no. 42, p. 16, par. 51, and the Young, James and Webster judgment of 13 August 1981, Series A no. 44, p. 20, par. 49). Having regard to the lack of complexity of the case (see paragraph 58 above), the Court limits itself to holding the delay in question not to be reasonable.

64.

On the second point (fixing of the date of hearing), it has to be observed that one year passed between the transferral order by the Court of Cassation and the summons of the applicant to appear before the Potenza Regional Court (20 December 1976 − 21 December 1977). In view of the latter Court's exceptional backlog of pending business at the relevant time, such a delay cannot jusitifiably be criticised in the particular circumstances (see paragraph 61 above).

Proceedings II

65.

Between the appeal entered by the prosecuting authorities against the decision of November 1971 ordering a partial discharge and the dismissal of the appeal on 10 January 1976 by the investigation chamber, there occurred an interval of four years and two months, including a little more than two years and five months after 31 July 1973. The Government not having come forward with any plausible explanation in this respect, such a lapse of time is to be regarded as unduly long; the Court concurs with the Commission in reaching this conclusion.

66.

On the other hand, the period between the transferral order by the Court of Cassation (11 June 1976) and the first hearing held by the Potenza Regional Court (1 February 1977) is not excessive since the latter Court was under a duty to satisfy itself that the preliminary investigation carried out at Reggio sufficed in the circumstances.

Proceedings III

67.

A period of two years and eleven months, including two years and seven months after 31 July 1973, elapsed from the moment Mr. Foti was charged (21 March 1973) until the request by the Reggio public prosecutor to have the proceedings remitted to another court (27 February 1976). This length of time cannot be justified, without more, by the procedural acts mentioned by the Government, namely the questioning of the accused and the witnesses, the issue of the order of provisional release from custody and the appeal against that order.

ii.

Mr. Lentini

68.

Mr. Lentini was committed for trial on 18 September 1972. Yet, as the Commission was right to point out, no procedural measure seems to have been taken until 27 May 1974

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when the Reggio public prosecutor requested the public prosecutor attached to the Catanzaro Court of Appeal to apply to have the proceedings remitted to a court other than the Reggio Regional Court. Thus, more than twenty-two months, including approximately ten months as from 1 August 1973, passed without any action on the part of the judicial authorities in Reggio. This has not been explained by the Government. The Court is conscious of the reasons capable of making a period of respite seem desirable (see paragraph 61 above); nonetheless, it does not consider, in the particular circumstances, that the prosecuting authorities had cause to be so dilatory.

69.

A further period of time commenced with the issue by the Court of Cassation of the transferral order (16 June 1975) and ended with the first hearing before the Potenza Regional Court (26 May 1976). In view of the latter Court's exceptional backlog of pending business, this period, although exceeding eleven months, does not appear to be open to criticism (see paragraph 61 above).

iii.

Mr. Cenerini

70.

Three periods call for comment in connection with the action brought against Mr. Cenerini.

71.

The first, which extended from the committal of the applicant for trial (10 October 1972) until the request by the Reggio public prosecutor to have the proceedings remitted to another court (27 May 1974), lasted longer than nineteen months, including nine months after 31 July 1973. Here too (see paragraph 68 above), the action of the prosecuting authorities is to be regarded as dilatory in that the stated grounds for taking that action were serious reasons of public policy (see paragraph 26 above), which by their very nature imply a certain degree of urgency.

72.

The second period, of approximately fifteen months, occurred between the issue of the transferral order by the Court of Cassation (17 January 1975) and the forwarding of the case-file to the Potenza Regional Court (April 1976). The Government have adduced no grounds capable of explaining this delay, which the Court finds to be excessive.

73.

The same cannot be said of the third period, represented by the duration of the proceedings before the Potenza Regional Court (April 1976 — June 1978), in that there were valid reasons justifying the successive adjournments of hearings: nullity of the committal order, absence of leading witnesses, changes in the membership of the chamber ....

iv.

Mr. Gulli

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74.

More than twenty months, including fifteen and a half months after 31 July 1973, elapsed between the committal of Mr. Gulli for trial (3 March 1973) and the request by the Reggio public prosecutor for the proceedings to be transferred to another court (16 November 1974). On this point too (see paragraph 68 above), the Court finds that there was an abnormal delay.

75.

Thereafter the case-file was transmitted to the Court of Cassation on 15 December 1975, more than one year after the application by the public prosecutor attached to the Catanzaro Court of Appeal for the case to be remitted to a court other than the Reggio Regional Court (3 December 1974). The Government have placed reliance on the difficulties encountered in serving the judicial notification on a number of Mr. Gulli's co-accused ... . Without underestimating these difficulties in the context of a mass trial involving fifty-four accused, the Court considers that they cannot deprive a person charged with a criminal offence of the guarantees under Article 6 par. 1 and, in particular, of his right to a hearing within a reasonable time.

76.

A third period is also to be regarded as unjustified. This period, which exceeds twenty months, runs from the lodging at the court registry of the grounds for the Court of Cassation's order (12 March 1976) to the summons to Mr. Gulli to appear before the Potenza Regional Court (2 February 1978). The Government have come forward with no explanation of this delay and they did not contest that the fifty-four cases were ready for trial when referred to the Potenza Regional Court.

d.

Conclusion

77.

To sum up, the six sets of proceedings brought against the applicants were subject to delays incompatible with Article 6 1 of the Convention.

B. The alleged breach of article 13

78.

Like the Commission (see paragraph 151 of the report), the Court considers it superfluous to decide on the application of Article 13 in the instant case in view of the fact that the parties have not pursued the matter and in view of its own conclusion that there has been a breach of Article 6 par. 1.

...

For these reasons, the Court

1

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Rejects by six votes to one the objection based by the Government on the ‘ex officio’ examination of the issue of ‘reasonable time’, within the meaning of Article 6 1, in the case of Mr. Foti, Mr. Lentini and Mr. Cenerini;

2

Declares unanimously that the Government are estopped form relying on the rule of exhaustion of domestic remedies;

3

Holds unanimously that there has been a breach of Article 6 1 in respect of the four applicants;

4

Holds unanimously that it is not necessary also to examine the case under Article 13;

5

Holds unanimously that the question of the application of Article 50 is not yet ready for decision;

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NJ 1997, 232: Bewijsmateriaal dat is verkregen naar aanleiding van aan verdachte gedane vordering cfm. 81 AWR mocht tot bewijs worden gebezigd; nog...

Instantie: Hoge Raad (Strafkamer) Datum: 29 oktober 1996

Magistraten:

Hermans, Bleichrodt, Koster, Schipper, Aaftink, Van Dorst

Zaaknr: 102966

Conclusie: - LJN: ZD0562

Noot: T.M. Schalken Roepnaam: -

Wetingang: Sv art. 29; Sv art. 107; Sv art. 338; Sv art. 551; WED art. 18; EVRM art. 6 lid 1; WWM art. 52; WVW 1994 art. 8; WVW 1994 art. 163

Snel naar: EssentieVoorgaande uitspraakConclusieNoot

EssentieNaar boven

Bewijsmateriaal dat is verkregen naar aanleiding van een aan verdachte gedane vordering cfm. art. 81 AWR mocht tot het bewijs worden gebezigd; nog geen ‘criminal charge’.

Voorgaande uitspraakNaar boven

Arrest op het beroep in cassatie tegen een arrest van het Gerechtshof te Amsterdam van 28 april 1994 in de strafzaak tegen R.J., te Willemstad, Curaçao (Nederlandse Antillen), adv. mr. G. Spong te 's-Gravenhage.

Hof:

Bewezenverklaring

Ten laste van de verdachte is bewezenverklaard dat:

hij op tijdstippen in de periode van 1 april 1985 tot en met 1 april 1988 te Utrecht meermalen telkens opzettelijk een bij de belastingwet voorziene aangifte voor de inkomstenbelasting/premies volksverzekeringen onjuist en/of onvolledig heeft gedaan in een telkens door of vanwege de Inspecteur der Directe Belastingen te Utrecht gezonden, en telkens door hem, verdachte, ondertekend en telkens wederom aan die inspecteur gezonden aangiftebiljet inkomstenbelasting/premies volksverzekeringen, zulks terwijl daarvan telkens het gevolg zou hebben kunnen zijn dat te weinig belasting zou kunnen worden geheven, immers heeft hij, verdachte, telkens aldaar:

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op of omstreeks 1 april 1985 opzettelijk onjuist en/of onvolledig in het aangiftebiljet inkomstenbelasting/premies volksverzekeringen 1984 opgegeven dat het belastbaar inkomen ƒ 108 387 heeft bedragen, terwijl in werkelijkheid het belastbaar inkomen meer heeft bedragen dan het aangegeven bedrag, zulks terwijl daarvan het gevolg zou hebben kunnen zijn dat te weinig belasting zou kunnen worden geheven.

en (enz.; red.)

Verweer

De raadsman heeft ter terechtzitting in hoger beroep aangevoerd dat in deze zaak de bewijsgaring onrechtmatig heeft plaatsgevonden in dier voege dat op 30 november 1989 vorderingen tot uitlevering als bedoeld in art. 81 Algemene wet inzake rijksbelastingen (AWR) juncto art. 94 WvSv tegen verdachte zijn gedaan, strekkende tot directe uitlevering van de administratie van O. BV en van bankafschriften van een aantal bankrekeningen, onderscheidenlijk van arbeidscontracten, specificaties van effecten en van een aantal bankafschriften van een aantal bankrekeningen, welke vorderingen niet hadden mogen worden gedaan aangezien verdachte toen reeds als verdachte werd aangemerkt en zodanige vorderingen niet mogen worden gericht tot een persoon die reeds als verdachte valt aan te merken.

Ter staving van dat standpunt heeft de raadsman aangevoerd dat enerzijds de vraag of de in art. 81 AWR bedoelde vordering kan worden gedaan in het door de raadsman bedoelde geval in de wet is opengelaten, en anderzijds het arrest van het EHRM van 25 februari 1993, NJ 1993, 485 (Funke v Frankrijk), analoge toepassing van de artt. 107 lid 1, 125m lid 1 en 126alid 2 Sv, de door de Commissie herijking van het Wetboek van Strafvordering (Commissie Moons) geventileerde opvattingen, de arresten van de Hoge Raad van onderscheidenlijk 28 april 1988, NJ 1989, 390 en 16 januari 1928, NJ 1928, 233, het standpunt van de wetgever, zoals daarvan blijkt uit de MvT bij het wetsvoorstel tot herziening van het administratieve boetestelsel (Hand. Tweede Kamer 1993/1994, 23.470, p. 14–17 en p. 52), alsmede in het algemeen het 'nemo tenetur'-beginsel, nopen tot ontkennende beantwoording van die vraag, zulks anders dan is geoordeeld door de Rechtbank in het aangevallen vonnis.

Daaromtrent overweegt het Hof als volgt. Voorop dient te worden gesteld dat art. 81 AWR naar zijn bewoordingen aan de in dat artikel bedoelde opsporingsambtenaren een onbegrensd recht tot het doen van de in dat artikel bedoelde vordering verleent. De wetsgeschiedenis bevat geen aanwijzing dat aan die bevoegdheid beperkingen zijn gesteld, ook niet de beperking waarmee de Rechter-Commissaris in het gerechtelijk vooronderzoek zich ingevolge art. 107 lid 1 Sv geconfronteerd weet.

In het licht van de voortschrijdende rechtsontwikkeling zijn echter voor de beantwoording van de hier aan de orde zijnde vraag de bewoordingen der wet en de geschiedenis van haar totstandkoming evenwel niet, althans niet zonder meer doorslaggevend te achten, zoals de raadsman op zichzelf terecht heeft betoogd.

In aansluiting aan de overwegingen en beslissingen van de Hoge Raad in diens arrest van 26 oktober 1993, nr. 94.871, betrekking hebbende op de strafrechtelijke regelgeving van de artt. 40 en 41 Wegenverkeerswet (WVW), die zien op het geval dat een verkeersdelict is begaan door een bij de ontdekking van het feit onbekend gebleven bestuurder, is het Hof van oordeel dat in de eerste plaats heeft te gelden dat het niet in strijd met enige regel van geschreven of ongeschreven recht noch met enige verdragsrechtelijke bepaling

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— in welk verband in het bijzonder art. 6 Europees Verdrag tot bescherming van de rechten van de mens en de fundamentele vrijheden (EVRM) in aanmerking is te nemen — is te achten dat een vordering als bedoeld in art. 81 AWR wordt gedaan in het geval dat jegens degene tot wie die vordering zich richt niet sprake is van een verdenking een in verband met de belastingheffing strafbaar feit te hebben gepleegd, ook niet indien voldoen aan die vordering tot het verschaffen van gegevens zou leiden die grondslag zouden kunnen vormen voor het ontstaan van zodanige verdenking.

Anders is zulks ingeval degene tot wie de vordering zich richt reeds is 'charged with a criminal offence' in de zin van voormelde verdragsbepaling, hetgeen aldus is te verstaan dat jegens deze tevoren vanwege de Staat reeds een handeling is verricht waarin deze in redelijkheid de gevolgtrekking heeft kunnen verbinden dat tegen hem terzake van enig strafbaar feit van voormelde aard een strafvervolging zal worden ingesteld. In zulk een geval vormt het doen van de vordering als bedoeld in art. 81 AWR tot uitlevering van bescheiden een niet gerechtvaardigde inbreuk op het 'fair trial' beginsel, voor zover dat meebrengt dat hij niet gehouden is onder dwang informatie te verschaffen welke als bewijs van dat strafbaar feit tegen hem kan worden gebruikt. Alsdan dient art. 81 AWR buiten toepassing te worden gelaten, omdat toepassing van het in dat artikel bepaalde in strijd zou komen met voormelde verdragsbepaling.

In het onderhavige geval is echter gesteld noch gebleken, noch anderszins aannemelijk geworden dat verdachte reeds was 'charged with a criminal offence' in vorenbedoelde zin. De enkele omstandigheid dat verdachte op die datum reeds door de opsporingsambtenaren van de FIOD als verdachte was aangemerkt en hem bij verhoren was medegedeeld dat hij niet tot antwoorden verplicht was, leidt niet tot de slotsom dat tegen verdachte een 'criminal charge' in meergenoemde zin was uitgebracht.

Met betrekking tot de vraag of de vordering als bedoeld in art. 81 AWR kan worden gedaan jegens een persoon die reeds, doch vooralsnog slechts, ervan wordt verdacht een strafbaar feit (in verband met een belastingaangifte) te hebben gepleegd geldt het volgende.

Enerzijds is in het Nederlands recht niet verankerd een onvoorwaardelijk recht of beginsel dat een verdachte op generlei wijze kan worden verplicht tot het verlenen van medewerking aan het verkrijgen van voor hem mogelijk bezwarend bewijsmateriaal, anderzijds echter ligt aan art. 29 Sv het beginsel ten grondslag dat een verdachte niet kan worden verplicht tot het afleggen van een verklaring naar aanleiding van vragen of het verschaffen van stukken — het onderscheid tussen het mondeling of schriftelijk verschaffen van informatie acht het Hof in dit verband slechts gradueel van aard — waarvan niet kan worden gezegd dat zij in vrijheid is afgelegd onderscheidenlijk zijn verschaft.

Uit de wetsgeschiedenis met betrekking tot art. 81 AWR blijkt niet dat dat artikel heeft beoogd op evengenoemd beginsel een inbreuk te maken.

Redelijke uitleg nu van art. 81 AWR in verbinding met art. 184 Sr brengt naar het oordeel van het Hof mee dat in een geval als het onderhavige de vordering als bedoeld in art. 81 AWR weliswaar kon worden gedaan jegens verdachte, doch dat hij, nu hij op de dag waarop die vordering is gedaan reeds als verdachte werd aangemerkt, niet de verplichting had aan die vordering te voldoen en daaraan dus geen gevolg had behoeven

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te geven, alsmede dat het niet voldoen daaraan of gevolg geven daaraan niet kan worden geoordeeld een strafbaar feit op te leveren.

Voor het verdergaande standpunt van de raadsman dat het bevel in een geval als het onderhavige niet gegeven had mogen worden, en dat daarom het na het gegeven zijn van dat bevel verkregen materiaal niet voor het bewijs mag worden gebezigd, is in de door de raadsman aangedragen bronnen geen steun te vinden. Wat het arrest van de Hoge Raad van 16 januari 1928 betreft ziet de raadsman over het hoofd dat daarin — slechts — de vraag aan de orde was of aan opsporingsambtenaren een niet in de wet voorziene bevoegdheid diende te worden toegekend, in welk verband werd overwogen dat toekenning daarvan zou leiden tot een niet te aanvaarden verplichting van een verdachte aan zijn eigen veroordeling mede te werken — in zoverre wijkt 's Hofs hiervoren uiteengezette oordeel van de beslissing in dit arrest niet af — en, wat het arrest van de Hoge Raad van 26 april 1988 betreft, heeft te gelden dat weliswaar enerzijds juist is het betoog van de raadsman dat daarin niet méér is beslist dan dat de werkingssfeer van art. 81 AWR niet is beperkt tot een vordering tot uitlevering tegen de verdachte zelf, doch dat anderzijds in het in dat arrest behandelde geval het andersluidende betoog nu juist was gebaseerd op het uitgangspunt — anders dan door het Hof in dezen aangenomen — dat die vordering en de verplichting tot gevolg geven daaraan wel, zij het bij uitsluiting, de verdachte regardeerde.

Wat het beroep van de raadsman op art. 107 lid 1 Sv betreft overweegt het Hof nog dat het op zichzelf juist is dat art. 81 AWR aan opsporingsambtenaren bevoegdheden toekent die niet toekomen aan de Rechter-Commissaris, hetgeen opmerkelijk en niet voor de hand liggend is te achten, doch dat moet worden vastgesteld dat deze stand van zaken, door de annotator Van Veen (onder HR 20 maart 1984, NJ 1984, 547) kernachtig samengevat in de opmerking dat art. 107 Sv nu een zondags pak is uit een kostuummuseum, eveneens het gevolg is van de hoger genoemde rechtsontwikkeling na het tot stand komen van het Wetboek van Strafvordering.

Het Hof overweegt tenslotte nog dat zijn hiervoren weergegeven oordeel strookt met de gedachtengang, neergelegd in het voorstel van wet, houdende wijziging van de Algemene wet inzake rijksbelastingen en van de Invorderingswet 1990 in verband met de herziening van het stelsel van administratieve boeten en van het fiscale strafrecht (Tweede Kamer der Staten-Generaal nr. 23.470). In de — gewijzigde — Memorie van Toelichting (kamerstuk 23.470 A) wordt immers enerzijds bevestigd dat de verplichting bestaat tot het verschaffen van inlichtingen met het oog op richtige belastingheffing, doch wordt anderzijds het standpunt betrokken dat geen verplichting bestaat tot het verschaffen van inlichtingen voor degene, ten aanzien van wie, naar objectieve maatstaven beoordeeld, ernstig moet worden gerekend met de oplegging van een fiscale boete, welk onderscheid mede tot uitdrukking wordt gebracht doordien, als de belastingplichtige wordt benaderd in verband met onderzoek naar de vraag of al dan niet een boete moet worden opgelegd, zulks geschiedt door de in te stellen boete-inspecteur, in welk geval voor de belastingplichtige de in verdragen en in artikel 29 van het Wetboek van Strafvordering neergelegde waarborgen gaan gelden.

Uitspraak

Het Hof heeft in hoger beroep de verdachte ter zake van 'opzettelijk een bij de belastingwet voorziene aangifte onjuist doen, terwijl daarvan het gevolg zou kunnen zijn dat te weinig belasting zou kunnen worden geheven, meermalen gepleegd' veroordeeld

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tot het verrichten van onbetaalde arbeid ten algemenen nutte voor de duur van tweehonderdenveertig uren, in plaats van zes maanden gevangenisstraf alsmede tot een geldboete van tachtigduizend gulden, subsidiair zes maanden hechtenis.

Cassatiemiddelen:

Middel I

Het recht is geschonden en/of er zijn vormen verzuimd waarvan niet naleving nietigheid medebrengt.

In het bijzonder zijn de artt. 6 EVRM, 14 Internationaal Verdrag inzake burgerrechten en politieke rechten (IVBP) geschonden, doordien sinds het instellen van het beroep in cassatie op 10 mei 1994 en de eerste behandeling in cassatie op 27 februari 1996 een zodanig lange termijn (20½ maand) is verstreken welke termijn gelet op de totale duur van de procedure (verzoeker werd op 30 november 1989 als verdachte aangemerkt, vonnis rechtbank Utrecht d.d. 3 november 1992), die inmiddels 5 jaar en 3 maanden bedraagt, als een onredelijke termijn in de zin van de artt. 6 EVRM, 14 IVBP dient te worden beschouwd. Primair dient zulks vanwege de recidive in vertraging tot niet-ontvankelijkverklaring van het openbaar ministerie en subsidiair tot een aanmerkelijke strafvermindering te leiden.

Middel II

Het recht is geschonden en/of er zijn vormen verzuimd waarvan niet naleving nietigheid medebrengt.

In het bijzonder zijn de artt. 6 EVRM, 14 IVBP, 359, 415 Sv. geschonden, doordien het hof het door de raadsman van verzoeker gevoerd verweer inhoudende dat de bewijsgaring onrechtmatig heeft plaatsgevonden in dier voege dat op 30 november 1989 vorderingen tot uitlevering als bedoeld in art. 81 AWR juncto art. 94 WvSv tegen verdachte zijn gedaan, strekkende tot directe uitlevering van de administratie van O. BV en van bankafschriften van een aantal bankrekeningen, onderscheidenlijk van arbeidscontracten, specificaties van effecten en van een aantal bankafschriften van een aantal bankrekeningen, welke vorderingen niet hadden mogen worden gedaan aangezien verzoeker toen reeds als verdachte werd aangemerkt en zodanige vorderingen niet mogen worden gericht tot een persoon die reeds als verdachte valt aan te merken, aangezien één en ander in strijd is met het 'nemo tenetur-beginsel', heeft verworpen op gronden die deze verwerping niet kunnen dragen. De bewezenverklaring is op grond hiervan niet naar de eis der wet met redenen omkleed.

Toelichting

1

Het hof heeft op voormeld verweer als volgt, zakelijk weergegeven beslist: (enz.; zie onder Hof; red.)

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2

Vorenweergegeven weerlegging is ontoereikend en geeft blijk van een onjuiste rechtsopvatting nopens het begrip 'criminal charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM, 14 IVBP en het nemo tenetur-beginsel.

3

's Hofs oordeel dat niet aannemelijk is geworden dat verzoeker reeds op 30 november 1989 'charged with a criminal offence' was en de enkele omstandigheid dat verzoeker op die datum reeds door opsporingsambtenaren als verdachte was aangemerkt en hem bij verhoren was meegedeeld dat hij niet tot antwoorden verplicht was niet leidt tot de slotsom dat tegen verzoeker een 'criminal charge' in meergenoemde zin was uitgebracht, miskent dat het 'uitbrengen' van een 'charge' niet beslissend is.

4

Blijkens EHRM (Foti 3 en anderen vgl. ook inzake Corygliano) NJ 1987, 828 ECHR series A, vol. 56 is er sprake van een 'criminal charge' vanaf 'the official notification given to an individu by the competent authority of an allegation that he has committed a criminal offence; it may in some instances take the form of other measures which carry the implication of such an allegation and which likewise substantially affect the situation of the suspect'.

Uw Raad vertaalt dit als het moment waarop vanwege de Staat jegens de betrokkene een handeling wordt verricht waaruit deze heeft opgemaakt, en in redelijkheid heeft kunnen opmaken dat het OM het ernstige voornemen heeft een vervolging in te stellen (zie onder meer HR 22 mei 1979, NJ 1979, 301 en HR 6 januari 1981, NJ 1981, 207). Uit deze formulering blijkt dat het referentiepunt hierbij de verwachting van de verdachte in kwestie is, zij het dat dit subjectieve criterium in zoverre wel weer geobjectiveerd wordt dat diens verwachting redelijk geacht moet kunnen worden. De geobjectiveerde vraag of bijvoorbeeld een verhoor, een inverzekeringstelling of een aanvang gerechtelijk vooronderzoek zelf als aanvangsmoment gehanteerd mag worden, kan daarom niet eenduidig beantwoord worden; de vaststelling van dit aanvangsmoment is geen rechtskwestie, maar een oordeel van feitelijke aard. Opmerking verdient dat Corstens (Handboek, pg. 470) stelt dat verdedigd kan worden dat het materiële criterium van het Europees Hof voor de rechten van de mens (EHRM) 'measures which likewise substantially affect the situation of the suspect' ruimer is dan dat van de Hoge Raad, doordat het niet de door de Hoge Raad aangewezen geobjectiveerde maatstaf 'en in redelijkheid heeft kunnen opmaken' bevat en doordat het niet verwijst naar het risico van vervolging van het OM. Het criterium van het EHRM laat meer ruimte voor subjectivering, in die zin, dat het erom gaat dat bij de verdachte onzekerheid is ontstaan als gevolg van strafvorderlijk optreden, waarbij het er niet toe doet of deze berust op een verkeerde taxatie van het vervolgingsrisico.

5

Van een 'charge' in fiscale boetezaken is sprake wanneer de fiscus jegens de belastingplichtige een handeling onderneemt waaruit deze in redelijkheid de verwachting kan ontlenen dat de inspecteur hem een boete zal opleggen. Vgl.:

'—

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HR 23 juni 1993, BNB 1993/271.'

'Het aanzeggen of uitvoeren van de gewone periodieke controle is', aldus Wattel, 'niet zo'n handeling, al kan uiteraard een controle onder omstandigheden wel op een verdenking en vervolgens op een charge uitlopen. Vgl.:

'Wattel, NJCM Bulletin, 45 jaar Europees Verdrag voor de rechten van de mens, pg. 196.'

6

Zowel uit voormeld Foti-arrest als uit de rechtspraak van Uw Raad volgt mitsdien, dat het 'uitbrengen' van een charge geenszins beslissend is, maar een in concreto verrichte handeling waaruit de justitiabele een redelijke verwachting omtrent een vervolging kan ontlenen. In deze lijn past dan ook de aanvaarding van een politieverhoor als een criminal charge in de zin van art. 6 EVRM. Vgl.:

'—

HR NJ 1986, 494.'

In zijn arrest van 6 mei 1985, NJ 1985, 911 nam het hof Amsterdam ook aan, dat het moment waarop de verdachte werd gehoord door de FIOD gold als het moment waarop de redelijke termijn aanving. Zie ook:

'—

HR NJ 1985, 273.'

Op grond van het voorgaande dient derhalve aangenomen te worden dat het 'uitbrengen' van een criminal charge een te beperkte opvatting inhoudt nopens het begrip 'charge'. Voldoende is dat de verdachte merkt, dat sprake is van een charge. Vgl.:

'—

Wattel, o.c., pg. 197.'

7

Nu het hof met juistheid heeft overwogen dat art. 81 AWR buiten toepassing dient te worden gelaten, zodra er sprake is van 'charged with a criminal offence' dient het voorgaande tot de slotsom te leiden, dat reeds op deze grond 's hofs arrest niet in stand kan blijven. Opmerking verdient in dit verband nog, dat sprake is van een klein terminologisch verschil tussen art. 6 lid 1 en lid 2 EVRM. In lid 1 wordt gerept over een 'criminal charge', terwijl in lid 2 het voltooide deelwoord 'charged' gebruikt wordt. Aangezien het bepaalde in art. 6 lid 2 voor het strafproces een nadere uitwerking behelst van het in art. 6 lid 1 besloten recht op een eerlijk proces (vgl. EHRM 26 maart 1982 inzake Adolf en 21 februari 1984 inzake Öztürk) zal aan dit verschil in terminologie geen enkel gevolg verbonden kunnen worden.

8

In HR NJ 1988, 563 besliste Uw Raad echter, dat niet elk politieverhoor een 'charge' behelst. Het kan verschil uitmaken of iemand bekent of ontkent. Uit het op 1 december 1990 gehouden verhoor van verzoeker blijkt dat hij in ieder geval bekend heeft de

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opbrengsten van obligaties niet te hebben aangegeven. In zoverre is 's hofs oordeel te dezer zake onbegrijpelijk. De onbegrijpelijkheid van dit oordeel wordt voorts versterkt doordien, bij doorbreking van de zogeheten papieren muur — voor zover die nog bestaat — blijkt dat de vordering tot uitlevering op 30 november 1989 plaatsvond tijdens een tweede bezoek op het bedrijfadres van Norgips BV. Het eerste bezoek vond één dag eerder op 29 november 1989 plaats. Voorts dient hierbij ook in aanmerking genomen te worden dat de vordering tot uitlevering betrekking had op de navolgende bescheiden. (enz.; red.)

9

De vordering tot uitlevering ter gelegenheid van een tweede bezoek van verbalisanten, de aard van de gevorderde bescheiden en de uitvoerigheid daarvan, brengen tot uitdrukking dat op dat moment sprake was van een 'charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM. In combinatie met het aansluitende verhoor één dag later op 1 december 1989, waarbij aan verzoeker de cautie is gegeven, kan in redelijkheid de conclusie geen andere zijn dan dat er alstoen niet alleen sprake was van een aanmerken van verzoeker als verdachte, zoals het hof overweegt, maar tevens sprake was van een 'charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM, 14 IVBP die voor verzoeker merkbaar moet zijn geweest. Je moet onder de gegeven omstandigheden wel een heel grote sukkel zijn om niet te merken dat je verdachte bent. Tegen de achtergrond van twee rechterlijke uitspraken (HR NJ 1985, 273 en Hof Amsterdam NJ 1985, 911) waarin een verhoor bij de FIOD als 'charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM is aangemerkt valt het moeilijk te verkopen, dat nu ineens niet meer te aanvaarden. In alle gevallen staat een misdrijf van dezelfde ernst (een belastingontduiking) centraal. In het licht van deze jurisprudentie is 's hofs oordeel als hiervoren weergegeven en gewraakt derhalve onbegrijpelijk.

10

Ook in het geval echter waarin zou moeten worden aangenomen, dat in het onderhavige geval nog geen sprake is van een 'charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM had het hof geen gebruik mogen maken van de resultaten van een in die situatie op zich zelf rechtmatig (op basis van art. 81 AWR) gegeven vordering tot uitlevering, aangezien gelet op de hiervoren vermelde omstandigheden waaronder de vordering tot uitlevering is gedaan sprake is geweest van 'incriminating evidence obtained from him (verzoeker) under compulsory powers' zoals de Europese Commissie voor de rechten van de mens (ECRM) in haar rapport d.d. 10 mei 1994 (Sanders tegen het VK), FED 1995/2, overwoog. In dit verband overwoog de Commissie:

'...the applicant was required by law to answer the questions put to him by the DTI inspectors in the course of their investigation, whether or not they tended to incriminate him. A refusal to answer could have been punished, on reference to the court by a penalty of up to two years imprisonment of by a fine (…) (…) The Commission finds that the use at the applicant's trial of incriminating evidence obtained from him under compulsory powers was oppressive and substantially impaired his ability to defend himself against the criminal charge against him. He was therefore deprived for a fair hearing (…)'.'

11

's Hofs oordeel, dat de vordering als bedoeld in art. 81 AWR jegens verzoeker gedaan mocht worden, doch dat hij, nu hij op de dag waarop die vordering is gedaan, reeds als

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verdachte was aangemerkt, niet de verplichting had aan die vordering te voldoen en daaraan dus geen gevolg had behoeven te geven, miskent het voorgaande. Overigens ligt in deze overweging een détournement de pouvoir besloten. De bevoegdheid tot het doen van een vordering bestaat slechts indien daartegenover een verplichting bestaat daaraan te voldoen. Iets anders is het doen van een verzoek. Door het doen van een vordering in een geval waar geen verplichting tot naleving bestaat wordt de burger op ontoelaatbare wijze misleid. Beginselen van een behoorlijke procesorde verzetten zich ertegen de resultaten van een vordering, die onder die omstandigheden is gegeven, voor het bewijs te bezigen. Het gezag dat politie c.q. justitiële ambtenaren verdienen te hebben brengt immers mee, dat de burger er op moet kunnen vertrouwen dat bevoegdheden niet misbruikt worden en derhalve uitsluitend aangewend worden in gevallen of omstandigheden waarin de betrokken opsporingsambtenaren de litigieuze bevoegdheid rechtens mogen gebruiken.

12

Met Corstens meent verzoeker in dit verband dat een dwangmiddel een species van het genus bevoegdheid is. 'Het begrip bevoegdheid, aldus Corstens, duidt op het met een zekere exclusiviteit tot iets gerechtigd zijn en dit desnoods door feitelijke dwang of door een ander machtsmiddel kracht bijzetten.' Vgl.:

'G.J.M. Corstens, Handboek, pg. 337.'

13

Corstens is in dit verband van mening dat het met uitdrukkelijke toestemming van de bewoner diens huis binnengaan, terwijl de bewoner niet weet dat de bewoner de opsporingsambtenaar de toegang had mogen beletten, onjuist optreden van die opsporingsambtenaar (curs. G.S.) oplevert. Dit binnentreden is onrechtmatig aldus Corstens.

Corstens, o.c., pg. 339.

14

Met dezelfde redenering dient aangenomen te worden, dat het hanteren van de bevoegdheid uitlevering van voorwerpen te vorderen ex art. 81 AWR in een geval, waarin een zodanige bevoegdheid vanwege het feit dat de betrokkene reeds als verdachte is aangemerkt rechtens niet (meer) bestaat, eveneens onjuist optreden van de opsporingsambtenaren oplevert. Die vordering is, gelijk als in het voorbeeld van binnentreden, onrechtmatig. Aldus beschouwd zijn er mitsdien ook vanuit deze optiek, de straffeloosheid terzake van art. 184 Sr. daargelaten, bewijsbeletselen voor het bezigen van de resultaten van de vordering tot uitlevering d.d. 30 november 1989.

15

's Hofs oordeel, dat voor het standpunt van de raadsman inhoudende dat het bevel in een geval als het onderhavige niet gegeven had mogen worden, en dat daarom het na het gegeven zijn van dat bevel verkregen materiaal niet voor het bewijs mag worden gebezigd in de door de raadsman aangedragen bronnen geen steun te vinden is, is mitsdien onjuist.

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16

De slotsom luidt dan ook dat de vordering tot uitlevering onder de gegeven omstandigheden en het verhoor van verzoeker door de FIOD beschouwd moeten worden als een 'charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM, 14 IVBP, subsidiair dat de vordering tot uitlevering onrechtmatig is, nu verzoeker zoals het hof heeft vastgesteld ten tijde daarvan als verdachte werd aangemerkt. In dat laatste geval is een verbod op het bezigen voor het bewijs van de vruchten van die uitlevering te steunen op het nationaal strafvorderlijk gegeven dat evenbedoelde vordering als onrechtmatig dient te worden beschouwd (zie nr. 12 t/m 15) alsook op grond van ECRM d.d. 10 mei 1994 inzake Saunders. Door het doen van een onrechtmatige vordering, althans een vordering tegen een als verdachte aangemerkte persoon is er sprake van 'incriminating evidence obtained ... under compulsory powers', welk bewijs 'oppressive and substantially impaired his ability to defend himself against the criminal charge against him' te achten is. Op grond van al het vorenstaande berust de verwerping van het gevoerde bewijsverweer op ontoereikende gronden, zodat 's hofs arrest niet in stand kan blijven.

Hoge Raad:

5. Beoordeling van het eerste middel

5.1

Uit de desbetreffende akte blijkt dat het cassatieberoep op 10 mei 1994 is ingesteld, terwijl uit een op de met de gedingstukken meegestuurde begeleidende brief geplaatst stempel blijkt dat die stukken op 24 november 1995 ter griffie van de Hoge Raad zijn ingekomen. De Hoge Raad heeft de zaak voor de eerste maal behandeld ter terechtzitting van 27 februari 1996.

5.2

In aanmerking genomen:

a.

dat tussen de datum waarop het cassatieberoep is ingesteld en de datum waarop de stukken van het geding ter griffie van de Hoge Raad zijn ontvangen meer dan achttien maanden zijn verstreken, waardoor de eerste behandeling door de Hoge Raad meer dan eenentwintig maanden na het instellen van dat beroep heeft plaatsgevonden;

b.

dat niet is gebleken van bijzondere omstandigheden die het onder (a) bedoelde tijdsverloop zouden kunnen rechtvaardigen,

moet worden geoordeeld dat de behandeling van de onderhavige zaak in cassatie niet heeft plaatsgevonden binnen een redelijke termijn als bedoeld in art. 6 EVRM.

5.3

Voorzover het middel klaagt over de schending van genoemde verdragsbepaling is het dus terecht voorgesteld.

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6. Beoordeling van het tweede middel

6.1

In cassatie moet van het volgende worden uitgegaan. In het kader van een opsporingsonderzoek hebben opsporingsambtenaren van de FIOD op 30 november 1989 van J. de uitlevering ter inbeslagneming gevorderd van bepaalde, in de desbetreffende vorderingen omschreven, administratieve bescheiden, aan welke vorderingen J. heeft voldaan. Hetgeen is in beslag genomen heeft bijgedragen tot het bewijs. Die vorderingen waren gebaseerd op art. 81 Algemene wet inzake rijksbelastingen (AWR) en toen zij werden gedaan beschouwden die opsporingsambtenaren J. reeds als verdachte. Tegen hem was echter nog geen vervolging ingesteld en evenmin was hij reeds als verdachte door de opsporingsambtenaren gehoord.

6.2

Art. 81 AWR houdt in dat de daar bedoelde opsporingsambtenaren te allen tijde bevoegd zijn tot inbeslagneming van de ingevolge het Wetboek van Strafvordering voor inbeslagneming vatbare voorwerpen en bepaalt voorts dat die opsporingsambtenaren daartoe de uitlevering van zodanige voorwerpen kunnen vorderen.

6.3

Het ter terechtzitting in hoger beroep gevoerde verweer strekt ten betoge dat vorderingen als de onderhavige niet mogen worden gericht tegen een verdachte en dat derhalve hetgeen ter voldoening aan genoemde vorderingen is uitgeleverd en in beslag genomen als onrechtmatig verkregen niet tot het bewijs mag worden gebezigd. Daarbij is onder meer aangevoerd dat door de gang van zaken art. 6, eerste lid, EVRM is geschonden voorzover die bepaling aan een ieder 'in the determination ... of any criminal charge against him' aanspraak geeft op een 'fair trial'.

6.4

Het Hof heeft dat verweer verworpen. In de eerste plaats heeft het Hof geoordeeld dat toen de vorderingen werden gedaan nog geen sprake was van een 'criminal charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM. Was dat al wel het geval geweest dan zou, aldus het Hof, een tot de verdachte gerichte vordering als bedoeld in art. 81 AWR tot uitlevering van bescheiden een niet gerechtvaardigde inbreuk vormen op het 'fair trial' beginsel. Het Hof heeft voorts geoordeeld dat hetgeen in deze zaak is in beslag genomen nadat aan de desbetreffende vorderingen tot uitlevering was voldaan, tot het bewijs mag worden gebezigd. In het middel wordt aangevoerd dat het Hof het verweer op ontoereikende gronden heeft verworpen en dat derhalve de bewezenverklaring niet naar de eis der wet met redenen is omkleed.

6.5

De primaire klacht van het middel richt zich tegen het oordeel van het Hof dat ten tijde dat de op art. 81 AWR gebaseerde vorderingen werden gedaan nog geen sprake was van een 'criminal charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM.

6.6

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Van een 'criminal charge' in de zin van die verdragsbepaling is sprake indien vanwege de Staat jegens de betrokkene een handeling is verricht waaraan deze in redelijkheid de gevolgtrekking heeft kunnen verbinden dat tegen hem een strafvervolging zal worden ingesteld.

Voorzover de primaire klacht van het middel blijkens de toelichting tot uitgangspunt neemt dat het Hof door te spreken van het 'niet uitgebracht zijn van een criminal charge in de zin van art. 6 EVRM' iets anders tot uitdrukking heeft gebracht dan dat er ten tijde van die vorderingen nog geen sprake was van een 'criminal charge' in de zin van die verdragsbepaling en aldus van een te beperkte opvatting omtrent dat begrip is uitgegaan, berust het op een verkeerde lezing van 's Hofs overwegingen en mist het derhalve feitelijke grondslag.

Ook overigens is die klacht tevergeefs voorgesteld. 's Hofs oordeel, hierop neerkomend dat onder de omstandigheden als hiervoor onder 6.1 weergegeven ten tijde van het doen van die vorderingen nog geen sprake was van een 'criminal charge' als bedoeld in art. 6 EVRM, geeft niet blijk van een verkeerde rechtsopvatting en is niet onbegrijpelijk.

6.7

De subsidiaire klacht van het middel keert zich tegen het oordeel van het Hof dat de omstandigheid dat een betrokkene ten tijde dat een op art. 81 AWR gebaseerde vordering wordt gedaan reeds als verdachte wordt aangemerkt er niet aan in de weg staat om het op grond van die vordering verkregen materiaal tot het bewijs te bezigen.

Bij de beoordeling van die klacht moet het volgende worden vooropgesteld. In het Nederlandse recht is niet verankerd een onvoorwaardelijk recht of beginsel dat een verdachte op generlei wijze kan worden verplicht tot het verlenen van medewerking aan het verkrijgen van voor hem mogelijk bezwarend bewijsmateriaal. Wel brengt het aan art. 29 Sv ten grondslag liggende beginsel mee dat een verdachte niet kan worden verplicht tot het afleggen van een verklaring waarvan niet kan worden gezegd dat zij in vrijheid is afgelegd. In het onderhavige geval gaat het echter niet om het afleggen van een verklaring of het desgevorderd verschaffen van schriftelijke inlichtingen door de verdachte omtrent zijn mogelijke betrokkenheid bij een strafbaar feit, maar om het afgeven van administratieve bescheiden.

6.8

Bepalingen met een soortgelijke strekking als art. 81 AWR komen voor in art. 551 Sv en in verschillende bijzondere wetten, zoals de WED (art. 18) en de Wet wapens en munitie (art. 52). In geen van die bepalingen wordt onderscheid gemaakt al naar gelang de vordering is gericht tot de verdachte of tot een derde, zoals dat bijvoorbeeld wel is geschied in art. 107 Sv voor vorderingen gedaan in het kader van een gerechtelijk vooronderzoek. De wetsgeschiedenis biedt evenmin aanknopingspunten voor de stelling dat bij de handhaving van die bijzondere wetten opsporingsambtenaren zodanige vordering niet tot de verdachte mogen richten. Aangenomen moet worden dat de wetgever zich op het standpunt heeft gesteld dat een vorm van medewerking van de verdachte als waarvan in die bepalingen sprake is, gelet op de bij de handhaving van de desbetreffende strafbepalingen betrokken belangen en de specifieke eisen en problemen van de waarheidsvinding in zodanige zaken kon en moest worden verlangd, zoals ook van degene die verdacht wordt van overtreding van art. 8 WVW 1994 ingevolge art. 163

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van die wet kan worden gevorderd dat hij zijn medewerking verleent aan een ademonderzoek.

6.9

In dit verband verdient opmerking dat in het wetsvoorstel 23 251, tot Partiële wijziging van het Wetboek van Strafvordering (herziening van het gerechtelijk vooronderzoek) in het voorgestelde art. 96a voor bepaalde gevallen is voorzien in een bevoegdheid van de opsporingsambtenaar tot het bevelen van de uitlevering van voor inbeslagneming vatbare voorwerpen, hoedanig bevel echter niet kan worden gegeven aan de verdachte. Voorts behelst dat wetsvoorstel een wijziging van art. 551 Sv, inhoudende dat in de daarin voorziene gevallen een vordering tot uitlevering door de opsporingsambtenaar alleen kan worden gedaan — doch dan ook jegens de verdachte — voorzover die vordering strekt om de verbeurdverklaring of onttrekking aan het verkeer van de daarin bedoelde voorwerpen mogelijk te maken en dus niet met het oog op de inbeslagneming van voorwerpen die kunnen dienen om de waarheid aan de dag te brengen. Dat wetsvoorstel voorziet voorts niet in wijzigingen in bovengenoemde bepalingen in bijzondere wetten. Uit de memorie van antwoord (Kamerstukken II 1993/94, 23 251, nr. 6, blz. 2 en 5) kan worden afgeleid dat daarbij onder ogen is gezien dat in afwijking van het voor het Wetboek van Strafvordering voorgestelde systeem in bepaalde bijzondere wetten een bevel tot uitlevering wel tot de verdachte kan worden gericht alsmede dat 'de bijzondere wetgever altijd de mogelijkheid zal moeten hebben op het delict toegesneden bevoegdheden te creëren'.

6.10

Uit het voorgaande volgt dat het in de subsidiaire klacht aangevallen oordeel van het Hof juist is wat er zij van de overwegingen die het Hof aan dat oordeel ten grondslag heeft gelegd. De klacht faalt dus.

6.11

Het middel is dus tevergeefs voorgesteld.

7. Slotsom

De Hoge Raad oordeelt geen grond aanwezig waarop de bestreden uitspraak ambtshalve zou behoren te worden vernietigd. Hetgeen hiervoor onder 5 is overwogen dient te leiden tot een vermindering van de straf als hieronder te bepalen, aangezien bij afweging van enerzijds het belang dat de gemeenschap ook na overschrijding van de redelijke termijn als bedoeld in art. 6 EVRM behoudt bij normhandhaving door berechting en anderzijds het belang dat de verdachte heeft bij verval van het recht tot strafvervolging nadat die termijn is overschreden, eerstgenoemd belang te dezen prevaleert en derhalve geen grond aanwezig is voor niet-ontvankelijkverklaring van het Openbaar Ministerie in zijn vervolging.

8. Beslissing

De Hoge Raad:

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Vernietigt de bestreden uitspraak, doch uitsluitend voor wat betreft de duur van de in plaats van zes maanden gevangenisstraf opgelegde straf van het verrichten van onbetaalde arbeid ten algemenen nutte;

Vermindert die duur tot tweehonderdtwintig uren in plaats van vijf maanden gevangenisstraf;

Verwerpt het beroep voor het overige.

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LJN: BB4753, Hoge Raad , 43447

Datum uitspraak: 05-10-2007

Datum publicatie: 05-10-2007

Rechtsgebied: Belasting

Soort procedure: Cassatie

Inhoudsindicatie: Artikel 54, lid 4, AOW (tekst tot 1-1-1990). Samenloop inkomstenbelasting en premieheffing volksverzekeringen. Aanvangstijdstip redelijke termijn.

Vindplaats(en): BNB 2008, 84 m. nt. R.L.H. IJzerman

NTFR 2007, 1824 m. nt. Niessen-Cobben

Rechtspraak.nl

VN 2007/47.3 m. nt. Red.

Uitspraak

Nr. 43.447

5 oktober 2007

gewezen op het beroep in cassatie van X te Z (hierna: belanghebbende) tegen de uitspraak van het Gerechtshof te 's-Gravenhage van 29 juni 2006, nr. BK-98/01046, betreffende na te melden navorderingsaanslag in de premieheffing volksverzekeringen.

1. Het geding in feitelijke instantie

Aan belanghebbende is voor het jaar 1989 een navorderingsaanslag in de premieheffing volksverzekeringen opgelegd, met een verhoging van 100 percent van de nagevorderde premies, van welke verhoging bij besluit van de Inspecteur geen kwijtschelding is verleend. De navorderingsaanslag en het kwijtscheldingsbesluit zijn, na daartegen gemaakt bezwaar, bij uitspraak van de Inspecteur gehandhaafd.

Belanghebbende is tegen de uitspraak van de Inspecteur in beroep gekomen bij het Hof.

Het Hof heeft het beroep gegrond verklaard, de uitspraak van de Inspecteur vernietigd, doch uitsluitend voor wat betreft het kwijtscheldingsbesluit, en de verhoging

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kwijtgescholden tot op 90 percent van de nagevorderde premies. De uitspraak van het Hof is aan dit arrest gehecht.

2. Geding in cassatie

Belanghebbende heeft tegen 's Hofs uitspraak beroep in cassatie ingesteld. Het beroepschrift in cassatie is aan dit arrest gehecht en maakt daarvan deel uit.

De Minister van Financiën heeft een verweerschrift ingediend.

Belanghebbende, advocaat te Rotterdam, heeft de zaak mondeling toegelicht.

3. Beoordeling van de klachten

3.1. Het Hof heeft in zijn uitspraak aan de in de navorderingsaanslag begrepen verhoging slechts aandacht besteed in verband met de vraag of sprake is van overschrijding van de redelijke termijn als bedoeld in artikel 6 EVRM (zie daarover hierna onder 3.4).

3.2. De stukken van het geding laten evenwel geen andere conclusie toe dan dat voor het Hof tussen partijen ook in geschil was of door de Inspecteur terecht een verhoging van 100 percent van de nagevorderde premies in de navorderingsaanslag is begrepen, en of hij daarvan terecht geen (gedeeltelijke) kwijtschelding heeft verleend.

3.3. Dienaangaande heeft het Hof nagelaten te oordelen. De daarop gerichte in het beroepschrift in cassatie besloten liggende klacht slaagt. Opmerking verdient dat 's Hofs vaststelling (onderdelen 3.1.3 en 3.5 van zijn uitspraak) dat het voor het Hof uitsluitend ging om feiten en omstandigheden die tevens van belang zijn voor de aan belanghebbende over het onderwerpelijke jaar opgelegde navorderingsaanslag in de inkomstenbelasting, gelet op het hiervoor in 3.2 overwogene onjuist is (vgl. HR 17 november 1993, nr. 29044, BNB 1994/107, onderdeel 3.3).

3.4. In onderdeel 3.7 van zijn uitspraak heeft het Hof geoordeeld dat sedert de laatste mondelinge behandeling van het beroep op 3 maart 2000 meer dan twee jaar zijn verstreken en dat dit een niet-verschoonbare overschrijding oplevert van de redelijke termijn als bedoeld in artikel 6 EVRM. De in het beroepschrift in cassatie besloten liggende klacht dat het Hof bij zijn toetsing of sprake is van overschrijding van de redelijke termijn, en bij zijn oordeel over de gevolgen daarvan, is uitgegaan van een onjuist aanvangstijdstip, slaagt.

Als zodanig tijdstip heeft immers te gelden het moment dat vanwege het betrokken bestuursorgaan jegens de beboete een handeling is verricht waaraan deze in redelijkheid

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de verwachting kan ontlenen dat aan hem een boete zal worden opgelegd (HR 22 april 2005, nr. 37984, BNB 2005/337, onderdeel 4.2). De stukken van het geding laten geen andere conclusie toe dan dat in dit geval als aanvangsdatum in aanmerking moet worden genomen 23 december 1994, de dagtekening van de brief waarbij aan belanghebbende is meegedeeld dat aan hem de onderhavige navorderingsaanslag met een verhoging van 100 percent van de daarin begrepen premies zal worden opgelegd en dat van de verhoging geen kwijtschelding zal worden verleend.

3.5. De overige klachten kunnen niet tot cassatie leiden. Zulks behoeft, gezien artikel 81 van de Wet op de rechterlijke organisatie, geen nadere motivering, nu die klachten niet nopen tot beantwoording van rechtsvragen in het belang van de rechtseenheid of de rechtsontwikkeling.

3.6. Uit het hiervoor in de onderdelen 3.3 en 3.4 overwogene volgt dat 's Hofs uitspraak niet in stand kan blijven. Verwijzing dient te volgen.

4. Proceskosten

De Hoge Raad acht geen termen aanwezig voor een veroordeling in de proceskosten.

5. Beslissing

De Hoge Raad:

verklaart het beroep gegrond,

vernietigt de uitspraak van het Hof, behoudens de beslissingen omtrent het griffierecht en de proceskosten,

verwijst het geding naar het Gerechtshof te Amsterdam ter verdere behandeling en beslissing van de zaak met inachtneming van dit arrest.

Dit arrest is gewezen door de vice-president J.W. van den Berge als voorzitter, en de raadsheren L. Monné en J.W.M. Tijnagel, in tegenwoordigheid van de waarnemend griffier A.I. Boussak-Leeksma, en in het openbaar uitgesproken op 5 oktober 2007.

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LJN: BO5309, College van Beroep voor het bedrijfsleven , AWB 09/687

Datum uitspraak: 16-09-2010

Datum publicatie: 29-11-2010

Rechtsgebied: Bestuursrecht overig

Soort procedure: Hoger beroep

Inhoudsindicatie: Tabakswet

Vindplaats(en): Rechtspraak.nl

Uitspraak

College van Beroep voor het bedrijfsleven

AWB 09/687 16 september 2010

11100 Tabakswet

Uitspraak op het hoger beroep van:

de Minister van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport (hierna: minister),

tegen de uitspraak van de rechtbank Rotterdam (hierna: rechtbank) van 13 maart 2009, met kenmerk AWB 07/3960 en 07/3963 BC-T2, in het geding tussen de minister en

A B.V. (hierna: A).

Gemachtigde van de minister: mr. I.L. de Graaf, werkzaam bij de Voedsel en Waren Autoriteit (hierna: VWA).

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Gemachtigde van A: mr. P. Sippens Groenewegen, advocaat te Amsterdam.

1. Het procesverloop in hoger beroep

Op 6 mei 2009 heeft het College van de minister een beroepschrift ontvangen, waarbij hoger beroep wordt ingesteld tegen de hiervoor vermelde, op 13 maart 2009 mondeling gedane, uitspraak van de rechtbank.

Bij brief van 9 juni 2009 heeft de minister de nadere gronden van het hoger beroep ingediend.

Bij brief van 22 juli 2009 heeft A een reactie op het beroepschrift ingediend.

Op 9 maart 2010 heeft het onderzoek ter zitting plaatsgehad. De minister heeft zich door haar gemachtigde laten vertegenwoordigen. A werd vertegenwoordigd door haar gemachtigde, vergezeld van mr. B, als bedrijfsjurist werkzaam bij A.

2. De grondslag van het geschil in hoger beroep

2.1 Voor een uitgebreide weergave van hetgeen aan het hoger beroep vooraf is gegaan en de in dit geding van belang zijnde feiten en omstandigheden, voor zover niet bestreden, wordt verwezen naar de aangevallen uitspraak (aangehecht). Het College volstaat met het volgende.

2.2 Bij besluit van 17 juni 2005 heeft de minister A een boete van € 45.000,- opgelegd, omdat zij op 27 juni 2004 tijdens het evenement “Beachpop” te Bloemendaal het reclameverbod van artikel 5, eerste lid, Tabakswet heeft overtreden.

Bij besluit van eveneens 17 juni 2005 heeft de minister A een boete van € 45.000,- opgelegd, omdat zij op 3 juli 2004 tijdens het evenement “Hilversum Alive” te Hilversum het reclameverbod van artikel 5, eerste lid, Tabakswet heeft overtreden.

Ter zitting van de rechtbank heeft de minister met betrekking tot deze twee in bezwaar gehandhaafde besluiten aangegeven de boete in beide zaken (hierna aan te duiden als respectievelijk de zaak “Beachpop” en de zaak “Hilversum Alive”) naar

€ 22.500,- te willen verlagen, zulks in navolging van de uitspraak van het College van 22 mei 2008 (AWB 07/168, , LJN BD2542).

Bij de aangevallen uitspraak heeft de rechtbank geoordeeld dat de minister bevoegd was A beide boetes op te leggen, en in redelijkheid van die bevoegdheid gebruik heeft kunnen maken, doch dat de hoogte van die boetes - gelet op het feit dat met de presentatie van te koop aangeboden tabaksproducten slechts in beperkte mate is getreden buiten de grenzen van hetgeen op grond van de Tabakswet is toegestaan - niet evenredig is aan de

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ernst en verwijtbaarheid van de overtreding. Gelet hierop heeft de rechtbank aanleiding gezien beide opgelegde boetes te matigen tot een bedrag van € 22.500,-.

Voorts heeft de rechtbank aangewezen geacht beide boetes met nog eens 10% te verminderen, omdat naar haar oordeel de redelijke termijn bedoeld in artikel 6, eerste lid, van het Europees Verdrag tot bescherming van de rechten van de mens en de fundamentele vrijheden (hierna: EVRM) is overschreden.

3. De uitspraak van de rechtbank

De rechtbank heeft de beroepen van A om de in rubriek 2.2 genoemde redenen gegrond verklaard, de bestreden besluiten van 21 september 2007 vernietigd en de besluiten van 17 juni 2005 in zoverre herroepen dat in beide zaken de boete wordt vastgesteld op € 20.250,-. In dat boetebedrag is, zoals gezegd, begrepen een vermindering met 10% van de opgelegde boete wegens overschrijding van de redelijke termijn. De rechtbank heeft, voor zover voor het hoger beroep van belang, met betrekking tot dit laatste het volgende overwogen (waarbij voor “eiseres” A moet worden gelezen):

“Voorts overweegt de rechtbank in navolging van de uitspraken van de Hoge Raad van 22 april 2005, LJN AO9006 en 19 december 2008, LJN BD0191, dat als uitgangspunt voor de berechting van een boetezaak in eerste aanleg heeft te gelden dat deze niet binnen een redelijke termijn geschiedt indien de rechtbank niet binnen twee jaar nadat die termijn is aangevangen uitspraak doet, tenzij er sprake is [van] bijzondere omstandigheden. Deze termijn vangt aan op het moment dat vanwege het betrokken bestuursorgaan jegens de beboete een handeling is verricht waaraan deze in redelijkheid de verwachting kan ontlenen dat aan hem een boete zal worden opgelegd. Naar het oordeel van de rechtbank dient te worden gerekend vanaf het moment waarop het verhoor heeft plaatsgevonden, nu het verhoor als een handeling is te beschouwen waaraan eiseres in redelijkheid de verwachting kan ontlenen dat aan haar een boete zal worden opgelegd. Daarbij is aan de vertegenwoordiger van eiseres in de zaak “Hilversum Alive” ook de cautie gegeven.

De rechtbank constateert dat in de zaak “Hilversum Alive” vanaf het moment van het verhoor tot aan het besluit op bezwaar al bijna twee jaar is verstreken, waarbij de rechtbank rekening heeft gehouden met de duur waarmee de bezwaarfase is verlengd vanwege uitstelverzoeken van de gemachtigde van eiseres, deze duur niet is meegeteld. Daar komt voor de rechterlijke fase vanaf het instellen van beroep tot datum uitspraak nog ruim 16 maanden bij. Maar ook indien vanaf de datum van het boeterapport wordt gerekend is er tot het moment van uitspraak sprake van een overschrijding van de termijn van twee jaar met 13 maanden. De rechtbank acht daarom een vermindering van de boete in deze zaak met 10% aangewezen.

Uit de stukken in de zaak “Beachpop” blijkt niet dat er een verhoor van een vertegenwoordiger van eiseres heeft plaatsgevonden. Gerekend vanaf de datum van het

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boeterapport tot aan de rechterlijke uitspraak is de termijn van twee jaar met ruim 13 maanden overschreden, waarbij weer rekening is gehouden met de verlenging van de termijn die aan de gemachtigde van eiseres is toe te rekenen. De rechtbank acht daarom ook hier een vermindering van de boete met 10% aangewezen.”

4. De standpunten van partijen in hoger beroep

4.1 De minister heeft hoger beroep ingesteld, omdat hij zich niet kan verenigen met het oordeel van de rechtbank omtrent het moment van aanvang van de redelijke termijn. Kort weergegeven, is de minister van mening dat het moment waarop het voornemen tot het opleggen van een boete aan de betrokkene bekend wordt gemaakt het enige juiste moment is om de redelijke termijn een aanvang te laten nemen. Eerst op dat moment is sprake van een handeling jegens de betrokkene waaraan hij in redelijkheid de verwachting kan ontlenen dat hem een boete zal kunnen worden opgelegd.

4.2 A stelt zich op het standpunt dat de aangevallen uitspraak dient te worden bevestigd.

5. De beoordeling van het geschil in hoger beroep

5.1 Ter beoordeling van het College staat of de aangevallen uitspraak, waarbij de rechtbank heeft geoordeeld dat in zowel de zaak “Beachpop” als de zaak “Hilversum Alive” sprake is van een inbreuk op het recht van A op behandeling van haar zaak binnen een redelijke termijn en zij, gelet daarop, de door haar gematigde boetes met nog eens 10% heeft verlaagd, in rechte stand kan houden.

5.2 Het College stelt voorop dat de procedure waarin de minister de besluiten heeft genomen waarbij aan A ter zake van overtreding van artikel 5, eerste lid, Tabakswet boetes zijn opgelegd, is begrepen onder de werkingssfeer van artikel 6, eerste lid, EVRM, zodat deze procedure binnen een redelijke termijn dient te zijn voltooid.

5.3 De redelijke termijn neemt een aanvang wanneer door de minister jegens de betreffende persoon of onderneming een handeling wordt verricht waaraan deze in redelijkheid de verwachting heeft ontleend, en in redelijkheid ook de verwachting heeft kunnen ontlenen, dat hem of haar wegens overtreding van de Tabakswet een boete zal kunnen worden opgelegd.

In beginsel zal in zaken als de onderhavige de redelijke termijn aanvangen bij het aan de betrokken persoon of onderneming bekendmaken van het voornemen hem of haar een boete op te leggen - in de thans voorliggende zaken bij brieven van 22 maart 2005 - zonder dat is uit te sluiten dat specifieke omstandigheden kunnen meebrengen dat de aanvang eerder moet worden gesitueerd.

5.4 Voorts kan de redelijkheid van de termijn niet in abstracto worden bepaald maar moet in iedere zaak worden beoordeeld in het licht van de omstandigheden van dat specifieke geval. Hierbij moeten in aanmerking worden genomen de ingewikkeldheid, zowel feitelijk als juridisch, van de zaak en het gedrag van zowel de betrokken onderneming als van het bestuursorgaan waarbij mede van belang is hetgeen voor de betrokken onderneming op het spel staat. Daarbij komt dat alleen vertragingen die

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moeten worden toegerekend aan het bestuursorgaan of in voorkomend geval aan rechterlijke instanties, bepalend kunnen zijn voor de motivering van het oordeel dat de redelijke termijn is overschreden.

5.5 De rechtbank heeft in de zaak “Hilversum Alive” geoordeeld dat de redelijke termijn aanvangt op het moment dat het verhoor heeft plaatsgevonden - in dit geval op 5 oktober 2004 - omdat dit verhoor is te beschouwen als een handeling waaraan A in redelijkheid de verwachting kon ontlenen dat haar een boete zal worden opgelegd.

5.6 Het College onderschrijft dit oordeel van de rechtbank niet. Het College vermag niet in te zien dat A aan het feit dat zij, althans haar vertegenwoordiger, werd verhoord omtrent een door de opsporingsambtenaar geconstateerde overtreding van de Tabakswet in redelijkheid de verwachting heeft ontleend, en in redelijkheid ook de verwachting heeft kunnen ontlenen, dat haar een boete zal kunnen worden opgelegd. Het verhoor is een onderdeel van het opsporingsonderzoek. Degene die omtrent vermoedelijke overtreding van de Tabakswet wordt verhoord, en aan wie in verband daarmee wordt meegedeeld dat hij niet gehouden is op de gestelde vragen te antwoorden, zal duidelijk zijn dat zijn gedragingen onderwerp vormen van een onderzoek. Of de feiten en omstandigheden die uit dit onderzoek naar voren komen uiteindelijk aanleiding zullen zijn een boete op te leggen, valt in zijn algemeenheid uit de enkele handeling van het afnemen van een verhoor echter niet op te maken. Dat ten tijde van het verhoor door de opsporingsambtenaar mededelingen zijn gedaan waaraan A die verwachting heeft kunnen ontlenen, is het College niet gebleken. Echter, ook indien zou worden aangenomen dat bij die gelegenheid door de opsporingsambtenaar mededelingen omtrent het opleggen van een boete zijn gedaan, is duidelijk dat de taken en bevoegdheden binnen VWA zodanig zijn verdeeld dat zulke mededelingen niet kunnen worden geacht afkomstig te zijn van een inzake de oplegging van een boete beslissingsbevoegde ambtenaar. Het opsporingsonderzoek, waar het verhoor, zoals gezegd, deel van uitmaakt, mondt uit in een zogenoemd boeterapport. Naar de minister onweersproken heeft gesteld, behelst dit rapport slechts het advies een sanctie op te leggen. Of hiertoe daadwerkelijk wordt overgegaan, wordt op een ander niveau in de organisatie beslist.

5.7 Het betoog van A dat zij in de praktijk heeft ondervonden dat haar in alle gevallen waarin zij omtrent een overtreding van de Tabakswet werd verhoord ook daadwerkelijk een boete is opgelegd, slaagt niet. Het betreft hier inzicht achteraf. Het verhoor heeft plaatsgevonden in een periode dat tabaksfabrikanten als A voor het eerst kennis maakten met de handhaving door VWA van het gewijzigde (aangescherpte) verbod op reclame en sponsoring. Op dat moment kon A niet in redelijkheid ervan uitgaan dat haar een boete zou worden opgelegd. Naar eigen zeggen verkeerde zij toen nog in de veronderstelling dat haar activiteiten binnen de grenzen van het verbod op reclame en sponsoring zouden blijven.

5.8 Het College is het met de minister eens dat ter bepaling van de aanvang van de redelijke termijn de bekendmaking van het voornemen tot het opleggen van een boete in ieder geval een handeling is waaraan de betrokkene in redelijkheid de verwachting kan ontlenen dat hem een boete zal kunnen worden opgelegd. Het College volgt de minister echter niet voor zover hij stelt dat die verwachting louter en alleen aan dit voornemen kan worden ontleend. Zoals in het voorgaande reeds is overwogen, is niet uitgesloten dat in het concrete geval specifieke omstandigheden tot het oordeel moeten leiden dat de redelijke termijn moet worden geacht op een ander, eerder moment te zijn

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aangevangen. Naar het oordeel van het College is hiervan in de onderhavige gevallen sprake.

5.9 Het College stelt vast dat VWA in de begeleidende brief die op 8 december 2004 in de zaak “Hilversum Alive” en op 16 december 2004 in de zaak “Beachpop” bij het afschrift van het boeterapport is meegezonden het volgende aan A heeft meegedeeld:

“Zo spoedig mogelijk ontvangt u van het Bureau Bestuurlijke Boetes een brief houdende het “voornemen tot boeteoplegging” waarmee dit bureau aangeeft dat zij het voornemen heeft om u, namens de Minister van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport een boete op te leggen. U kunt daarna uw zienswijze geven op dat voornemen en dit boeterapport. U hoeft nu niet te reageren. Meer informatie over de procedure vindt u op www.vwa.nl.”

In het feit dat in deze begeleidende brieven, zonder enig voorbehoud, het “voornemen tot boeteoplegging” wordt aangekondigd, ziet het College grond voor het oordeel dat A in de onderhavige gevallen aan de bekendmaking van de inhoud van het boeterapport in redelijkheid de verwachting heeft ontleend, en in redelijkheid de verwachting heeft kunnen ontlenen, dat haar een boete zal kunnen worden opgelegd, zodat de aanvang van de redelijke termijn op dat moment dient te worden gesitueerd. Naar het College ter zitting van de minister heeft begrepen, is de bovengeciteerde standaardtekst overigens inmiddels uit de begeleidende brief verwijderd.

5.10 Niet bestreden is - en het College ziet ook geen reden anders te oordelen - dat in zaken als de onderhavige als algemeen uitgangspunt kan worden gehanteerd dat een redelijke termijn is overschreden als niet binnen twee jaar nadat deze termijn is aangevangen door de rechtbank uitspraak wordt gedaan. Derhalve was, gerekend vanaf de bekendmaking aan A van de boeterapporten, in beide zaken de redelijke termijn ten tijde van de aangevallen uitspraak overschreden.

5.11 De door de minister aangevoerde bijzondere omstandigheden op grond waarvan hij meent dat een overschrijding van de redelijke termijn in de onderhavige zaken valt te billijken, kunnen naar het oordeel van het College geen rechtvaardiging vormen voor een behandeltermijn van langer dan twee jaar.

5.12 Voor zover de minister heeft gewezen op de omstandigheid dat de lange duur van behandeling van de bezwaarschriften voor een groot deel is toe te rekenen aan het feit dat de termijn voor het indienen van de bezwaargronden op verzoek van A verscheidene malen is verlengd, stelt het College vast dat de rechtbank bij de vaststelling van de in aanmerking te nemen behandelingstermijn met deze omstandigheid rekening heeft gehouden en heeft geoordeeld dat de redelijke termijn, gerekend vanaf de datum van het boeterapport, met dertien maanden is overschreden. Hierbij zij opgemerkt dat bij de veertien maanden die de rechtbank wegens bedoelde omstandigheid van de ‘bruto’ overschrijding (die, gerekend vanaf de bekendmaking van het boeterapport, zevenentwintig maanden bedraagt) heeft afgetrokken de periode is begrepen tussen het indienen van het (pro forma) bezwaarschrift en het eerste verzoek om verlenging van de termijn voor het indienen van de bezwaargronden drie maanden later.

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5.13 In de door de minister aangevoerde omstandigheid dat de rechtbank de behandeling van de beroepen gedurende vijf maanden heeft aangehouden in afwachting van twee uitspraken van het College in vergelijkbare zaken, zou een rechtvaardiging kunnen worden gevonden voor een behandeltermijn van langer dan twee jaar. Bedoelde uitspraken - het betreft de uitspraak van 20 december 2007 (AWB 06/447 en 06/472, , LJN BC2232), waarin het begrip ‘reguliere presentatie’ aan de orde was in een geschil over de wijze van presenteren van te koop aangeboden tabaksproducten in een stand tijdens een evenement, en de uitspraak van 22 mei 2008 (AWB 07/168, , LJN BD2542), waarin, zoals in de onderhavige zaken, de presentatie van tabaksproducten door een ambulant verkoopteam aan de orde was - waren immers relevant voor het beoordelen van de bij de rechtbank voorliggende beroepen. Dit neemt echter niet weg dat ook rekening houdend met bedoelde aanhouding de redelijke termijn in de onderhavige zaken is overschreden.

5.14 Het vorenstaande leidt het College tot de slotsom dat hoewel de rechtbank, voor zover het de zaak “Hilversum Alive” betreft, ten onrechte heeft geoordeeld dat de in artikel 6, eerste lid, EVRM bedoelde redelijke termijn aanvangt op de datum dat A, althans haar vertegenwoordiger, omtrent een door de opsporingsambtenaar geconstateerde overtreding van het in de Tabakswet neergelegde reclame- en sponsoringverbod is verhoord, het College geen aanleiding ziet hieraan gevolgen voor de door de rechtbank toegepaste verlaging van het boetebedrag te verbinden, aangezien deze termijn ook bij hantering van het naar het oordeel van het College juiste aanvangsmoment ruimschoots is overschreden.

In de zaak “Beachpop” heeft de rechtbank de aanvang van de redelijke termijn terecht gesteld op het moment van bekendmaking aan A van het boeterapport, hoewel het College hierbij aantekent dat de constatering van de rechtbank in de aangevallen uitspraak dat uit de op de zaak “Beachpop” betrekking hebbende stukken niet blijkt dat een verhoor van een vertegenwoordiger van A heeft plaatsgevonden feitelijk onjuist is, aangezien A bij de door haar ingediende beroepsgronden een afschrift van de eerste bladzijde van het proces-verbaal van verhoor heeft overgelegd (door de rechtbank aangemerkt als gedingstuk A10). Hieruit blijkt dat in bedoelde zaak op 22 september 2004 een telefonisch verhoor heeft plaatsgevonden.

5.15 Voor zover de minister ten slotte te kennen heeft gegeven het niet vanzelfsprekend te vinden dat een rechtspersoon als A - onderdeel van een multinationale onderneming - heeft geleden onder de spanning en frustratie die het niet binnen een redelijke termijn afhandelen van haar zaak met zich brengt, overweegt het College dat volgens vaste jurisprudentie ter zake een weerlegbaar rechtsvermoeden geldt. De minister heeft geen feiten of omstandigheden aangedragen die tot het oordeel zouden moeten leiden dat in het onderhavige geval niet van dit vermoeden kan worden uitgegaan. Ten onrechte meent de minister voor zijn opvatting dat het enkele feit dat de redelijke termijn is overschreden niet voldoende is om tot compensatie over te gaan, steun kunnen te vinden in overweging 5.18 van de uitspraak van het College van 28 mei 2009 (AWB 07/778, , LJN BK4874). Bedoelde overweging gaat in op de grief van de in die zaak beboete tabaksfabrikant - eveneens onderdeel van een multinationale onderneming - met betrekking tot de wijze waarop de rechtbank de overschrijding van de redelijke termijn geldelijk had gecompenseerd. De tabaksfabrikant stond een compensatiemethode voor op grond waarvan het boetebedrag nog verder zou moeten worden verlaagd. Dat het College in bedoelde overweging enige scepsis heeft laten doorklinken ten aanzien van het leed dat een langere behandeltermijn bij de betrokken tabaksfabrikant zou hebben

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veroorzaakt, doet er niet aan af dat het hierin geen aanleiding heeft gezien bedoeld rechtsvermoeden niet te hanteren. Uit de betreffende overweging van het College kan dan ook niet worden opgemaakt, zoals de minister lijkt te doen, dat het College niet vanzelfsprekend acht dat ook rechtspersonen niet langer dan redelijk onder de druk van een bestuursrechtelijke vervolging en de voortzetting daarvan tot aan de definitieve vaststelling van de sanctie hoeven te verkeren.

5.16 Het vorenoverwogene leidt het College tot de slotsom dat de aangevallen uitspraak dient te worden bevestigd, zij het met verbetering van de gronden waarop die uitspraak berust.

Voor een proceskostenveroordeling bestaat geen aanleiding.

6. De beslissing

Het College bevestigt de aangevallen uitspraak.

Aldus gewezen door mr. E.R. Eggeraat, mr. M. van Duuren en dr. B. Hessel, in tegenwoordigheid van mr. C.G.M. van Ede als griffier, en uitgesproken in het openbaar op 16 september 2010.

w.g. E.R. Eggeraat w.g. C.G.M. van Ede

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LJN: BX8156, College van Beroep voor het bedrijfsleven , AWB 10/446

Datum uitspraak: 11-09-2012

Datum publicatie: 25-09-2012

Rechtsgebied: Bestuursrecht overig

Soort procedure: Hoger beroep

Inhoudsindicatie: Boete wegens overtreding artikel 11a, eerste lid, Tabakswet. Rookvrije werkplek. Ruimte waar werknemers werkzaamheden verrichten. Cautie. Zwijgrecht.

Vindplaats(en): Rechtspraak.nl

Uitspraak

College van Beroep voor het bedrijfsleven

AWB 10/446 11 september 2012

11100 Tabakswet

Uitspraak op het hoger beroep van:

A B.V., te B, appellante,

tegen de uitspraak van de rechtbank Rotterdam (hierna: rechtbank) van 26 maart 2010, met kenmerk AWB 09/1702 BC-T2, in het geding tussen appellante en

de Minister van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport (hierna: minister).

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Gemachtigde van appellante: mr. R.S.A. Essed, advocaat te Rotterdam.

Gemachtigde van de minister: mr. R. Bal, werkzaam bij de Nederlandse Voedsel- en Waren Autoriteit (hierna: NVWA).

1. Het procesverloop in hoger beroep

Bij brief van 7 mei 2010, bij het College binnengekomen op 11 mei 2010, heeft appellante hoger beroep ingesteld tegen de hiervoor vermelde, op 30 maart 2010 aan partijen verzonden, uitspraak van de rechtbank (LJN BL9871).

Bij brief van 17 juni 2010 heeft appellante de gronden van het hoger beroep ingediend.

Bij brief van 8 juli 2010 heeft de minister een reactie op het beroepschrift ingediend.

Op 17 april 2012 heeft het onderzoek ter zitting plaatsgehad. Appellante heeft zich door haar gemachtigde laten vertegenwoordigen. Van de zijde van appellante is voorts verschenen C (hierna: C), directeur van appellante. De minister is bij gemachtigde verschenen.

2. De grondslag van het geschil in hoger beroep

2.1 Voor een uitgebreide weergave van het verloop van de procedure, het wettelijk kader en de in dit geding van belang zijnde feiten en omstandigheden, voor zover niet bestreden, wordt verwezen naar de aangevallen uitspraak. Het College volstaat met het volgende.

2.2 Appellante houdt zich bezig met graveerwerk, bewegwijzering en belettering, waaronder mede begrepen import en export, fabricage en verkoop van dusdanige producten. Het bedrijf telt 7 medewerkers. Bestuurder van appellante is voornoemde C. Enig aandeelhouder van appellante is D B.V., waarvan C bestuurder is en dat geen werknemers heeft. Beide ondernemingen zijn blijkens het handelsregister van de Kamer van Koophandel gevestigd op het adres E, te B.

Tijdens een inspectie, die op 7 juli 2006 is uitgevoerd in het kantoorpand waarin appellante is gevestigd, is geconstateerd dat op de kamer van de directeur - C - werd gerookt, een asbak met peuken aanwezig was en de deur van deze kamer open stond. Naar aanleiding hiervan is appellante vanwege overtreding van artikel 11a, eerste lid, Tabakswet een schriftelijke waarschuwing gegeven.

Op vrijdag 16 mei 2008, omstreeks 15:15 uur, heeft een ambtenaar van NVWA opnieuw een inspectie uitgevoerd in het pand waarin appellante is gevestigd. Het hiervan op 13 augustus 2008 opgemaakte proces-verbaal (met nummer 260841199) vermeldt, voor zover hier van belang, het volgende:

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“Ik zag dat er in ruimte van dit pand werkzaamheden werden verricht. Hierop ben ik in gezelschap van de heer C via een trap naar de eerste verdieping van het pand gelopen. Nadat ik op de eerste verdieping was aangekomen rook ik een penetrante geur afkomstig van het roken van tabaksproducten. Hierna zag ik een openstaande deur naar een kantoorruimte. Ik zag op deze openstaande deur een aanduiding met de volgende tekst:

“Kantoorruimte D B.V. Geen toegang. Bel Ext. 19 voor een eventuele afspraak.”

Ik liep deze kantoorruimte naar binnen. Ik zag in deze kantoorruimte onder meer een bureau, bureaustoelen, een computer, een telefoon, diverse paperassen. Ik zag op het bureau een asbak met sigarenpeuken en as staan. Desgevraagd hoorde ik de heer C zeggen: “Dit is mijn werkkamer. Ik rook hier in mijn werkkamer. Na de vorige inspectie heb ik dat bordje op de deur van mijn kantoor gehangen. Mijn medewerkers hoeven dus niet in mijn kamer te komen. Ze kunnen een afspraak maken, dan kom ik naar ze toe.” Hierna kwam er een man in de deuropening van deze kantoorruimte staan. Ik hoorde deze man vragen aan de heer C of hij de showroom moest afsluiten, aangezien hij weg ging. Desgevraagd hoorde ik de heer C zeggen: “Dat is een werknemer van mij”. Hierdoor werd betreffende medewerker blootgesteld aan tabaksrook, aangezien er in deze kantoorruimte gerookt was.”

Diezelfde dag is C verhoord. Het proces-verbaal van verhoor van 13 augustus 2008 vermeldt, voor zover hier van belang, het volgende:

“Ik bracht hem en namens hem de rechtspersoon die hij vertegenwoordigde van de inhoud van het proces-verbaal met nummer 260841199 op de hoogte en deelde hem en namens hem de rechtspersoon die hij vertegenwoordigde mede dat op basis van dit proces-verbaal de Minister van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport een bestuurlijke boete kan opleggen. Naar aanleiding hiervan en nadat ik hem had medegedeeld dat hij of de rechtspersoon die hij vertegenwoordigde, ingevolge het bepaalde in artikel 11d van de Tabakswet, niet tot antwoorden of het afleggen van een verklaring verplicht was, verklaarde hij mij zoveel mogelijk weergegeven in zijn eigen woorden, het volgende:

“De bedrijfsleider is verantwoordelijk voor het rookbeleid, maar ik ben eindverantwoordelijk. In mijn ogen ben ik alleen directeur van de Holding en dat is in mijn ogen een ander bedrijf. Ik weet niet precies hoe ik ingeschreven sta in de Kamer van Koophandel. Naar aanleiding van het eerste bezoek van uw collega heb ik dat bordje op de deur gehangen, dan hoeft het personeel niet in mijn kamer te komen. Ze kunnen een afspraak maken, dan kom ik naar ze toe.””

Naar aanleiding hiervan heeft de minister geconcludeerd dat appellante op 16 mei 2008 artikel 11a, eerste lid, Tabakswet heeft overtreden en haar voor deze overtreding bij besluit van 10 oktober 2008 een boete van € 300 opgelegd.

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2.3 Bij besluit van 15 april 2009, waartegen het beroep bij de rechtbank was gericht, heeft de minister het bezwaar van appellante tegen het besluit van 10 oktober 2008 ongegrond verklaard.

3. De uitspraak van de rechtbank

De rechtbank heeft het beroep van appellante ongegrond verklaard. De desbetreffende overwegingen van de rechtbank zijn neergelegd in rubriek 2.3 van de uitspraak waarnaar wordt verwezen.

4. De standpunten van partijen in hoger beroep

4.1 Appellante heeft, samengevat, aangevoerd dat niet zonder nadere motivering kan worden aangenomen dat het op 16 mei 2008 uitgevoerde onderzoek betrekking had op haar onderneming. Voor appellante was dit niet onmiskenbaar duidelijk. Haar bedrijfsruimte is gevestigd in een verzamelgebouw. De ruimte op de begane grond is bij haar in gebruik, de kantoorruimtes op de eerste verdieping bij onder andere D B.V. Het onderzoek is in die ruimte - de werkkamer van C bij D B.V. - uitgevoerd en niet in de bij appellante in gebruik zijnde bedrijfsruimte. Dat voormelde werkkamer een andere onderneming toebehoort, betekent dat niet kan worden gesteld dat appellante artikel 11a, eerste lid, Tabakswet heeft overtreden. Het betreft immers niet een ruimte waar haar werknemers hun werkzaamheden verrichten. Van de werknemer die zich tijdens de inspectie bij de werkkamer vervoegde, kan niet worden gezegd dat hij zich in de werkruimte van appellante bevond. Bovendien handelde deze werknemer in strijd met de intern geldende bedrijfsregels, die inhouden dat het niet is toestaan de kantoorruimte van D B.V. te betreden en dat, voor zover C zich daar bevindt, werknemers die contact met hem willen opnemen dit telefonisch moeten doen. Appellante meent er belang bij te hebben dat de betreffende ambtenaar van NVWA wordt gehoord teneinde te vernemen welke bedrijfsruimte hij heeft onderzocht. Voorts stelt appellante dat haar zwijgrecht op grond van artikel 6 van het Europees Verdrag tot bescherming van de rechten van de mens en de fundamentele vrijheden (hierna: EVRM) is geschonden en dat gelet hierop het (bij het toezicht) verkregen bewijsmateriaal van het bewijs dient te worden uitgesloten, althans niet als voornaamste bewijs mag dienen. Dat op 16 mei 2008 sprake was van een herhaalde inspectie en dat zij naar aanleiding van een eerdere inspectie schriftelijk was gewaarschuwd, betekent volgens appellante dat zij tijdens de inspectie als verdachte als bedoeld in artikel 29, eerste lid, van het Wetboek van Strafvordering diende te worden aangemerkt en tijdens de controle in redelijkheid de gevolgtrekking kon maken dat haar wegens een overtreding een boete kon worden opgelegd. Appellante vindt dat de ambtenaar van NVWA in ieder geval meteen na het bij aankomst op de eerste etage ruiken van een penetrante tabaksgeur afkomstig van het roken van tabaksproducten of nadat hij in de kantoorruimte een asbak met sigarenpeuken en as zag staan haar de cautie had moeten geven en niet pas na afloop van de inspectie.

4.2 De minister heeft gemotiveerd verweer gevoerd.

5. De beoordeling van het geschil in hoger beroep

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5.1 Ter beoordeling staat of de rechtbank het bestreden besluit van 15 april 2009, waarbij de boete die aan appellante is opgelegd wegens overtreding van artikel 11a, eerste lid, Tabakswet is gehandhaafd, terecht in stand heeft gelaten.

5.2 Artikel 11a, eerste lid, Tabakswet verplicht de werkgever zodanige maatregelen te treffen dat zijn werknemers in staat zijn hun werkzaamheden te verrichten zonder daarbij hinder of overlast van roken door anderen te ondervinden. Naar het College in zijn uitspraak van 9 december 2008 (AWB 07/621, LJN BG8912) heeft overwogen, gaat het hier om een aan de werkgever opgelegde resultaatsverplichting, in die zin dat van een overtreding eerst sprake kan zijn nadat is vastgesteld dat werknemers hinder of overlast van roken door anderen ondervinden. Onder hinder en overlast moet, zoals in voormelde uitspraak eveneens is overwogen, worden verstaan het ondervinden van lichamelijke klachten (zoals gezondheidsklachten) en irritaties die het gevolg zijn van roken door anderen. Om van overtreding van artikel 11a, eerste lid, Tabakswet te kunnen spreken, moet ten minste zijn aangetoond dat sprake is van enige blootstelling van werknemers aan (schadelijke bestanddelen van) tabaksrook.

5.3 Het College is met de rechtbank van oordeel dat uit de gedingstukken volstrekt duidelijk is dat het onderzoek naar naleving van de Tabakswet betrekking had op appellante - meer bepaald op de vraag of appellante als werkgever aan de in artikel 11a, eerste lid, van die wet geformuleerde verplichting heeft voldaan - en onderschrijft de overwegingen van de rechtbank dienaangaande.

5.4 Ook verenigt het College zich met het oordeel van de rechtbank dat geen aanleiding bestaat materiaal van het bewijs van overtreding door appellante van artikel 11a, eerste lid, Tabakswet uit te sluiten. Van gestelde schending van het in artikel 6 EVRM gegarandeerde zwijgrecht is geen sprake. In dit verband wordt overwogen dat bedoelde bewijsgaring heeft plaatsgevonden in het kader van het toezicht op de naleving van het bepaalde bij of krachtens de Tabakswet en met gebruikmaking van de ter uitoefening van die taak toegekende bevoegdheden. Aan het betreden van haar bedrijfspand en het verstrekken van inlichtingen - zoals wie de kamer op de eerste verdieping gebruikte en wie de persoon was die deze kamer tijdens het bezoek binnenkwam - was appellante op grond van de artikelen 5:15, eerste lid, en 5:16, in verbinding met artikel 5:20, eerste lid, van de Algemene wet bestuursrecht verplicht haar medewerking te verlenen. Het feit dat appellante na een eerder geconstateerde overtreding van artikel 11a, eerste lid, Tabakswet schriftelijk was gewaarschuwd dat een volgende overtreding tot het opleggen van een bestuurlijke boete kon leiden, leidt er niet toe dat appellante reeds bij de eerste waarneming door de controlerend ambtenaar van rookgeur of een asbak met peuken en as een beroep op haar zwijgrecht toekwam. Van een handeling jegens appellante waaraan zij in redelijkheid de gevolgtrekking heeft kunnen verbinden dat haar wegens een overtreding een bestuurlijke boete kan worden opgelegd, was op dat moment geen sprake. Die handeling jegens appellante heeft plaatsgevonden nadat het onderzoek in het kader van het toezicht was voltooid en appellante, onder de mededeling van de inhoud van het proces-verbaal en de aanzegging van een mogelijke boeteoplegging wegens overtreding van de Tabakswet, werd verzocht omtrent de bevindingen een verklaring af te leggen. Er is geen reden om aan te nemen dat de cautie op een eerder moment had moeten zijn gegeven.

5.5 Het betoog van appellante dat zij artikel 11a, eerste lid, Tabakswet niet heeft overtreden, omdat de werkkamer op de eerste verdieping geen ruimte is waar haar werknemers hun werkzaamheden verrichten, slaagt evenmin. Uit het onderzoek in het

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bedrijfspand van appellante - in het bijzonder het feit dat een werknemer van appellante de kamer op de eerste verdieping betrad om aan C een instructie met betrekking tot het afsluiten van de showroom te vragen - is naar voren gekomen dat de werknemers van appellante bedoelde ruimte in de dagelijkse praktijk niet beschouwen als een van het bedrijf waarvoor zij werkzaam zijn te onderscheiden ruimte. Naar C ter zitting van het College heeft verklaard, bevindt zich elders in het pand ook geen andere ruimte die als directiekamer van appellante fungeert. Naar het oordeel van het College heeft de minister terecht geconcludeerd dat de op de eerste verdieping gelegen kamer deel uitmaakt van de ruimten waar naast de directeur ook andere werknemers van appellante werkzaamheden verrichten. Gelet hierop geldt ook voor die ruimte de verplichting van artikel 11a, eerste lid, Tabakswet.

Gelet op het hiervoor overwogene vermag ook het College niet in te zien dat het horen van de betreffende ambtenaar van NVWA bijdraagt aan de beoordeling van deze zaak.

5.6 Het vorenstaande brengt met zich dat werknemers in bedoelde werkkamer op de eerste verdieping van het bedrijfspand van appellante geen hinder of overlast van roken door anderen mogen ondervinden. Appellante betwist niet de in het proces-verbaal neergelegde bevindingen, die erop neerkomen dat in die kamer tabaksproducten werden gerookt. Ook staat niet ter discussie dat die kamer geen afgesloten, speciaal voor het roken van tabaksproducten aangewezen ruimte is in de zin van artikel 2, aanhef en onder h, van het ten tijde in geding geldende Besluit uitzonderingen rookvrije werkplek. Voor het College staat derhalve vast dat in de hier aan de orde zijnde ruimte werknemers van appellante hinder of overlast van roken door anderen hebben ondervonden.

5.7 Het College is met de rechtbank van oordeel dat appellante niet aan de op haar rustende verplichting heeft voldaan. Appellante heeft ten tijde in geding niet zodanige maatregelen getroffen dat haar werknemers in staat zijn hun werkzaamheden te verrichten zonder daarbij hinder of overlast van roken door anderen te ondervinden. Derhalve heeft appellante artikel 11a, eerste lid, Tabakswet overtreden en was de minister bevoegd haar een boete op te leggen.

Het College is niet gebleken van omstandigheden op grond waarvan de minister niet in redelijkheid van deze bevoegdheid gebruik heeft mogen maken. Ook overigens is het College niet gebleken dat de aan appellante opgelegde boete niet in rechte stand kan houden.

5.8 Het vorenoverwogene leidt het College tot de slotsom dat de rechtbank het bestreden besluit van 15 april 2009 terecht in stand heeft gelaten. Mitsdien komt de aangevallen uitspraak voor bevestiging in aanmerking.

5.9 Voor een proceskostenveroordeling bestaat geen aanleiding.

6. De beslissing

Het College bevestigt de aangevallen uitspraak.

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Aldus gewezen door mr. E.R. Eggeraat, mr. E. Dijt en mr. N.A. Schimmel, in tegenwoordigheid van mr. C.G.M. van Ede als griffier, en uitgesproken in het openbaar op 11 september 2012.

w.g. E.R. Eggeraat w.g. C.G.M. van Ede

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NJ 1993, 485: 1. Nemo tenetur-beginsel. Schending 6 lid 1 EVRM, omdat verdachte gedwongen werd stukken te leveren die als bewijs tegen hem zouden k...

Instantie: Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens Datum: 25 februari 1993

Magistraten:

Bernhardt, Thór Vilhjálmsson, Matscher, Pettiti, Russo, Valticos, Morenilla, Lopes Rocha, Wildhaber

Zaaknr: SERIESAVOL256-A

Conclusie: - LJN: AD1839

Noot: G. Knigge Roepnaam: Funke

Wetingang: EVRM art. 6; EVRM art. 8

Snel naar: EssentieSamenvattingPartij(en)UitspraakNoot

EssentieNaar boven

1. Nemo tenetur-beginsel. Schending van art. 6 lid 1 EVRM (het recht op een fair trial), omdat de verdachte gedwongen werd stukken te leveren die als bewijs tegen hem zouden kunnen worden gebruikt. 2. Schending van art. 8 EVRM, omdat bij huiszoeking en inbeslagneming niet voldaan was aan het vereiste ‘necessary in a democratic society’.

SamenvattingNaar boven

Art. 6 lid 1 EVRM: schending van het recht op een ‘fair trial’: Douane heeft door middel van een rechterlijke uitspraak geprobeerd de klager te dwingen tot afgifte van papieren (bankafschriften e.d.). Deze papieren hadden als bewijsmiddel tegen de verdachte gebruikt kunnen worden. De bijzonderheden van het douanerecht kunnen een dergelijke inbreuk op het recht van iedereen ‘charged with a criminal offence to remain silent and not to contribute to incriminating himself’ niet rechtvaardigen.

Schending van art. 8 EVRM omdat de inbreuk op het door dit artikel beschermde recht niet voldeed aan het vereiste ‘necessary in a democratic society’. De problemen die staten tegenkomen bij de bestrijding van belastingontduiking en kapitaalvlucht, kunnen er toe leiden dat zij kiezen voor middelen als huiszoeking en inbeslagneming met behulp waarvan zij fiscale delicten op kunnen sporen en de daders ervan kunnen berechten. Indien zij voor dergelijke middelen kiezen, dienen regelgeving en praktijk wel waarborgen te bieden tegen misbruik. In casu was hieraan niet voldaan. De regelgeving kende de douanebeambten ruime bevoegdheden toe (het waren de douanebeambten zelf die moesten oordelen over doelmatigheid, duur en uitgebreidheid van de toe te passen middelen), terwijl daar geen rechterlijke toetsing tegenover stond. Gelet op het

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nagestreefde doel, maakte het gebrek aan waarborgen de inbreuk op de door art. 8 lid 1 EVRM gegarandeerde rechten disproportioneel. Daarenboven was de klager nooit vervolgd voor overtreding van de regelgeving betreffende financiële transacties met het buitenland.

Partij(en)Naar boven

Funke,

tegen

Frankrijk.

UitspraakNaar boven

Feiten

Funke, van beroep vertegenwoordiger, had de Duitse nationaliteit en woonde in Frankrijk (Elzas). Op 14 jan. 1980 werden Funke en zijn vrouw thuis bezocht door drie douanebeambten en een hulpofficier van justitie (‘officier de police judiciaire’). Naar aanleiding van informatie die zij ontvangen hadden van de belastingdienst in Metz, wilden zij meer te weten komen over rekeningen en bezittingen van Funke in het buitenland. Funke gaf toe dat hij verscheidene bankrekeningen in het buitenland had (en had gehad) vanwege zijn werk en privé-zaken, maar zei dat hij thuis geen bankafschriften had. De douanebeambten doorzochten van 10.30 tot 15.00 uur het huis en vonden bankafschriften, chequeboekjes van buitenlandse banken, een Duitse rekening van een autoreparatie en twee camera's. Tijdens de huiszoeking deed Funke de toezegging inzage te verstrekken in bankafschriften van verschillende rekeningen in het buitenland over de periode 1977, 1978 en 1979, in het financieringsplan van zijn flat in Duitsland en in zijn aandelenportefeuille bij een Duitse bank. Funke kwam deze toezegging echter niet na.

De huiszoeking en inbeslagneming resulteerden niet in een vervolging voor overtreding van de regels betreffende financiële transacties met het buitenland. Wel begon men een rechterlijke procedure, waarin gevorderd werd dat Funke bepaalde papieren ter inzage zou geven en dat voorlopige maatregelen werden opgelegd. Op 27 sept. 1982 legde de rechtbank Funke een boete op van 1200 FF en beval hem om de douane inzage te verstrekken in afschriften van de verschillende bankrekeningen en de documenten betreffende de financiering van zijn flat in Schonach (Duitsland). Voor elke dag dat Funke te laat was met het tonen van de stukken moest hij 20 FF betalen. De rechtbank motiveerde de uitspraak o.m. als volgt: a. Op 12 febr. 1980 vertelde Funke de douane dat hij de gevraagde documenten niet kon tonen. Hij gaf hier geen redenen voor op en legde ook geen correspondentie over waaruit zou blijken dat hij de nodige stappen had gezet om de betreffende documenten te verkrijgen of waaruit zou blijken dat de banken weigerden hem de betreffende documenten te geven. b. De huiszoeking en de verklaringen van Funke geven voldoende aanwijzing dat er bankrekeningen en financiële handelingen waren, tengevolge waarvan de douane het recht heeft op inzage in de relevante documenten. c. Elke bankrekeninghouder moet bankafschriften ontvangen, terwijl de bank de afgifte van die afschriften niet mag weigeren.

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Funke ging in hoger beroep en in cassatie. Bij beide instanties voerde hij — tevergeefs — aan dat de art. 6 en 8 Europees Verdrag tot bescherming van de rechten van de mens en de fundamentele vrijheden (EVRM) waren geschonden.

Op 13 febr. 1984 diende Funke een klacht in bij de Europese Commissie voor de rechten van de mens, omdat volgens hem sprake was van een schending van art. 6 EVRM (het recht op een ‘fair trial’, het recht op een behandeling binnen een redelijke termijn en de onschuldpresumptie) en van art. 8 EVRM. In haar rapport van 8 okt. 1991 is de Europese Commissie van mening dat deze artikelen niet zijn geschonden.

Toepasselijke regelgeving

De huiszoeking was gebaseerd op art. 64 Douanewet. Dit artikel luidde toen voor zover relevant:

‘Indien gezocht wordt naar goederen die onrechtmatig gehouden worden in het douane-gebied (…), mogen douane-beambten huiszoekingen verrichten als zij vergezeld zijn van (…) een hulpofficier van justitie (‘officier de police judiciaire’). (…).’

Ten aanzien van de verplichting inzage in papieren te verstrekken gold art. 65 van de Franse douanewet. Dit artikel luidt:

‘Douane-ambtenaren in de rang van tenminste inspecteur (…) mogen inzage vorderen in alle papieren en documenten die betrekking hebben op handelingen die voor hun dienst van belang zijn; (i) (…) in het algemeen, op de percelen van elke natuurlijke persoon of rechtspersoon die direct of indirect betrokken is bij een rechtmatige of onrechtmatige handeling, ten aanzien waarvan de douanedienst competent is.’

Indien men weigert de betreffende documenten ter inzage te geven kan men worden veroordeeld tot gevangenisstraf van tenminste 10 dagen en maximaal een maand en tot een geldboete van 600 tot 3000 FF (art. 413 bis-1 van de Franse douanewet). Bovendien is het mogelijk de betrokkene een dwangsom van minimaal 10 FF op te leggen voor elke dag dat hij niet aan zijn verplichting om inzage te verstrekken voldoet (art. 431), terwijl bij niet-betaling hij in hechtenis kan worden genomen (art. 382).

As to the law

I.

Alleged violation of Art. 6§ 1 and 2

(…)

A. Fairness of the proceedings and presumption of innocence

1.

The Governments’ preliminary objection

39.

As they had done before the Commission, the Government raised an objection of inadmissibility for lack of victim status. No criminal proceedings, they said, had been

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taken against Mr Funke for contravening the regulations governing financial dealings with foreign countries, and his death on 22 July 1987 finally precluded any prosecution.

40.

The Court notes that the applicant's complaints under Article 6 relate to quite different proceedings, those concerning the production of documents. The objection must therefore be dismissed.

2.

Merits of the complaint

a.

Art. 6§ 1

41.

In the applicant's submission, his conviction for refusing to disclose the documents asked for by the customs (see paras. 9–14 above) had infringed his right to a fair trial as secured in Art. 6§ 1. He claimed that the authorities had violated the right not to give evidence against oneself, a general principle enshrined both in the legal orders of the Contracting States and in the European Convention and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, as although they had not lodged a complaint alleging an offence against the regulations governing financial dealings with foreign countries, they had brought criminal proceedings calculated to compel Mr Funke to co-operate in a prosecution mounted against him. Such a method of proceeding was, he said, all the more unacceptable as nothing prevented the French authorities from seeking international assistance and themselves obtaining the necessary evidence from the foreign States.

42.

The Government emphasised the declaratory nature of the French customs and exchange-control regime, which saved taxpayers having their affairs systematically investigated but imposed duties in return, such as the duty to keep papers concerning their income and property for a certain length of time and to make them available to the authorities on request. This right of the State to inspect certain documents, which was strictly supervised by the Court of Cassation, did not mean that those concerned were obliged to incriminate themselves, a requirement that was prohibited by the United Nations Covenant (Art. 14) and had been condemned by the Court of Justice of the European Communities (Orkem judgment of 18 October 1989, European Court Reports, 1989–9, p. 3343–3354); it was not contrary to the guidelines laid down in the Convention institutions’ case-law on what constituted a fair trial.

In the instant case the customs had not required Mr Funke to confess to an offence or to provide evidence of one himself; they had merely asked him to give particulars of evidence found by their officers and which he had admitted, namely the bank statements and cheque-books discovered during the house search. As to the courts, they had assessed, after adversarial proceedings, whether the customs’ application was justified in law and in fact.

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43.

The Commission reached the same conclusion, mainly on the basis of the special features of investigation procedures in business and financial matters. It considered that neither the obligation to produce bank statements nor the imposition of pecuniary penalties offended the principle of a fair trial; the former was a reflection of the State's confidence in all its citizens in that no use was made of stricter supervisory measures, while responsibility for the detriment caused by the latter lay entirely with the person affected where he refused to co-operate with the authorities.

44.

The Court notes that the customs secured Mr Funke's conviction in order to obtain certain documents which they believed must exist, although they were not certain of the fact. Being unable or unwilling to procure them by some other means, they attempted to compel the applicant himself to provide the evidence of offences he had allegedly committed. The special features of customs law (see paras. 30–31 above) cannot justify such an infringement of the right of anyone ‘charged with a criminal offence’, within the autonomous meaning of this expression in Art. 6, to remain silent and not to contribute to incriminating himself.

There has accordingly been a breach of Art. 6§ 1.

b.

Art. 6§ 2

45.

The foregoing conclusion makes it unnecessary for the Court to ascertain whether Mr Funke's conviction also contravened the principle of presumption of innocence.

B. Length of the proceedings

46.

In view of the finding in para. 44 above, the Court considers it likewise unnecessary to examine the complaint that the proceedings relating to the making and discharge of the interim orders (see paras. 20–25 above) lasted for more than a ‘reasonable time’ as required by Art. 6§ 1.

II.

Alleged violation of Art. 8

47.

In the applicant's submission, the house search and seizures made in the instant case were in breach of Art. 8. (…)

48.

(…)

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The Court considers that all the rights secured in Art. 8§ 1 are in issue, except for the right to respect for family life. It must accordingly be determined whether the interferences in question satisfied the conditions in para. 2.

A. ‘In accordance with the law’

49.

The applicant contended that the interferences had no legal basis. (…)

50.

The Government, whose arguments the Commission accepted in substance, maintained that in Art. 64 of the Customs Code, as supplemented by a fairly substantial body of case-law, the power to search houses was defined very closely and represented a transposition to customs legislation and the regulations governing financial dealings with foreign countries of the power of search provided for in ordinary criminal procedure. (…)

51.

The Court does not consider it necessary to determine the issue in this instance, as at all events the interferences complained of are incompatible with Art. 8 in other respects (see paras. 57–59 below).

B. Legitimate aim

52.

The Government and the Commission considered that the interferences in question were in the interests of ‘the economic wellbeing of the country’ and ‘the prevention of crime’.

Notwithstanding the applicant's arguments to the contrary, the Court is of the view that the interferences were in pursuit of at any rate the first of these legitimate aims.

C. ‘Necessary in a democratic society’

53.

In Mr Funke's submission, the interferences could not be regarded as ‘necessary in a democratic society’. Their scope was unlimited and they went well beyond what was required in the public interest, since they were not subject to judicial supervision; furthermore, they had not only taken place in the absence of any flagrant offence (flagrant délit), circumstantial evidence or presumption but had also been carried out in an improper manner.

54.

The Government, whose contentions the Commission accepted in substance, argued that house searches and seizures were the only means available to the authorities for investigating offences against the legislation governing financial dealings with foreign countries and thus preventing the flight of capital and tax evasion. In such fields there was a corpus delicti only very rarely if at all; the ‘physical manifestation’ of the offence therefore lay mainly in documents which a guilty party could easily conceal or destroy. Such persons, however, had the benefit of substantial safeguards, strengthened by very

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rigorous judicial supervision: decision-making by the head of the customs district concerned, the rank of the officers authorised to establish offences, the presence of a senior police officer ( officier de police judiciaire), the timing of searches, the preservation of lawyers’ and doctors’ professional secrecy, the possibility of invoking the liability of the public authorities, etc. In short, even before the reform of 1986–89, the French system had ensured that there was a proper balance between the requirements of law enforcement and the protection of the rights of the individual.

55.

The Court has consistently held that the Contracting States have a certain margin of appreciation in assessing the need for an interference, but it goes hand in hand with European supervision. The exceptions provided for in para. 2 of Art. 8 are to be interpreted narrowly (see the Klass and Others v. Germany judgment of 6 September 1978, Series A no. 28, p. 21, § 42), and the need for them in a given case must be convincingly established.

56.

Undouptedly, in the field under consideration — the prevention of capital outflows and tax evasion — States encounter serious difficulties owing to the scale and complexity of banking systems and financial channels and to the immense scope for international investment, made all the easier by the relative porousness of national borders. The Court therefore recognises that they may consider it necessary to have recourse to measures such as house searches and seizures in order to obtain physical evidence of exchange-control offences and, where appropriate, to prosecute those responsible. Nevertheless, the relevant legislation and practice must afford adequate and effective safeguards against abuse (see, among other authorities and mutatis mutandis, the Klass and Others judgment previously cited, Series A no. 28, p. 23, § 50).

57.

This was not so in the instant case. At the material time — and the Court does not have to express an opinion on the legislative reforms of 1986 and 1989, which were designed to afford better protection for individuals (see para. 29 above) — the customs authorities had very wide powers; in particular, they had exclusive competence to assess the expediency, number, length and scale of inspections. Above all, in the absence of any requirement of a judicial warrant the restrictions and conditions provided for in law, which were emphasised by the Government (see para. 54 above), appear too lax and full of loopholes for the interferences with the applicant's rights to have been strictly proportionate to the legitimate aim pursued.

58.

To these general considerations may be added a particular observation, namely that the customs authorities never lodged a complaint against Mr Funke alleging an offence against the regulations governing financial dealings with foreign countries (see para. 8 above).

59.

In sum, there has been a breach of Art. 8.

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(…)

For these reasons, the Court

1

Dismisses unanimously the Government's preliminary objection;

2

Holds by eight votes to one that, for want of a fair trial, there has been a violation of Art. 6§ 1;

3

Holds by eight votes to one that it is unnecessary to consider the other complaints raised under Art. 6;

4

Holds by eight votes to one that there has been a breach of Art. 8;

(…)

Concurring opinion of judge Matscher concerning paragraphs 41–44 of the judgment (Translation)

Although I voted in favour of finding that there had been a violation of Article 6 § 1, I should none the less like to point out the following. Under the fiscal legislation (on taxes, customs and exchange control), a person who does not submit the required returns or does not produce documents relating to them within the time-limits laid down in law (or by the authorities) has pecuniary penalties (astreintes) in the form of ‘reasonable’ fines imposed on him or else his tax liability is estimated — also in a ‘reasonable’ manner — by the appropriate authorities. This is not in itself inconsistent either with the requirements of a fair trial or with the presumption of innocence (in the sense that one cannot be obliged to give evidence against oneself).

Rules of this kind are indeed common in the countries of Europe.

In the present case, however, the French authorities brought criminal proceedings against the applicant in order to have a pecuniary penalty imposed on him, and this went beyond what I consider to be compatible with the principles I have just set out.

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NJ 1997, 699: Bescherming tegen gedwongen self-incrimination gaat niet verder dan zwijgrecht / ander bewijsmateriaal mag onder dwang verdachte word...

Instantie: Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens Datum: 17 december 1996

Magistraten:

Bernhardt, Vilhjálmsson, Golcüklü, Pettiti, Walsh, Spielmann, De Meyer, Valticos, Martens, Palm, Pekkanen, Loizou, Morenilla, Freeland, Wildhaber, Mifsud Bonnici, Makarczyk, Gotchev, Repik, Kuris

Zaaknr: 43/1994/490/572

Conclusie: - LJN: ZB6862

Noot: G. Knigge Roepnaam: Saunders

Wetingang: EVRM art. 6

Snel naar: EssentieSamenvattingPartij(en)UitspraakNoot

EssentieNaar boven

Bescherming tegen gedwongen self-incrimination gaat niet verder dan het zwijgrecht. Ander bewijsmateriaal mag onder dwang van verdachte worden genomen.

SamenvattingNaar boven

Het zwijgrecht en het recht om geen bewijs tegen zichzelf te hoeven leveren vormen essentialia van een fair proces en dus van art. 6 EVRM. Het gaat daarbij onder meer om de bescherming van de verdachte tegen ongeoorloofde dwangtoepassing door de autoriteiten, om zo rechterlijke dwalingen te vermijden en de doelstellingen van art. 6 te bereiken. In het bijzonder het recht om geen bewijs tegen zichzelf te hoeven leveren veronderstelt dat de vervolging niet gebaseerd wordt op bewijsmateriaal, dat tegen de wil van de verdachte is verkregen door dwang of drukuitoefening. Dit recht legt zo de verbinding met de onschuldpresumptie van art. 6 lid 2 (§ 68). Het heeft echter vooral betrekking op het respecteren van de wil van de verdachte om te zwijgen. Het strekt zich niet uit tot materiaal, dat onder dwang van de verdachte wordt verkregen, maar onafhankelijk van de wil van de verdachte bestaat, zoals geschriften, ademlucht, bloed- en urinemonsters en lichaamsmateriaal voor een DNA-test (§ 69). In casu waren verklaringen van de latere verdachte, onder een spreekplicht afgelegd in het kader van een onafhankelijk onderzoek, tijdens de strafzaak tegen hem gebruikt. Schending van het verbod van gedwongen self-incrimination.[1]

Partij(en)Naar boven

Saunders,

tegen

Verenigd Koninkrijk.

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UitspraakNaar boven

De feiten

Twee Engelse drank‑ en voedingsmiddelenconcerns, Guinness en Argyll, zijn in het begin van 1986 verwikkeld in een gevecht om de overname van een derde bedrijf, Distillers. Beiden doen aan de aandeelhouders van Distillers het aanbod om aandelen om te ruilen, dat wil zeggen: aandelen Distillers kunnen worden ingeruild voor aandelen van het biedende bedrijf volgens een bepaalde ruilverhouding. Daardoor is voor deze aandeelhouders de beursnotering van beide bieders een doorslaggevende factor in hun keuze. Gedurende de periode dat het bod uitstaat stijgt de koers van aandelen Guinness dramatisch, om na afloop daarvan weer flink te dalen. Guinness blijkt de meeste aandelen Distillers te hebben bemachtigd en wint dus de strijd.

Al vrij snel doen geruchten de ronde, dat de handelwijze van Guinness geen zuivere koffie is. De koersstijging van Guinness-aandelen, en daarmee natuurlijk de aantrekkingskracht van diens ruil-aanbod, is het resultaat geweest van een onrechtmatige beïnvloeding van de beurs. Bij deze operatie zou Guinness betrokken zijn. Aan personen, die door hun aankopen van aandelen Guinness de beursnotering ondersteunden of opdreven, waren aantrekkelijke bedragen geboden als schadeloosstelling voor eventuele verliezen en als beloning in geval van succes. Dergelijke methoden zijn om twee redenen onrechtmatig: a. ze zijn in strijd met de Londense City Gedragscode voor Overnames en Fusies geheim gehouden; b. de Companies Act 1985 verbiedt bedrijven om met financiële ondersteuning de aankoop van eigen aandelen te stimuleren.

Naast de betalingen aan de personen, die daadwerkelijk de Guinness-koers hadden geholpen, waren ook grote bedragen uitbetaald aan hen, die voor de werving van deze personen hadden gezorgd. Het geld hiervoor kwam allemaal uit de portemonnee van Guinness, die de ware aard van de betalingen verhulde door gebruik te maken van valse facturen.

Naar aanleiding van het mogelijke wangedrag maakt de minister van handel en industrie gebruik van zijn bevoegdheid uit de Companies Act 1985 en benoemt onafhankelijke inspecteurs (DTI-Inspectors). Zij worden belast met het instellen van een onderzoek naar de gebeurtenissen rondom de overname van Distillers. Op 10 dec. 1986 begint een serie hoorgesprekken met diverse betrokkenen, die wettelijk onder de verplichting staan aan het onderzoek medewerking te verlenen. De appellant is een van hen, aangezien hij ten tijde van de overname hoofddirecteur van Guinness is. Met hem worden in de loop van het onderzoek in totaal negen gesprekken gevoerd, in het bijzijn van zijn raadslieden, de eerste op 10 jan. en de laatste op 12 juni 1987.

Op 12 jan. 1987 krijgt de minister van handel en industrie bericht van de DTI-Inspectors dat er concrete aanwijzingen zijn van strafbare feiten. Dit bericht gaat ook naar een medewerker van de Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP), waarna wordt beslist, dat het onderzoek moet doorgaan. De resultaten ervan zullen aan de Crown Prosecution Service worden doorgegeven, waarvan de DPP het hoofd is. In de loop van januari en februari 1987 vinden diverse besprekingen plaats van overheidsfunctionarissen over de vraag of en wanneer een strafrechtelijke procedure gestart moet worden. De DTI-Inspectors zeggen hun medewerking aan verder strafrechtelijk onderzoek toe. Tevens wordt

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schriftelijk materiaal van het door hen gevoerde onderzoek beschikbaar gesteld aan een met de strafrechtelijke kant van de hele zaak belast team.

Op verzoek van de DPP start de politie in mei 1987 een officieel strafrechtelijk onderzoek. In het vervolg daarvan wordt Saunders met ettelijke medeverdachten in staat van beschuldiging gesteld terzake van een lange lijst van feiten. De eerste zitting van de Crown Court vindt plaats op 27 april 1989, waarna in september 1989 de recht-voorzitter de hele zaak vanwege de omvang splitst in twee procedures. Na een daartoe strekkend verzoek van een medeverdachte, Parnes, en van Saunders zelf vinden in november 1989 en januari 1990 voir dire procedures plaats over de toelaatbaarheid van de processen-verbaal van de gesprekken met de DTI-Inspectors. Met voir dire wordt bedoeld een ingelast mini-proces (wat heet mini, het kan meerdere procesdagen in beslag nemen), waar de rechter zonder de jury een onderzoek instelt en een beslissing neemt over een opgeworpen rechtsvraag, zoals over de toelaatbaarheid van bepaalde bewijsmiddelen.

De verdediging baseerde zich op art. 76 Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE), stellende dat de verklaringen onder druk waren afgelegd, en op art. 78 PACE, stellende dat het gebruik van de verklaringen afbreuk zou doen aan de fairness van het proces. De rechter oordeelde echter dat het bewijs toelaatbaar was, zij het met een uitzondering. In het algemeen waren de omstandigheden zodanig, dat de verklaringen toelaatbaar waren als bewijsmiddel in de zin van de PACE. De verplichting tot medewerking uit de Companies Act staat daaraan niet in de weg, evenmin het risico, dat de betrokkene bewijs tegen zichzelf levert. Een waarschuwing van die strekking hadden de DTI-inspectors niet hoeven geven, zo oordeelde de rechter. Een uitzondering maakt hij voor de laatste twee gesprekken met Saunders, die plaatsvonden nadat hij reeds in staat van beschuldiging was gesteld. Een verplichte ondervraging na dat moment, het formele begin van de strafzaak, maakt het bewijs ontoelaatbaar op de voet van art. 78 PACE.

Na deze behandeling van de bezwaren werd de hoofdzaak hervat. Saunders stond terecht met drie medeverdachten. Hij moest zich verdedigen tegen een beschuldiging van in totaal vijftien delicten, omvattende het opmaken van een valse boekhouding, diefstal en samenzwering. Tijdens het proces (vijfenzeventig dagen voor de verhoren, tien voor de betogen van de raadslieden van beide zijden en vijf voor summing up, de samenvatting van het geheel door de rechter ten behoeve van de jury) legde Saunders als enige een verklaring af van zijn totale onschuld en onwetendheid. Deze verklaring, afgelegd nadat delen van de verhoorverslagen van de DTI-Inspectors aan de jury waren voorgehouden, werd door de prosecution bestreden, onder meer op basis van het materiaal van de DTI-Inspectors. Verder speelde de financieel directeur van Guinness een sleutelrol in het proces. Zijn getuigenverklaring, gegeven nadat aan hem immuniteit was gegarandeerd, speelde een cardinale rol. Het DTI-materiaal werd onder meer geciteerd om aan te tonen, dat in tegenstelling tot zijn verklaring tijdens de strafzaak Saunders hij wel degelijk op de hoogte was van een betaling van 5 miljoen pond aan een Mr. W. als beloning voor verleende diensten in de periode dat het overnamebod uitstond. Ook in de verdediging van een medeverdachte en in de summing up van de rechter kwam de tegenstrijdigheid in Saunders’ verklaringen naar voren. Saunders werd uiteindelijk op twaalf punten schuldig bevonden en tot vijf jaar gevangenisstraf veroordeeld.

Bij verschillende volgende gelegenheden werd de handelwijze in de aanloop naar de strafzaak namens Saunders of een medeverdachte ter beoordeling aan de rechter in eerste aanleg of aan de Court of Appeal voorgelegd, maar tevergeefs. Onder meer werd de stelling verworpen, dat het uitstellen van de formele beschuldiging misbruik van recht

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zou zijn geweest. Men zou daardoor bewust hebben aangestuurd op het verkrijgen van bekennende verklaringen met behulp van de bijzondere bevoegdheden van de DTI-Inspectors. In de verschillende appelzaken werd consequent vastgehouden aan de toelaatbaarheid van de verklaringen in het DTI-onderzoek, onder meer met de verwijzing naar de wil van de wetgever, die nu eenmaal heeft gekozen voor een verstrekkend onderzoeksregime bij dit soort zaken. Van belang voor de concrete strafzaak was de onafhankelijkheid, waarmee de DTI-Inspectors konden werken, en de zorgvuldigheid en fairness van de hoorgesprekken, geheel volgens de norm van de geldende rechtspraak in Pergamon (zie onder toepasselijk recht).

Het toepasselijke Engelse recht

De bevoegdheid van de minister van handel en industrie om de inspecteurs te benoemen is gebaseerd op art. 432 en 442 Companies Act 1985. Deze bepalingen bevatten de ruim omschreven gevallen waarin de minister tot benoeming mag overgaan.

De inspecteurs hebben een zuivere onderzoekstaak. Dat is vastgesteld in de zaak Pergamon Press Ltd (1971) Chancery Reports 388, per Sachs LJ op p. 401:

‘In wezen is de taak van de Inspectors om een onderzoek in te stellen gericht op de ontdekking van feiten, met als resultaat dat anderen actie ondernemen; het behoort niet tot hun taak over verdere actie zelf een beslissing te nemen en a fortiori is het niet aan hen om, als een actie plaats vindt, een beslissende stem te hebben in de punten die zich kunnen voordoen.’

Art. 434 Companies Act 1985 luidt (voorzover van belang):

‘1.

Wanneer inspecteurs zijn benoemd op grond van art. 431 of 432 zijn alle functionarissen in de onderneming (officers and agents) verplicht

a.

alle boeken en bescheiden van of met betrekking tot de onderneming over te leggen, welke in hun bezit of macht zijn,

b.

voor de inspecteurs te verschijnen als ze daartoe worden opgeroepen en,

c.

anderszins alle medewerking te verlenen, aan de inspecteurs met betrekking tot hun onderzoek, voorzover zij daartoe redelijkerwijs in staat zijn ......

3.

Een inspecteur is bevoegd de functionarissen van de onderneming (…) onder ede te ondervragen met betrekking tot de zaken van de onderneming en hen dienovereenkomstig te beëdigen ...

...

5.

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Elk antwoord op een vraag, gesteld aan een persoon in het kader van de uitoefening van de hier bedoelde bevoegdheden (…), kan als bewijs tegen hem gebruikt worden.’

Art. 436 Companies Act voorziet in een strafbepaling, die zich krachtens lid 1 richt onder meer tot de functionarissen ( officers and agents) van de onderneming. Lid 2 luidt:

‘In het geval dat deze personen

a.

in strijd met de verplichting van art. 434 weigeren de boeken of bescheiden over te leggen,

b.

geen gehoor geven aan de oproep om voor de inspecteurs te verschijnen, of

c.

enige vraag weigeren te beantwoorden, die met betrekking tot de zaken van de onderneming (…) aan hen gesteld is,

zijn de inspecteurs bevoegd dit schriftelijk te rapporteren aan het gerecht.’

Volgens lid 3 van dit artikel is het gerecht vervolgens bevoegd een onderzoek in te stellen naar de zaak. Na het horen van eventuele getuigen en de eventuele betogen ter verdediging is het gerecht bevoegd de weigerachtige persoon te bestraffen alsof hij zich aan contempt of court heeft schuldig gemaakt. Dat betekent een geldboete of een gevangenisstraf van maximaal twee jaren.

De aangehaalde artikelen van de PACE luiden voorzover van belang:

Art. 76 PACE:

‘1.

Een bekentenis van de verdachte mag als bewijs worden gebezigd in elke procedure, voorzover relevant voor de te beslissen kwesties, en voorzover die niet is uitgesloten volgens dit artikel.

2.

Indien in een procedure, waarin de vervolging een bekentenis als bewijs wil opvoeren, de stelling wordt voorgelegd dat deze bekentenis verkregen is

a.

door de verdachte onder druk te zetten; of

b.

als gevolg van enig optreden dat de daardoor afgelegde bekentenis onder de gegeven omstandigheden onbetrouwbaar maakt,

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is de rechter verplicht de bekentenis niet als bewijs toe te laten. Een uitzondering hierop mag worden gemaakt als de vervolging slaagt in het bewijs, dat de bekentenis (ongeacht het waarheidsgehalte ervan) niet op een dergelijke wijze is verkregen.’

Art. 78 PACE:

‘1.

In elke procedure is de rechter bevoegd bewijsmiddelen waarop de vervolging zich wenst te baseren, te weigeren indien toelating van het bewijsmiddel een zodanig negatief effect heeft op de fairness van de procedure, dat het niet behoort te worden toegelaten. Daarbij worden alle omstandigheden in aanmerking genomen, ook die waaronder het bewijsmateriaal is verkregen.’

Onder bekentenis in de zin van de PACE wordt volgens art. 82 lid 1 verstaan elke verklaring die geheel of gedeeltelijk belastend is voor degene die haar aflegde, onverschillig of dat gebeurde tegenover een persoon in functie of niet, en onverschillig of de verklaring in woorden of op andere wijze is afgelegd.

Van belang is nog dat de Criminal Justice Act 1987 ook een meewerkverplichting kent ten opzichte van het hoofd van de Serious Fraud Office. Art. 2 stelt onder strafbedreiging verplicht, dat de persoon van wie de zaken worden onderzocht, alle vragen beantwoordt, ook als dat hemzelf zou bezwaren. Dit levert, enige uitzonderingen daargelaten, echter geen toelaatbaar bewijs op tegen de betrokkene.

Op 20 juli 1988 legt appellant zijn zaak voor aan de Commissie. Op 7 dec. 1993 verklaart de Commissie de klacht ontvankelijk. In haar rapport van 10 mei 1994 komt zij met veertien stemmen tegen een tot een schending van art. 6 lid 1 Europees Verdrag tot bescherming van de rechten van de mens en de fundamentele vrijheden (EVRM).

As to the law

I Alleged violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention

59

The applicant contended that he was denied a fair trial in breach of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention which, in so far as relevant, states:

‘In the determination of ... any criminal charge against him, everyone is entitled to a fair ... hearing ... by an independent and impartial tribunal ...’

The Commission found that there had been such a violation, although this was contested by the Government.

A.

The right not to incriminate oneself

1.

The arguments of those appearing before the Court

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a.

The applicant

60.

The applicant complained of the fact that statements made by him under compulsion to the Inspectors appointed by the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) during their investigation were admitted as evidence against him at his subsequent criminal trial.

He maintained that implicit in the right to a fair trial guaranteed by Article 6 § 1, as the Court had recognised in its judgments in Funke v. France (25 February 1993, Series A no. 256–A, p. 22 (NJ 1993, 485; red.), § 44) and John Murray v. the United Kingdom (8 February 1996, Reports-1996–I, p. 30 (NJ 1996, 725; red.), § 45), was the right of an individual not to be compelled to contribute incriminating evidence to be used in a prosecution against him. This principle was closely linked to the presumption of innocence which was expressly guaranteed by Article 6 § 2 of the Convention and had been recognised by the European Court of Justice (ORKEM v. Commission, Case 374/87 (1989) European court Reports 3283) and by the constitutional Court of South Africa (Ferreira v. Levin and Others, judgment of 6 December 1995) amongst others. It should apply equally to all defendants regardless of the nature of the allegations against them or their level of education and intelligence. It followed that the use made by the prosecution of the transcripts of interviews with the Inspectors in subsequent criminal proceedings was contrary to Article 6.

61.

Furthermore, the applicant argued that this use of the transcripts was particularly unfair in his case since, in the words of the Court of Appeal, they ‘formed a significant pat of the prosecution case’. Three days were spent reading extracts from his interviews with the Inspectors to the jury before Mr Saunders decided that he ought to give evidence to explain and expand upon this material. As a result, he was subjected to intensive cross-examination concerning alleged inconsistencies between his oral testimony at trial and his responses to the Inspectors’ questions, to which the trial judge drew attention in his summing up to the jury. The prosecution's task was thus facilitated when it was able to contrast its own evidence with Mr Saunders’ more specific denials in his interviews.

b.

The Government

62.

The Government submitted that only statements which are self-incriminating can fall within the privilege against self-incrimination. However, exculpatory answers or answers which, if true, are consistent with or would serve to confirm the defence of an accused cannot be properly characterised as self-incriminating. In their submission, neither the applicant nor the Commission had identified at any stage a single answer given by the applicant to the DTI Inspectors which was self-incriminating. There cannot be derived from the privilege against self-incrimination a further right not to be confronted with evidence that requires the accused, in order successfully to rebut it, to give evidence himself. That, in effect, is what the applicant is claiming when he alleges that the admission of the transcript ‘compelled’ him to give evidence.

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The Government accepted that a defendant in a criminal trial cannot be compelled by the prosecution or by the court to appear as a witness at his own trial or to answer questions put to him in the dock, and that an infringement of this principle would be likely to result in a defendant not having a fair hearing. However, the privilege against self-incrimination was not absolute or immutable. Other jurisdictions (Norway, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United States of America) permit the compulsory taking of statements during investigation into corporate and financial frauds and their subsequent use in a criminal trial in order to confront the accused's and witnesses’ oral testimony. Nor does it follow from an acceptance of the privilege that the prosecution is never to be permitted to use in evidence self-incriminating statements, documents or other evidence obtained as a result of the exercise of compulsory powers. Examples of such permitted use include the prosecution's right to obtain documents pursuant to search warrants or samples of breath, blood or urine.

63.

In the Government's submission it would be wrong to draw from the Court's Funke judgment (referred to in paragraph 60 above) a broad statement of principle concerning the ‘right to silence’, since the nature of that right was not defined in the judgment. There can be no absolute rule implicit in Article 6 that any use of statements obtained under compulsion automatically rendered criminal proceedings unfair. In this respect it was necessary to have regard to all the facts of the case including the many procedural safeguards inherent in the system. For example, at the stage of the Inspectors’ inquiry, injustice was prevented by the facts that the Inspectors were independent and subject to judicial supervision and that the person questioned was entitled to be legally represented before them and provided with a transcript of his responses which he could correct or expand. Moreover, during the course of any subsequent criminal trial, a defendant who had provided answers to the Inspectors under compulsion was protected by the judge's powers to exclude such evidence; admissions which might be unreliable or might have been obtained by oppressive means had to be excluded and there was a discretion to exclude other evidence if its admission would have an adverse effect on the fairness of the proceedings.

64.

The Government further emphasised that, whilst the interests of the individual should not be overlooked, there was also a public interest in the honest conduct of companies and in the effective prosecution of those involved in complex corporate fraud. This latter interest required both that those under suspicion should be compelled to respond to the questions of Inspectors and that the prosecuting authorities should be able to rely in any subsequent criminal trial on the responses elicited. In this respect a distinction could properly be drawn between corporate fraud and other types of crime, since devices such as complex corporate structures, nominee companies, complicated financial transactions and false accounting records could be used to conceal fraudulent misappropriation of corporate funds or personal responsibility for such misconduct. Frequently the documentary evidence relating to such transactions would be insufficient for a prosecution or incomprehensible without the explanations of the individuals concerned. Furthermore, it had to be remembered that the kind of person questioned by the Inspectors was likely to be a sophisticated businessman with access to expert legal advice, who had moreover chosen to take advantage of the benefits afforded by limited liability and separate corporate personality.

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c.

The Commission

65.

The Commission considered that the privilege against self-incrimination formed an important element in safeguarding individuals from oppression and coercion, was linked to the principle of the presumption of innocence and should apply equally to all types of accused, including those alleged to have committed complex corporate frauds. In the instant case, the incriminating material, which the applicant was compelled to provide, furnished a not insignificant part of the evidence against him at trial, since it contained admissions which must have exerted additional pressure on him to take the witness stand. The use of this evidence was therefore oppressive and substantially impaired Mr Saunders’ ability to defend himself against the criminal charges he faced, thereby depriving him of a fair trial.

At the hearing before the Court, the Delegate stressed that even steadfast denials of guilt in answer to incriminating questions can be highly incriminating and very damaging to a defendant. This was so in the present case as the answers were used against him both in the opening and closing speeches and in cross-examination to establish that the answers given to the Inspectors could not be believed and that the applicant was dishonest.

d.

Amicus curiae

66.

Liberty, with reference to various international human rights treaties and the law existing in a number of Contracting Parties, requested the Court to find that Article 6 prevents self-incriminating evidence from being obtained from an individual under threat of judicial sanction and from being admissible in criminal proceedings.

2.

The Court's assessment

67.

The Court first observes that the applicant's complaint is confined to the use of the statements obtained by the DTI Inspectors during the criminal proceedings against him. While an administrative investigation is capable of involving the determination of a ‘criminal charge’ in the light of the Court's case-law concerning the autonomous meaning of this concept, it has not been suggested in the pleadings before the Court that Article 6 § 1 was applicable to the proceedings conducted by the Inspectors or that these proceedings themselves involved the determination of a criminal charge within the meaning of that provision (see, inter alia, the Deweer v. Belgium judgment of 27 February 1980, Series A no. 35, pp. 21–24 ( NJ 1980, 561; red.), § § 42–47). In this respect the Court recalls its judgment in Fayed v. the United Kingdom where it held that the functions performed by the Inspectors under section 432 (2) of the Companies Act 1985 were essentially investigative in nature and that they did not adjudicate either in form or in substance. Their purpose was to ascertain and record facts which might

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subsequently be used as the basis for action by other competent authorities — prosecuting, regulatory, disciplinary or even legislative (judgment of 21 September 1994, Series A no. 294–B, p. 47 ( NJ 1995, 463; red.), § 61). As stated in that case, a requirement that such a preparatory investigation should be subject to the guarantees of a judicial procedure as set forth in Article 6 § 1 would in practice unduly hamper the effective regulation in the public interest of complex financial and commercial activities (ibid., p. 48, § 62).

Accordingly the Court's sole concern in the present case is with the use made of the relevant statements at the applicant's criminal trial.

68.

The Court recalls that, although not specifically mentioned in Article 6 of the Convention, the right to silence and the right not to incriminate oneself, are generally recognised international standards which lie at the heart of the notion of a fair procedure under Article 6. Their rationale lies, inter alia, in the protection of the accused against improper compulsion by the authorities thereby contributing to the avoidance of miscarriages of justice and to the fulfilment of the aims of Article 6 (see the above-mentioned John Murray judgment and the above-mentioned Funke judgment. The right not to incriminate oneself, in particular, presupposes that the prosecution in a criminal case seek to prove their case against the accused without resort to evidence obtained through methods of coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused. In this sense the right is closely linked to the presumption of innocence contained in Article 6 § 2 of the Convention.

69.

The right not to incriminate oneself is primarily concerned, however, with respecting the will of an accused person to remain silent. As commonly understood in the legal systems of the Contracting Parties to the Convention and elsewhere, it does not extend to the use in criminal proceedings of material which may be obtained from the accused through the use of compulsory powers but which has an existence independent of the will of the suspect such as, inter alia, documents acquired pursuant to a warrant, breath, blood and urine samples and bodily tissue for the purpose of DNA testing.

In the present case the Court is only called upon to decide whether the use made by the prosecution of the statements obtained from the applicant by the Inspectors amounted to an unjustifiable infringement of the right. This question must be examined by the Court in the light of all the circumstances of the case. In particular, it must be determined whether the applicant has been subject to compulsion to give evidence and whether the use made of the resulting testimony at his trial offended the basic principles of a fair procedure inherent in Article 6 § 1 of which the right not to incriminate oneself is a constituent element.

70.

It has not been disputed by the Government that the applicant was subject to legal compulsion to give evidence to the Inspectors. He was obliged under sections 434 and 436 of the Companies Act 1985 to answer the questions put to him by the Inspectors in the course of nine lengthy interviews of which seven were admissible as evidence at his trial. A refusal by the applicant to answer the questions put to him could have led to a

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finding of contempt of court and the imposition of a fine or committal to prison for up to two years and it was no defence to such refusal that the questions were of an incriminating nature.

However, the Government have emphasised, before the Court, that nothing said by the applicant in the course of the interviews was self-incriminating and that he had merely given exculpatory answers or answers which, if true, would serve to confirm his defence. In their submission only statements which are self-incriminating could fall within the privilege against self-incrimination.

71.

The Court does not accept the Government's premise on this point since some of the applicant's answers were in fact of an incriminating nature in the sense that they contained admissions to knowledge of information which tended to incriminate him. In any event, bearing in mind the concept of fairness in Article 6, the right not to incriminate oneself cannot reasonably be confined to statements of admission of wrongdoing or to remarks which are directly incriminating. Testimony obtained under compulsion which appears on its face to be of a non-incriminating nature — such as exculpatory remarks or mere information on questions of fact — may later be deployed in criminal proceedings in support of the prosecution case, for example to contradict or cast doubt upon other statements of the accused or evidence given by him during the trial or to otherwise undermine his credibility. Where the credibility of an accused must be assessed by a jury the use of such testimony may be especially harmful. It follows that what is of the essence in this context is the use to which evidence obtained under compulsion is made in the course of the criminal trial.

72.

In this regard, the Court observes that part of the transcript of answers given by the applicant was read to the jury by counsel for the prosecution over a three-day period despite objections by the applicant. The fact that such extensive use was made of the interviews strongly suggests that the prosecution must have believed that the reading of the transcripts assisted their case in establishing the applicant's dishonesty. This interpretation of the intended impact of the material is supported by the remarks made by the trial judge in the course of the voir dire concerning the eighth and ninth interviews to the effect that each of the applicant's statements was capable of being a ‘confession’ for the purposes of section 82 (1) of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. Similarly, the Court of Appeal considered that the interviews formed ‘a significant part’ of the prosecution's case against the applicant. Moreover, there were clearly instances where the statements were used by the prosecution to incriminating effect in order to establish the applicant's knowledge of payments to persons involved in the share support operation and to call into question his honesty. They were also used by counsel for the applicant's co-accused to cast doubt on the applicant's version of events.

In sum, the evidence available to the Court supports the claim that the transcripts of the applicant's answers, whether directly self-incriminating or not, were used in the course of the proceedings in a manner which sought to incriminate the applicant.

73.

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Both the applicant and the Commission maintained that the admissions contained in the interviews must have exerted additional pressure on the applicant to give testimony during the trial rather than to exercise his right to remain silent. However, it was the Government's view that the applicant chose to give evidence because of the damaging effect of the testimony of the chief witness for the prosecution, Mr Roux.

Although it cannot be excluded that one of the reasons which affected this decision was the extensive use made by the prosecution of the interviews, the Court finds it unnecessary to speculate on the reasons why the applicant chose to give evidence at his trial.

74.

Nor does the Court find it necessary, having regard to the above assessment as to the use of the interviews during the trial, to decide whether the right not to incriminate oneself is absolute or whether infringements of it may be justified in particular circumstances.

It does not accept the Government's argument that the complexity of corporate fraud and the vital public interest in the investigation of such fraud and the punishment of those responsible could justify such a marked departure as that which occurred in the present case from one of the basic principles of a fair procedure. Like the Commission, it considers that the general requirements of fairness contained in Article 6, including the right not to incriminate oneself, apply to criminal proceedings in respect of all types of criminal offences without distinction from the most simple to the most complex. The public interest cannot be invoked to justify the use of answers compulsorily obtained in a non-judicial investigation to incriminate the accused during the trial proceedings. It is noteworthy in this respect that under the relevant legislation statements obtained under compulsory powers by the Serious Fraud Office cannot, as a general rule, be adduced in evidence at the subsequent trial of the person concerned. Moreover the fact that statements were made by the applicant prior to his being charged does not prevent their later use in criminal proceedings from constituting an infringement of the right.

75.

It follows from the above analysis and from the fact that section 434 (5) of the Companies Act 1985 authorises, as noted by both the trial judge and the Court of Appeal, the subsequent use in criminal proceedings of statements obtained by the Inspectors that the various procedural safeguards to which reference has been made by the respondent Government (see paragraph 63 above) cannot provide a defence in the present case since they did not operate to prevent the use of the statements in the subsequent criminal proceedings.

76.

Accordingly, there has been an infringement in the present case of the right not to incriminate oneself.

B.

Alleged misuse of powers by the prosecuting authorities

77.

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The applicant also complained that the prosecuting authorities had deliberately delayed the institution of the police investigation to enable the Inspectors to gather evidence under their special powers. He referred to the meeting on 30 January 1987 between the Inspectors and representatives of the Crown Prosecution Service, which preceded the formal initiation of the police investigation by some three months. In addition, documents disclosed for the purposes of the most recent appeal showed that, in the words of the Court of Appeal, ‘all concerned were conscious that the inspectors had greater powers than the police when conducting their interviews and it was clearly hoped that the inspectors would elicit answers ... which could be used in evidence at trial’.

He reasoned that the fact that the Court of Appeal had found that there had been no abuse of process should not be decisive, since the domestic court could not apply the Convention and had been bound by English law to conclude that the use made at trial of the transcripts of the interviews with the Inspectors had not been unfair.

78.

The Government emphasised that the applicant had already argued this issue before the Court of Appeal without success and that in raising it again in Strasbourg he was attempting to use the Court as a fourth instance, contrary to the established jurisprudence of the Court.

79.

The Commission found it unnecessary to consider this head of complaint in view of its finding that the applicant had been denied a fair trial by reason of the use made of the transcripts during his trial.

80.

In the light of the above finding of an infringement of the right not to incriminate oneself, the Court considers it unnecessary to examine the applicant's allegations on this point. It notes, however, the findings of the Court of Appeal that the Inspectors had conducted their inquiries independently without briefing or prompting by the prosecuting authorities and that there had been no improper or unfair collusion between them.

C.

Conclusion

81.

In conclusion the applicant was deprived of a fair hearing in violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention.

II Application of Article 50 of the Convention

82

The applicant sought just satisfaction under Article 50 of the Convention, which reads as follows:

‘If the Court finds that a decision or a measure taken by a legal authority or any other authority of a High Contracting Party is completely or partially in conflict with the

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obligations arising from the ... Convention, and if the internal law of the said Party allows only partial reparation to be made for the consequences of this decision or measure, the decision of the Court shall, if necessary, afford just satisfaction to the injured party.’

A. Damage

1

Pecuniary loss

83

The applicant submitted that the prosecution case against him would have been in serious difficulties but for the evidence introduced at his trial, in violation of Article 6. He thus claimed pecuniary loss amounting to £ 3,668,181.37. This claim was made up of sums in respect of loss of earnings up to May 1995, travelling and subsistence expenses, fees paid to solicitors (Payne Hicks Beach) relating to the interviews before the Inspectors and to solicitors (Landau and Landau) in respect of, inter alia, the criminal proceedings.

At the hearing before the Court, however, the applicant accepted that ‘true compensation’ would be a finding in his favour by the Court and the resulting vindication of his good name.

84

The Government submitted that the applicant's claim for pecuniary loss was excessive. In particular, they pointed out that Mr Saunders had not criticised the investigation by the Inspectors itself, but had nonetheless sought reimbursement for his legal costs in connection with it. With regard to his claim for loss of earnings, they submitted that he was dismissed by Guinness following the company's own investigation into the conduct of the takeover. Moreover, he had been in receipt of a pension from Guinness of £ 74,000 per annum since his dismissal, in addition to which, since May 1993, he had earned approximately £ 125,000 net per annum as a business consultant.

85

The Delegate of the Commission emphasised that in finding a breach of Article 6 § 1 the Commission could not be taken to have made any suggestion as to the likely outcome of Mr Saunders’ trial had the transcripts not been admitted in evidence.

86

The Court observes that the finding of a breach in the present case concerned the criminal proceedings against the applicant and not the proceedings before the Inspectors about which no complaint was made. Moreover, it cannot speculate as to the question whether the outcome of the trial would have been any different had use not been made of the transcripts by the prosecution (see, mutatis mutandis, the John Murray judgment cited above at paragraph 68, p. ..., § 56) and, like the Commission, underlines that the finding of a breach of the Convention is not to be taken to carry any implication as regards that question.

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It therefore considers that no causal connection has been established between the losses claimed by the applicant and the Court's finding of a violation.

2

Non-pecuniary loss

87

The applicant sought non-pecuniary damages of £ 1 million to compensate him for the denial of his right to a fair trial and the resulting anxiety, anguish and imprisonment.

88

The Government submitted that no award should be made under this head.

89

The Court considers that, in the circumstances of the case, the finding of a violation constitutes sufficient just satisfaction in respect of any non-pecuniary damage sustained.

B. Costs and expenses

90

The applicant claimed a total of £ 336,460.75 by way of costs and expenses in connection with the Strasbourg proceedings. This was composed of (1) £ 82,284.50 in respect of counsel's fees; (2) £ 42,241.25 in respect of solicitor's fees and (3) £ 211,935 concerning the fees of the applicant's advisors, Mr and Mrs Devlin.

91

The Government considered that the amounts claimed under this head were excessive. In particular they submitted that no award should be made in respect of the fees of Mr and Mrs Devlin since the applicant could have effectively presented his case in Strasbourg with the assistance only from experienced solicitors and leading and junior counsel.

92

The Delegate of the Commission had no comments to make on the amounts claimed.

93

The Court is not satisfied that the amounts claimed by the applicant were necessarily incurred or reasonable as to quantum. Deciding on an equitable basis, it awards £ 75,000 under this head.

c. Default interest

94

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According to the information available to the Court, the statutory rate of interest applicable in the United Kingdom at the date of adoption of the present judgment is 8% per annum.

For these reasons, the Court

1

Holds by sixteen votes to four that there has been a violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention;

2

Holds unanimously that the finding of a violation constitutes sufficient just satisfaction in respect of any non-pecuniary damage sustained;

3

Holds unanimously

a.

that the respondent State is to pay the applicant, within three months, £ 75,000 (seventy-five thousand pounds sterling) in respect of costs and expenses;

b.

that simple interest at an annual rate of 8% shall be payable from the expiry of the above-mentioned three months until settlement;

4

Dismisses unanimously the remainder of the claim for just satisfaction.

Dissenting opinion of Judge Martens joined by Judge Kuris

I. Introduction

A

1

I have found it impossible to convince myself that in this case the United Kingdom has violated Mr Saunders’ rights under Article 6 of the Convention. Nor has the Court's judgment so persuaded me.

2

What is at stake is a knotty, but important question relating to a topic which is not only very controversial but also appears prone to arousing rather strong emotions.

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Assume that the ‘right to silence’ and the ‘privilege against self-discrimination’ are not absolute (see § § 7–12 below) but — like other rights implied in Article 6 — allow for limitations; assume, further, that such limitations cannot be taken into account unless they are in accordance with the law, pursue a legitimate aim and are proportionate to that aim[2]; then the question becomes whether these requirements are fulfilled in the present case?

3

Unlike the majority, I have come to the conclusion that this question is to be answered in the affirmative. In order to elucidate that opinion I find it necessary to start with some general considerations with respect to both immunities in issue. B

4

In its judgment of 8 February 1996 in the case of John Murray v. the United Kingdom (Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996, ... § 45, p. ...) the Court has proclaimed that the notion of a fair procedure under Article 6 of the Convention comprises two immunities: the ‘right to remain silent’ and the ‘privilege against self-incrimination’.

The wording of this paragraph in Murray — especially if compared to that in paragraph 44 of the Funke v. France judgment of 25 February 1993 (Series A no. 256, p. 22, § 44) — clearly suggests that, in the Court's opinion, two separate immunities are involved. From a conceptual point of view it would, however, seem obvious that the privilege against self-incrimination (= roughly speaking, the right not to be obliged to produce evidence against oneself) is the broader right, which encompasses the right to silence (= roughly speaking, the right not to answer questions).

The present judgment makes it less certain that the Court really makes a distinction. I will come back to that aspect of the present judgment hereinafter (see paragraph 12 below). Here it suffices to note that in my opinion two separate, but related, rights are involved, of which the privilege against self-incrimination, as I have just indicated, is the broader one.

5

In paragraph 45 of the Murray judgment the Court further noted that these rights are not specifically mentioned in Article 6. Of course it was, moreover, aware of the fact that the universal Declaration ignores both rights and that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights only contains ‘the right not to be compelled to testify against himself or to confess guilt’ (Article 14 paragraph 3 (g)). It nevertheless felt entitled to hold as indicated in paragraph 4 above on the ground that these two immunities ’are generally recognised international standards’. Thus it furnished, albeit subsequently, both some motivation for and clarification of a similar finding in paragraph 44 of the above-mentioned Funke judgment, a finding which has been widely criticised as being unmotivated and unclear.

6

In paragraph 45 of the Murray judgment the Court even ventured to go into the difficult and highly controversial question of the rationale of these two immunities. It said that

‘B.

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y providing the accused with protection against improper compulsion by the authorities these immunities contribute to avoiding miscarriages of justice and to securing the aims of Article 6.’

C

7

In the John Murray case I belonged to be majority. As the Court noted, what was at stake in that case was whether these two immunities were absolute. I was — and I still am — convinced that this question was rightly answered in the negative. Consequently, I found it neither necessary nor opportune to express my disagreement in respect of the Court's observation that these two immunities ‘lie at the heart of the notion of fair procedure’. I now do: I feel that this high-strung qualification — which is repeated in paragraph 68 of the present judgment — is somewhat exaggerating the weight of both rights, more particularly that of the privilege against self-incrimination.

8

I think that, historically, both rights must be seen as the very negation of the old, inquisitorial notion that a confession is an indispensable condition for conviction and therefore must, if need be, be extorted. These immunities thus served the purpose of preventing suspects from being subjected to improper[3] physical or psychological pressure. I accept that both rights — and more especially the right to remain silent — still serve this purpose. Also today it remains necessary to protect suspects under custodial police questioning against such pressure.

I also accept that since there is a not negligible chance that statements made under pressure may be unreliable, the rationale of the immunities under discussion comprises — as the Court put it — the avoidance of miscarriages of justice.

Furthermore, I accept that there is a certain link between these immunities and the presumptio innocentiae as enshrined in Article 6 § 2 in so far as they allow an accused not only to keep silent during police interrogation but also to refuse to answer questions of investigating or trial judges as well as to give evidence himself[4].

9

However, these rationales hardly justify the Court's qualification of these two immunities as lying ‘at the heart of’ the notion of fair procedure’. I therefore suspect that other, not explicitly mentioned, rationales have contributed to that qualification.

In this context I note that legal writers and courts have frequently accepted a further rationale[5]. Its formulations vary, but they all essentially boil down to the proposition that respect for human dignity and autonomy requires that every suspect should be completely free to decide which attitude he will adopt with respect to the criminal charges against him. On this view it would be improper, because incompatible with such respect, to compel an accused to cooperate in whatever way in bringing about his own conviction. This rationale often seems to be the main justification for the broader privilege against self-incrimination.

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The present judgment strongly suggests that the Court now has embraced this view. A first argument for this interpretation is that in the second sentence of paragraph 68 it repeats the rationale given in Murray (see paragraph 6 above) but — by prefacing its quotation by the words ’inter alia’ — underlines that this is only part of the rationale of the two immunities. A second and still more telling argument is the stress laid, both in the last sentence of paragraph 68 and in paragraph 69, on the will of the accused: the Court now underlines that the privilege against self incrimination is primarily concerned ‘with respecting the will of an accused person’. That comes very near to the rationale outlined above which allies both immunities to respect due to human dignity and autonomy.

10

I do not, of course, deny that there is an element of truth in this view, but I am inclined to think that its weight should not be exaggerated. ‘Human dignity and autonomy’ have an absolute ring, but in our modern societies it must remain possible to protect the community against forms of crime, the effective combatting of which makes it imperious to compel (specific categories of) suspects to cooperate in bringing about their own conviction. I believe that especially the broader privilege against self-incrimination may be restricted by law in order to protect legitimate interests of the community. In my opinion it is, in principle, open to the national law to compel (specific categories of) suspects by threat of punishment to contribute passively or actively to the creation of evidence, even decisive evidence, against themselves. Suspects may be compelled to allow or even to co-operate in the taking of fingerprints, in the taking of blood for alcohol-tests, in the taking of bodily samples for DNA-tests or to blow in order to ascertain whether they are drunken drivers. In all such and similar cases national legislatures are, in my opinion, in principle free to decide that the general interest in bringing about the truth and in bringing culprits to justice shall take precedence over the privilege against self-incrimination[6].

11

I fear that the impugned qualification of both immunities (as lying ‘at the heart of the notion of fair procedure’) as well as the newly advanced rationale tying them to respecting ‘human dignity’ imply that, in the Court's opinion, the privilege against self-incrimination is far more absolute than it is in my view.

But for paragraph 69 of the present judgment — to be discussed in paragraph 12 below — I would have added that this difference of appreciation might also be illustrated by the above-mentioned Funke judgment. What was at stake in that case was not so much the right to remain silent as the privilege against self-incrimination, for Funke refused to hand over (possibly) incriminating documents. The Commission had, in my opinion rightly, concluded that the legitimate interests of the community overrode the privilege[7], but the Court curtly refused to follow, which strongly suggests that in its opinion there was no room for a balancing exercise at all. It is worth while noting that the reasoning subsequently given in the Murray judgment, namely its reliance on generally recognised international standards[8]— does certainly not justify this decision: both under the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution[9] and under the case-law of the Court of Justice of the European Communities[10] there is a right to remain silent, but in principle not a right to refuse to hand over documents, let alone an absolute right to do so.

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12

It is, however, at least open to doubt whether the Court in paragraph 69 of its present judgment has not — implicitly, without saying so openly, let alone without adducing cogent reasons for doing so — overruled Funke and has essentially converted to the more restricted doctrine adopted inter alia by the Court of Justice. In this context it is significant that § 69 refers to how the privilege against self-incrimination is understood ‘in the legal systems of the Contracting States and elsewhere’. What is more important is that, whilst the first sentence of paragraph 69 seems to amalgamate the privilege against self-incrimination with the right to remain silent, the second sentence seems to imply that — contrary to Funke — the privilege does not comprise the power to refuse to hand over incriminating documents nor that to prevent the use of such documents, obtained under compulsion, in criminal proceedings.

I confess that I fail to see another possible construction of paragraph 69 so that I presume that the above interpretation is correct. On that assumption two points should be made.

The first is that the merging of the conceptually broader right not to incriminate oneself with the right to remain silent reduces the scope of protection afforded to suspects. In my understanding of the privilege against self-incrimination the Court retains the power to control national legislation and practice which it has forfeited under its present doctrine.

The second point is that it is — to put it mildly — open to grave doubt whether the distinction made between the licence to use in criminal proceedings material which has ‘an existence independent from the will of the suspect’ and the prohibition of such use of material which has been obtained ‘in defiance of his will’ is a sound one. Why should a suspect be free from coercion to make incriminating statements but not from coercion to cooperate to furnish incriminating data? The Court's newly adopted rationale does not justify the distinction since in both cases the will of the suspect is not respected in that he is forced to bring about his own conviction. Moreover, the yardstick proposed is not without problems: can it really be said that the results of a breath test to which a person suspected of driving under the influence has been compelled have an existence independent of the will of the suspect? And what about a pin code or a password into a cryptographic system which are hidden in the suspect's memory?

In sum: I cannot accept the new doctrine. I stick to the notion of the privilege against self-incrimination and the right to remain silent being two separate, albeit related, immunities which allow for limitations.

II. Further delineating the issue

A

13

It is high time, after these introductory remarks of a general nature, that I turn to the case at hand.

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In doing so a first point to make is that it is of the utmost importance to keep in mind that in this case two stages should be clearly and carefully distinguished: at a first stage Mr Saunders had to appear before the DTI Inspectors and only at a second stage did he have to face trial.

14

It is important to carefully distinguish both stages since Article 6 applies to the second stage only. The reason is that during the first stage Mr Saunders was not yet ’‘charged with a criminal offence’ within the autonomous meaning of this expression in Article 6’[11].

Although, strictly speaking, paragraph 67 of the Court's judgment only reminds us that neither Mr Saunders nor the Commission have alleged otherwise, its wording and especially the reference to the Deweer judgment[12] make it clear that a majority within the majority subscribes to this proposition.

15

Why was Mr Saunders not yet ‘charged’ during this first stage? Simply because he had not yet received an ‘official notice given to an individual by the competent authority of an allegation that he has committed a criminal offence’[13].

Admittedly, a charge ‘may in some instances take the form of other measures which carry the implication of such an allegation and which likewise substantially affect the situation of the suspect’[14]. It might, therefore, be argued that the inquiry before the DTI Inspectors was a form of such ’other measures’ which: (1) in view of the purpose of the inquiry and the circumstances of the case, carried the implication that Mr Saunders, who was a director of Guinness at the time of the bidding, was suspected of having committed a criminal offence and (2) was affecting his situation of suspect as substantially as if a criminal investigation had be ordered against him.

There is, however, nor merit in this argument since just as there is no ‘charge’ if the ‘official notice’ is not given by ‘the competent authorities’ — that is, by the competent prosecuting authorities —, so there is no ‘charge’ if the ‘other measures’ do not emanate from the competent prosecuting authorities. It is common ground, however, that the inquiry before the DTI Inspectors — apart from being, essentially, investigative[15]— did not emanate from or was taken over by the prosecuting authorities[16].

16

It follows, firstly, that the fact that Mr Saunders was not entitled during this first stage to refuse to answer incriminating questions did not give rise to any violation of his rights under Article 6, especially not the right to remain silent of the privilege against self-incrimination.

Secondly, it follows that the essential issue in the present case is where someone has made incriminating statements in the context of an inquiry during which he is obliged to answer any and all questions on pain of fine or imprisonment, whether it would be compatible with the right to silence and the privilege against self-incrimination to allow the use of these statements as evidence against him at his trial[17].

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B

17

As already indicated in paragraph 2 above this is an important issue.

Our modern societies are ‘information-societies’, also in the sense that all of us, government agencies as well as citizens, to a large extent depend on various kinds of information, notably on information provided by (other) citizens. This applies in particular to government agencies: countless administrative decisions — whether imposing a duty or granting a favour — are based on such information. Information which simply cannot always be verified beforehand. One must, therefore, be able to rely on the veracity of such information. However, the old virtue of truthfulness has largely disappeared from modern morals. We have become ‘calculating citizens’, putting our own interests above those of the community. No wonder that fraud in multiple forms is the bane of our societies: fraud in the field of taxes[18] and social security, fraud in the field of governmental subventions, fraud in the environmental sphere (illegal disposal of dangerous waste), fraud in the sphere of the arms trade and drugs (money-laundering), fraud in the corporate sphere which may imply any species of the other frauds just mentioned. Frauds that are all the more tempting since our computerised world with its manifold cryptographic devices makes it much easier to effectively hide them[19].

It is generally accepted, therefore, that the mere threat of penal and other sanctions does not suffice, but that regular random as well as special pro-active audits, inspections and investigations by highly specialised agencies are indispensable for effectively combating such frauds. The auditors not only need expert knowledge, they also cannot do without ‘appropriate special powers’[20]. That normally includes not only the right to inspect correspondence and files, to verify books and accounts, but also to require a certain degree of active cooperation[21] by those under investigation, to be informed of passwords and other secret information, to secure the handing over of documents and replies to questions. Normally, such rights are enforceable by threat of punishment.

Hence — and because, obviously, such audits may imperceptibly evolve into a criminal investigation — there is an inherent conflict with the right to silence and the privilege against self-incrimination.

18

This conflict may be solved in various ways and I think that we should realise that, even in a given legal system, different solutions may coexist.

Legislatures whose starting point for such audits is the idea that ascertaining the truth is the weightier interest and, consequently, deny those under investigation the right to silence and the privilege against self-incrimination by making it an offence not to answer questions or otherwise to refuse cooperation, have several options concerning the use in evidence of the material thus acquired in subsequent criminal proceedings against those who have been under investigation. Sometimes it is provided that such material cannot be used in evidence at all; sometimes, that such material may only be used in evidence in case of a prosecution for perjury; sometimes it may also be used when a person who has been under investigation, in criminal proceedings against him, gives evidence which is incompatible with the material in question; sometimes the material may be used in evidence unless the trial court finds that under the circumstances such use would be

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unfair. The present case is an example of the latter type of solution: whilst paragraphs 1 and 3 of Section 434 of the 1985 Act[22] leave no doubt that this provision concerns the type of investigation discussed in paragraph 16 above, paragraph 5 of that provision explicitly allows the use in evidence of answers given to the DTI Inspectors.

19

It follows that the main issue in the present case is whether paragraph 5 of Section 434 of the 1985 Act is incompatible per se with the right to silence or the privilege against self-incrimination. In view of what I have said in paragraph 17 above on audits it is difficult to deny that this issue is of general importance. The more so since holding that paragraph 5 of section 434 of the 1985 Act is incompatible per se with the right to silence or the privilege against self-incrimination may, as a matter of inherent logic, entail that (since no use may be made of the answers of those who have been under investigation by DTI Inspectors) the very same prohibition affects facts discovered in consequence of such answers, such as the existence of a foreign bank account or of a secret file!

III Deciding the issue(s)

20

In trying to decide the main issue my starting-point is that I accept that the United Kingdom legislature — which in such matters should be allowed a certain margin of appreciation — could reasonably conclude that, where there are serious rumours of fraudulent management, the public interest of protecting society against such fraud demands that the truth comes out and that this justifies the system of inquiry as set up under in the 1985 Act, a system under which officers and agents of the investigated company are obliged to cooperate with the DTI Inspectors as laid down in Section 434 of that Act, without enjoying the immunities under discussion.

21

A first point to make is that paragraph 5 of Section 434 of the 1985 Act pre-supposes that the answers are incriminating: it allows their use in evidence ’against him’.

A second point to make is that, although at first blush it may appear that what is a stake is not the right to silence, but rather the privilege against self-incrimination, further analysis suggests that both rights are equally implied: on this view what is in issue is whether it is permissible to use in evidence answers obtained in an investigation in respect of which the legislator has deliberately set aside both the right to silence and the privilege against self-incrimination (see the text of sections 434 and 436 of the 1985 Act).

22

I confess that I have hesitated somewhat in deciding the main issue. However, in the end I have come to the conclusion that I had not been persuaded that paragraph 5 of Section 434 of the 1985 Act is incompatible per se with the right to silence or the — broader — privilege against self-incrimination. It is only fair to say that in this decision the serious consequences of the latter view indicated at the end of paragraph 19 above have played their part.

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As already indicated in paragraphs 7–12 above, I see neither right as absolute and I therefore fundamentally disagree with the sweeping statement in paragraph 74 of the Court's judgment according to which ‘the public interest cannot be invoked to justify the use of answers compulsory obtained in a non-judicial investigation to incriminate the accused during the trial proceedings’.

I accept that at the trial of a driver accused of driving when intoxicated the outcome of a breathalyser-test to which he had been compelled may be used in evidence against him, although it has been obtained as a result of the legislature's setting aside the privilege against self-incrimination. Why, then, should it per se be inadmissible to use in evidence statements obtained as a result of a similar setting aside both of the right to silence and the privilege against self-incrimination?

As far as the rationale for these immunities is to provide the accused with protection against improper compulsion by the authorities and, thereby, to contribute to avoiding miscarriages of justice, their rationale does not require to hold that paragraph 5 of Section 434 of the 1985 Act is inadmissible per se: the impartiality of the DTI Inspectors who merely seek to establish the truth, their professional qualities — generally speaking senior barristers and accountants —, the procedure before them, based as it is on natural justice under control of the courts, and, finally, the circumstance that those under investigation are given advance notice in writing of what is required from them and may be accompanied by their lawyers[23], seem to offer sufficient guarantees against improper physical or psychological pressure, whilst the power of the trial judge under section 78 of PACE[24] constitutes a further guarantee against unfairness arising from the inquisitorial nature of their inquiry as well as against any residual danger of miscarriage of justice.

Nor does the argument as to ‘human dignity and autonomy’, compel one to conclude that the use in evidence of the answers given in the inquiry is per se inadmissible. As I have already indicated, this rationale is also to be relativised and there is special justification for doing so in the present context. After all, under the hypothesis we are discussing, the answers are ’incriminating’. That means that they to a certain extent disclose both the offence and its perpetrator. The question therefore comes down to asking whether that disclosure may be used when trying to bring that perpetrator to justice. Would it not be stretching the respect for his human dignity and autonomy — or, in the terminology of the Court, the respect for his will — too far to hold that the mere fact that he has made these ‘disclosing’ statements in the context of an inquiry during which he did enjoy neither immunity necessarily results in making any and all use of such answers in evidence against him inadmissible per se?

I think that this question should at any rate be answered in the affirmative if making any and all use of such answers in evidence inadmissible per se, it would imply that there is a good chance that — although to a certain extent it had already been disclosed that he was the perpetrator — he would nevertheless go unpunished which — as I am prepared to accept[25]— in practice would be the effect in a good many of these complicated fraud cases. I find it rather difficult to accept that once the result of the investigation is that such frauds are exposed, the right to silence and the privilege against self-incrimination should, nevertheless, make it to all practical purposes impossible that those whose responsibility is to a certain extent already disclosed are brought to justice and punished. This would lead to undermining the deterrent function of the criminal law in an area

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where it is particularly needed and, furthermore, seriously offend the public's sense of justice.

23

There is one further argument against the admissibility of legislation of the present type that must be discussed separately since it apparently impressed the Commission and, accordingly, has been — succesfully[26]— urged by counsel for the applicant in his pleadings before the Court.

24

I recall that we are discussing a two tier type legislation, characterised by (1) establishing investigation proceedings in which those under investigation are obliged to cooperate with the investigators and to answer their questions without enjoying the two immunities under discussion (the first tier) and (2) making it, moreover, possible that answers obtained in those investigation proceedings be used in evidence at a subsequent trial against someone who has been under investigation (the second tier). The overall justification of this type of legislation is to protect the public against serious forms of fraud. That public interest justifies, firstly, setting aside the immunities under discussion in the first tier (the investigation stage) and, secondly, using the answers in the second tier (the trial stage) in order to make sure that, where the first tier has disclosed a perpetrator, that perpetrator gets his punishment in the second tier. Seen from the latter's viewpoint, however, the whole process nullifies the right to silence and the privilege against self-incrimination.

The argument to be discussed claims that if a two tier process, which amounts to nullifying these immunities for the sake of protecting the public against serious forms of fraud, is to be condoned, such a two tier process must also be accepted if on similar arguments — that is: on the argument that public interest in being protected against robbery, violence, murder etc. etc. outweighs these very same immunities — it is established in respect of ordinary crimes. Which would, obviously, be the end of the two immunities under discussion.

25

The argument is flawed in that it disregards a difference between the various forms of serious fraud and such ordinary crimes as robbery, violence and murder which in the present context is essential: In ordinary crime cases discovery of the crime nearly always precedes the investigation which, consequently, as a rule merely aims at establishing ‘who did it’; whilst in fraud cases the investigation generally has as its first and main purpose to establish whether or not a crime has been committed at all. This difference is essential since it explains why investigations into ordinary crimes as a rule come within the ambit of Article 6, whilst investigations in the field of possible fraud do not: those who are targeted by investigations of the former type as a rule ipso facto become ‘charged with a criminal offence’ within the autonomous meaning of this expression in Article 6, whilst those who who are under an investigation into possible fraud do not, and, therefore, may, without violation of Article 6, be denied the privileges under discussion in the first tier.

As to the second tier, where a charge has been brought so that Article 6 ipso facto applies always, there are sound arguments for distinguishing corporate fraud from other

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species of crime. First, there are important typological differences between the often well bred, highly sophisticated corporate wrongdoer and other criminals and, secondly, there is the essential feature which these forms of fraud share and sets them apart from other species of crime, namely that generally they are only detectable after an investigation of the type referred in paragraph 17 above and, moreover, may only successfully prosecuted when the results of that investigation may be used in evidence against the wrongdoer.

For these reasons the argument fails. So does a similar objection from the applicant which puts the same argument in the form of alleged discrimination between ‘corporate criminals’ who are deprived of the two immunities under discussion and ‘ordinary criminals’ who enjoy them. The differences just mentioned imply that the cases are not similar, whilst the argument moreover fails to take into account the essential difference between the very urbane proceedings before the DTI Inspectors and custodial police questioning.

26

My conclusion that paragraph 5 of Section 434 of the 1985 Act is not incompatible per se with the two immunities does not, of course, exempt me from examining whether under the specific circumstances of the case the use of the applicant's answers to the DTI Inspectors was nevertheless unfair. This is what the Government called the factual issue.

In this respect I recall: (1) that under section 78 of the PACE[27] it was for the trial judge to see to it that use of these answers did not have ‘such an adverse effect on the fairness of the proceedings that the court ought not to admit it; (2) that the trial judge held two extensive voir dires on the subject at the end of which he gave rulings which demonstrated preparedness to use his powers under the provision as well as sensitivity for the interests of the defence — inter alia by excluding the evidence from the eighth and ninth interviews[28]— and (3) that the trial judge, in his summing up — which was qualified by the Court of Appeal as ‘in the main a masterly exposition’[29]—, compared and contrasted what the applicant had said in court with his answers to the DTI Inspectors, thereby demonstrating that he did not consider such use unfair[30].

Apparently, Mr Saunders has not been able to persuade the Court of Appeal that the trial judge has been remiss in guarding the fairness of the proceedings. Nor have been I been so persuaded.

In paragraph 72 the Court attaches much weight to the fact that at a certain stage of the trial — days 45–47 — the transcripts of the interviews[31] were read to the jury. I recall, however, that right from the beginning of the trial Mr Saunders’ defence was, essentially, that whatever fraud had taken place, he was innocent because ignorant. He maintained that he knew nothing about giving of indemnities or the paying of success fees and that he had not been consulted on such matters. The transcripts made it possible to refute this defence and were used to do so[32].

I therefore find that — whatever is the exact meaning of the Court of Appeal's rather approximate remark that the interviews ‘formed a significant part of the prosecution case’[33]— Mr Saunder's answers to the DTI Inspectors were only used in evidence against him, essentially, in order to demonstrate that the evidence which he had chosen to give at his trial was not reliable in that it was incompatible on certain points with those

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answers. I do not consider that to have been an unfair use of those answers.

27

For the above reasons I have voted against finding a violation of the applicant's rights under Article 6.

NootNaar boven

Auteur: G. Knigge

1

In dit belangrijke, door de grote kamer gewezen arrest staat opnieuw het nemo tenetur-beginsel centraal. Het gaat daarbij om twee verschillende kwesties. De eerste betreft de welbekende problematiek van de spreekplicht versus het zwijgrecht: hoe verhouden de inlichtingenplichten die in bepaalde situaties op burgers rusten, zich tot het zwijgrecht dat zij als verdachte hebben? Op dit punt schenkt het Hof klare wijn. Verklaringen die een burger gedwongen was af te leggen, mogen niet in een strafproces tegen hem gebruikt worden. Het publieke belang kan, ongeacht de aard van de telastegelegde feiten, dergelijk gebruik niet rechtvaardigen. Zie daarover de punten 2 en 3 van deze noot.

De tweede kwestie heeft betrekking op de reikwijdte van the right not to incriminate oneself. In hoeverre gaat het om méér dan het zwijgrecht alleen? Het Hof overweegt dat het recht zich niet uitstrekt tot het gebruik van afgedwongen bewijsmateriaal dat onafhankelijk van de wil van de verdachte bestaat, en noemt daarbij als voorbeelden inbeslaggenomen documenten, uitgeademde lucht (blaasproef), bloed‑ en urinemonsters en lichaamsweefsel voor DNA-onderzoek. Dat is een belangrijke overweging, omdat het hier gaat om onderzoek waaraan de verdachte niet zelden verplicht is mee te weren, en het na het Funke-arrest (NJ 1993, 485) de vraag was of dergelijke verplichtingen stroken met het verdrag. Het Hof heeft dit arrest kennelijk aangegrepen om de ontstane onrust weg te nemen. De gekozen bewoordingen lijken aan duidelijkheid niets te wensen over te laten. Toch is het juist de absoluutheid van de formulering die vragen oproept. In het Funke-arrest ging het immers om de verplichte overhandiging van documenten, om materiaal dus waarvan het bestaan niet afhankelijk was van de wil van de verdachte. Moet aangenomen worden dat het Hof teruggekomen is op zijn in het Funke-arrest ingenomen standpunt? Zie nader de punten 4, 5 en 6 van deze noot.

2

Op last van het Britse ministerie van handel en industrie werd een onderzoek ingesteld naar mogelijke beursfraude met betrekking tot aandelen Guinness. Saunders, de (gewezen) hoofddirecteur van het concern, werd in het kader van dat onderzoek gehoord en was daarbij wettelijk verplicht op de gestelde vragen te antwoorden. Die spreekplicht stond in het arrest niet ter discussie. Aangezien het onderzoek geen strafvorderlijk karakter had (niet was gericht op de ‘determination of a criminal charge’), was art. 6 EVRM daarop niet van toepassing. De vraag was alleen, of het gebruik van de afgelegde verklaringen in de latere strafzaak zich verdroeg met het zwijgrecht dat daarin aan Saunders toekwam (§ 67). Die vraag werd door het Hof met een duidelijk nee beantwoord.

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De gekozen benadering maakt duidelijk dat een inlichtingenplicht als zodanig niet in strijd is met art. 6 EVRM. De overheid mag een burger verplichten inlichtingen te geven, ook als deze zich daardoor zou incrimineren. Het conflict tussen spreekplicht en zwijgrecht behoeft derhalve niet te worden opgelost door de burger een verschoningsrecht te geven in gevallen waarin hij zich door te antwoorden aan het gevaar van een strafvervolging zou bloot stellen. Het voordeel van de benadering van het Hof is, dat aan de informatiegaring voor andere dan strafrechtelijke doeleinden geen beperkingen worden gesteld. De overheid mag van de belastende informatie gebruik maken, ook ten nadele van de betrokkene, zolang maar geen sprake is van gebruik als bewijsmateriaal bij de vaststelling van een criminal charge. Ingeval van geconstateerde belastingfraude bijvoorbeeld kunnen de inlichtingen die de belastingplichtige verplicht was te geven, wel gebruikt worden om de belastingaanslag te corrigeren, maar niet om een fiscale boete op te leggen of, ingeval van een strafvervolging, om het bewijs van het telastegelegde te leveren.

In het verlengde van het voorgaande ligt, dat art. 6 EVRM er niet toe dwingt om de spreekplicht op te heffen als het redelijk vermoeden rijst dat de betrokkene zich schuldig heeft gemaakt aan een strafbaar feit. Als de ondervraging zich niet richt op de vraag of een punitieve sanctie moet worden opgelegd, behoeft aan de ondervraagde geen zwijgrecht te worden toegekend. De belastinginspecteur die fraude constateert kan, als hij alleen uit is op een correcte aanslag, de cautie achterwege laten. Omdat de ondervraging niet plaats vindt in een strafvorderlijk kader, en de belastingplichtige dus niet als verdachte wordt gehoord, is art. 29 Sv niet van toepassing. Het gevaar voor misbruik is daarbij niet groot: als de ondervraging wel (mede) bedoeld is om strafrechtelijk bewijs te leveren, is het in het belang van het onderzoek zelf dat de spreekplicht in een zo vroeg mogelijk stadium wordt opgeheven. De afgelegde verklaringen zijn anders immers niet bruikbaar.

De conclusie kan zijn dat het onderhavige arrest de oplossing die door Wattel is verdedigd (preadvies NJV 1995, p. 214 e.v.), in één klap heeft gerealiseerd. Zie ook E.E.V. Lenos, NJB 1997, p. 795 e.v.

3

Over het verbod om onder dwang afgelegde verklaringen in het strafproces te bezigen, nog een tweetal opmerkingen. De eerste is dat het verbod blijkens het arrest niet alleen geldt voor bekentenissen. Saunders had steeds hardnekkig ontkend, maar die ontkennende verklaringen waren, vanwege tegenstrijdigheden en feitelijke onjuistheden, voor hem belastend. Daarbij moet wel bedacht worden dat het in casu ging om juryrechtspraak. In de Nederlandse verhoudingen zal het enkele op de zitting ter sprake brengen van onvrijwillig afgelegde verklaringen, niet direct een incriminerend gebruik van die verklaringen opleveren. Van de beroepsrechter mag worden verwacht dat hij geen onbruikbaar bewijsmateriaal in zijn oordeelsvorming betrekt.

De tweede opmerking betreft de absoluutheid van het verbod. In zijn dissenting opinion stelt Morenilla dat hij zich kan vinden in het meerderheidsstandpunt, volgens hetwelk de onvrijwillig afgelegde verklaringen wél door de vervolgende autoriteiten zouden mogen worden gebruikt als basis voor verder (opsporings)onderzoek. In het arrest is dat standpunt echter niet direct terug te vinden. Weliswaar beperkt het Hof zijn oordeel tot gebruik ‘during the trial proceedings’ (§ 74), maar om een verdergaand oordeel vroeg de

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casus niet. Of het verbod ook voor het vooronderzoek geldt, zal dus moeten worden afgewacht.

4

Het Hof overweegt dat het recht om geen bewijs tegen zich zelf te leveren, zich niet uitstrekt tot bewijsmateriaal waarvan het bestaan niet afhankelijk is van de wil van de verdachte. Dat zou betekenen dat aan het recht nauwelijks nog zelfstandige betekenis toekomt naast het zwijgrecht. Kan van bewijsmateriaal dat zich niet ‘in’ het hoofd van de verdachte bevindt, immers niet steeds gezegd worden dat het onafhankelijk van diens wil bestaat? Het enige bewijsmateriaal dat — voorzover ik kan bedenken — afhankelijk is van de wil van de verdachte is zijn spreken en zijn zwijgen. Het privilege against self incrimination zou zich dus beperken tot de vrijheid om al dan niet een verklaring af te leggen.

Nu is enige twijfel mogelijk over de vraag of deze verregaande beperking inderdaad door het Hof is bedoeld. Dat de zaak aan de grote kamer is voorgelegd zou er op kunnen wijzen dat men op Funke heeft willen terugkomen. Daar staat echter tegenover dat dit punt niet expliciet bij de beraadslagingen aan de orde lijkt te zijn geweest. In elk geval weet ook Martens, zoals uit zijn dissenting opinion (§ 12) blijkt, niet zeker wat de meerderheid heeft bewogen. Enige voorzichtigheid bij het trekken van conclusies lijkt derhalve te zijn geboden. Daarbij moet rekening worden gehouden met de mogelijkheid dat het Hof aansluiting heeft willen zoeken bij de rechtspraak van het Amerikaanse Supreme Court. Een beschrijving van die rechtspraak geeft P. Bal in J.M. Reijntjes (red.), Nemo tenetur, Arnhem, 1996, p. 23 e.v. Reijntjes wijst er in diezelfde bundel (p. 17 e.v.) op dat het Hof in het uiterst summier gemotiveerde Funke-arrest voorop stelt dat de autoriteiten niet zeker wisten of de opgevraagde documenten wel bestonden. Dat past in de Amerikaanse jurisprudentie waarin aangenomen wordt dat ingeval van de gedwongen onthulling van het bestaan van de documenten, wel degelijk sprake kan zijn van bewijs van testimonial or communicative nature. Het Funke-arrest zou zogezien dus niet zijn overruled, maar alleen, naar nu blijkt, verkeerd zijn begrepen. Zie Schalken in zijn noot onder NJ 1997, 232 en Lenos, t.a.p., p. 796. Deze uitleg roept dan wel direct de vraag op, hoe groot de ruimte is die het Hof laat voor een tot de verdachte gericht bevel tot uitlevering van documenten. Wanneer weten autoriteiten zeker dat een bepaald document nog bestaat?

5

Op de achtergrond speelt een discussie over de rechtsgrond van het nemo tenetur-beginsel. Uit het arrest is wel de conclusie getrokken dat het Hof het beginsel heeft verengd tot een kwestie met betrekking tot de betrouwbaarheid van het bewijsmateriaal. Afgedwongen verklaringen kunnen onbetrouwbaar zijn, documenten en lichaamsmateriaal worden er niet minder betrouwbaar op als ze onvrijwillig zijn afgestaan. Zie DD 1997, p. 402. De enige rechtsgrond zou in deze visie het tegengaan van rechterlijke dwalingen zijn. Opmerkelijk is dat Martens in zijn dissenting opinion (§ 9) juist vermoedt dat het Hof de rechtsgrond heeft verruimd tot ‘respect for human dignity and autonomy’. De verabsolutering waartoe deze rechtsgrond uitnodigt, zou zijns inziens tot de beperking van de reikwijdte van het beginsel hebben geleid.

Ik meen dat de zorg voor de betrouwbaarheid van het bewijs een te beperkte rechtsgrond oplevert. Zelfs het zwijgrecht kan daarmee niet goed verklaard worden. Als

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het gaat om verhoren op het politiebureau is het zwijgrecht inderdaad een waarborg tegen afgedwongen bekentenissen. Bij verhoren op een openbare terechtzitting, waarbij de verdachte wordt bijgestaan door een raadsman, is het gevaar voor improper compulsion niet erg groot. Dat de enkele plicht tot spreken er toe leidt dat de verdachte ten onrechte bekent, valt niet direct in te zien. De kans dat een bekentenis niet deugt is natuurlijk altijd aanwezig. Dat echter rechtvaardigt geen absoluut zwijgrecht. Waarborgen met betrekking tot het gebruik van de afgelegde verklaringen (bijv. het bewijs mag daarop niet mainly steunen) zouden voldoende garantie kunnen bieden tegen rechterlijke dwalingen. Ik merk daarbij op dat getuigen in het strafproces wél gedwongen kunnen worden om onder ede verklaringen af te leggen. Toch wordt niet aangenomen dat die dwang hun verklaringen onbetrouwbaar maakt. Integendeel, spreekplichten vinden hun rechtvaardiging altijd in het feit dat daarzonder de waarheid niet op tafel komt. Een parlementaire enquêtecommissie bijv. zou nergens blijven als de personen die zij wil horen, geen spreekplicht hadden. Is het dan niet vreemd om in de waarheidsvinding, die spreekplichten rechtvaardigt, de basis voor het zwijgrecht te zoeken?

In het verlengde van het voorgaande ligt, dat het zwijgrecht niet gebaseerd kan worden op de onschuldpresumptie. Uit die presumptie volgt wél dat de verdachte zijn onschuld niet behoeft te bewijzen, en dus óók dat de vervolgende overheid het bewijs van schuld moet leveren, maar niet dat die overheid dat bewijs niet zou mogen leveren door de verdachte tot medewerking te dwingen. Als die medewerking betrouwbaar bewijs oplevert, wordt aan de onschuldpresumptie niet tekort gedaan. Er is, zoals het Hof in LXVIII stelt, wel een link tussen het recht zich zelf niet te incrimineren en de onschuldpresumptie, haar het verband is net andersom: dat de overheid het bewijs op eigen kracht moet leveren, vooronderstelt dat de verdachte niet tot medewerking kan worden gedwongen.

Opgemerkt kan worden dat de onschuldpresumptie ook daarom als rechtsgrond ontoereikend is, omdat daarmee niet verklaard kan worden dat het zwijgrecht zich (althans naar Nederlands recht) niet beperkt tot de schuldvraag. Waarom behoeft een verdachte op geen enkele vraag antwoord te geven, dus ook niet op vragen die betrekking hebben op de procesgang of op de straftoemeting. Waarom zou een verdachte die ruiterlijk bekent, er verder het zwijgen toe mogen doen? Met de betrouwbaarheid van het bewijs en met de onschuldpresumptie kan het zwijgrecht niet ten volle verklaard worden. Mijns inziens dient de verklaring mee, zo niet in de eerste plaats, gezocht te worden in het feit dat de verdachte in het strafproces geen voorwerp van onderzoek is, maar een partijpositie inneemt. Het is de vrijheid om de eigen procesopstelling te bepalen die het Hof tot ‘the heart of the notion of a fair procedure’ rekent. Daarbij zij aangetekend dat deze keuze voor het eerste lid van art. 6 als basis, meebrengt dat ook in het civiele proces aan de partijen vrijheid dient toe te komen. Het verschil is alleen dat die partijautonomie in het burgerlijk proces (die zo ver gaat dat de partijwaarheid boven de materiële waarheid wordt gesteld) niet of nauwelijks onder druk staat. In het strafproces daarentegen is de vraag in hoeverre het publieke belang een inperking of relativering van de partijautonomie rechtvaardigt.

6

Het is begrijpelijk dat het Hof de verklaringsvrijheid als de kern van het nemo tenetur-beginsel aanmerkt. Die verklaringsvrijheid is essentieel voor de vrijheid die de verdachte als procespartij toekomt. Bovendien gaat respect voor partijautonomie hier hand in hand

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met het voorkomen van ontoelaatbare druk, en daarmee van onbetrouwbare bekentenissen. Dat maakt tevens begrijpelijk dat buiten die ‘harde’ kern plaats is voor relativering van de partijautonomie. Daarbij dient bedacht te worden dat — naar algemeen wordt aanvaard — in het strafproces aan de vervolgende overheid (ingrijpende) onderzoeksbevoegdheden ter beschikking staan. Dat maakt dat die overheid bewijsmateriaal waarvan het bestaan niet afhankelijk is van de wil van de verdachte, dikwijls ook zonder diens medewerking kan achterhalen. De inbreuk op de vrijheid van de verdachte kan dan echter groter zijn dan bij een verplichting tot medewerking het geval is. Als bijv. de verdachte bloedafname eenvoudig heeft te gedogen, kan die afname desnoods met fysiek geweld worden afgedwongen. Een constructie waarbij de verdachte verplicht wordt om mee te werken geeft de verdachte feitelijk een keuzemogelijkheid: hij kan de bloedproef weigeren en daarmee voorkomen. Meewerkplichten zijn zogezien juist heel goed te rijmen met respect voor de vrijheid van de verdachte.

Een en ander maakt dat de beperking waarvoor het Hof lijkt te hebben gekozen, niet onverdedigbaar is. Een meer genuanceerde oplossing, waarbij inbreuken op de partijautonomie die niet in de sfeer van de verklaringsvrijheid liggen, op redelijkheid worden getoetst, zou echter mijn voorkeur hebben. Vgl. de dissenting opinion (§ 10) van Martens. Overigens is het niet zo dat het Hof, als vast gehouden wordt aan de gekozen oplossing, geheel met lege handen staat. Een meewerkplicht zal bijna altijd een inbreuk op de privacy betekenen die aan het tweede lid van art. 8 EVRM dient te worden getoetst. De vraag daarbij is hoe de necessity-eis zal worden ingevuld. Zal een verplichting om aan de eigen veroordeling mee te werken minder snel ‘noodzakelijk’ worden geacht dan een verplichting om aan andermans veroordeling mee te werken? Als dat het geval is wordt door de achterdeur binnen gehaald wat aan de voordeur is buiten gesloten. Zou het dan niet beter zijn gewoon de voordeur open te zetten?

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FOURTH SECTION

CASE OF HEANEY AND McGUINNESS v. IRELAND

(Application no. 34720/97)

JUDGMENT

STRASBOURG

21 December 2000

FINAL

21/03/2001

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In the case of Heaney and McGuinness v. Ireland,

The European Court of Human Rights (Fourth Section), sitting as a Chamber composed of:

Mr G. Ress, President,

Mr A. Pastor Ridruejo,

Mr L. Caflisch,

Mr I. Cabral Barreto,

Mr V. Butkevych,

Mrs N. Vajić,

Mr M. Pellonpää, judges,

and Mr V. Berger, Section Registrar,

Having deliberated in private on 16 March, 11 July and 12 December 2000,

Delivers the following judgment, which was adopted on the last-mentioned date:

PROCEDURE

1. The case originated in an application (no. 34720/97) against the Republic of Ireland lodged with the European Commission of Human Rights (“the Commission”) under former Article 25 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (“the Convention”) by two Irish nationals, Mr Anthony Heaney and Mr William McGuinness (“the applicants”), on 17 January 1997.

2. The applicants, who had been granted legal aid, were represented by Mr D. Robinson, a lawyer practising in Dublin. The Irish Government (“the Government”) were represented successively by their Agents,

Ms E. Kilcullen, Mr R. Siev and Mr A. Connolly, all of the Department of Foreign Affairs.

3. The applicants alleged that section 52 of the Offences against the State Act 1939 constituted a violation of the rights guaranteed by Articles 6, 8 and 10 of the Convention.

4. On 1 July 1998 the Commission decided to communicate to the Government the applicants' complaints under Articles 6 and 10 of the Convention. The application was transmitted to the Court on 1 November 1998, when Protocol No. 11 to the Convention came into force (Article 5

§ 2 of Protocol No. 11).

5. The application was allocated to the Fourth Section of the Court

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(Rule 52 § 1 of the Rules of Court). Within that Section, the Chamber that would consider the case (Article 27 § 1 of the Convention) was constituted as provided in Rule 26 § 1. Mr J. Hedigan, the judge elected in respect of Ireland, withdrew from sitting in the case (Rule 28). The Government accordingly appointed Ms N. Vajić, the judge elected in respect of Croatia, to sit in his place (Article 27 § 2 of the Convention and Rule 29 § 1).

6. By a decision of 21 September 1999, the Court declared the application admissible [Note by the Registry. The Court's decision is obtainable from the Registry.].

7. The applicants and the Government each filed observations on the merits (Rule 59 § 1). The Court decided, after consulting the parties, that no hearing on the merits was required (Rule 59 § 2 in fine) and the parties replied in writing to each other's observations on the merits.

THE FACTS

I. THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE CASE

8. At approximately 4.10 a.m. on 23 October 1990 a large explosion occurred at a British Army/Royal Ulster Constabulary checkpoint in County Derry. Five British soldiers and one civilian were killed and a number of other British army personnel were seriously injured.

9. Approximately an hour and a half later, Irish police officers on surveillance duty noted a light in a house approximately four miles from the scene of the explosion. At approximately 6.05 a.m. on 24 October 1990 a warrant was obtained to search the house. At or around 7 a.m. that morning the police entered the house and found an assortment of gloves (rubber and knitted), balaclavas, caps and other clothing. The seven men in the house, including the owner and the applicants, were arrested and detained by the police under section 30 of the Offences against the State Act 1939 (“the 1939 Act”). As later noted by the High Court (see paragraph 15 below), it was suspected that the bombing had been carried out by the Irish Republican Army (an unlawful paramilitary organisation known as the IRA) and the applicants were, in turn, suspected by the police of membership of that organisation and of involvement in the bombing.

10. Both applicants were cautioned by police officers in the usual terms, namely that they were not required to say anything unless they wished to do so and they were also informed that anything they did say would be taken down in writing and might be given in evidence against them.

Mr Heaney was then questioned about the bombing and about his presence in the house where he was arrested. He refused to answer the questions put to him. Police officers then read section 52 of the 1939 Act to him and he was requested pursuant to that section to give a full account of his movements and actions between 6 p.m. on 23 October and 6.55 a.m. on 24 October 1990. He refused to answer any questions.

Mr McGuinness was also questioned about the explosion and about his presence in the house where he was arrested. He refused to answer those questions. He was then requested to account for his movements between

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1 a.m. and 7.15 a.m. on 24 October 1990. He refused to answer. Police officers then read section 52 of the 1939 Act to him and he was handed a copy of the section and asked to read it. He continued not to answer questions put to him.

11. On 25 October 1990 both applicants were brought to the Special Criminal Court in Dublin and charged with the offence of membership of an unlawful organisation (contrary to section 21 of the 1939 Act) and of failing to account for their movements (contrary to section 52 of the 1939 Act).

12. On 19 April 1991 the applicants' trial in the Special Criminal Court took place. On 26 June 1991 the applicants were acquitted of the charge of membership of an unlawful organisation but each was convicted of failing to provide an account of their movements during a specified period contrary to section 52 of the 1939 Act. The court rejected their arguments that section 52 must be read as including a right to refuse to provide such information on reasonable grounds and about the confusion caused by police officers giving the usual caution about the right to remain silent and then making a request for information under section 52 of the 1939 Act. Both applicants were sentenced to six months' imprisonment. Their sentences commenced on 26 June 1991. They were released on

10 November 1991.

13. The applicants then appealed against their conviction and sentence under section 52 to the Court of Criminal Appeal. As regards their conviction, they submitted that the Special Criminal Court had erred in finding that the applicants were not confused as a result of the caution about their right to remain silent and the conflicting request for information under section 52 by the same officers. They argued that section 52 should have been read as including the possibility of a refusal to give information based on reasonable excuse. As to their sentence, they argued that the confusion caused by the caution and request for information should have been a mitigating factor; that there was no evidence that they warranted the maximum sentence; and that the court failed to take into account the time the applicants had spent in custody prior to their trial.

14. On 3 May 1992 the applicants took proceedings in the High Court challenging the constitutionality of section 52 of the 1939 Act. The proceedings pending before the Court of Criminal Appeal were consequently adjourned.

15. By a judgment dated 24 June 1994, the High Court rejected their application. It based the applicants' right not to answer questions as regards their movements on Article 38 of the Constitution rather than on Article 40, noting that their case related to suspects in custody and not to accused persons on trial. However, it was considered that section 52 constituted a proportionate interference with the applicants' right to silence, the objective being to assist police investigations into serious crimes of a subversive nature involving the security of the State. In addition, the restrictions were not considered arbitrary or irrational.

The High Court also considered that the restriction did not excessively impair the right to silence given the objective pursued by section 52 and the other legal protections applicable to persons in custody under section 30 of the 1939 Act, which protections were afforded to minimise the risk of an accused wrongfully confessing to a crime and to safeguard against the possible abuse of the powers provided by section 52 of the 1939 Act. Those protections were listed by the High Court: the requirement that a police officer

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must have a bona fide suspicion prior to arrest; the obligation to inform the suspect of the offences under the 1939 Act and/or of the scheduled offences of which he is suspected; the right to legal assistance when reasonably requested; the right to medical assistance; the right of access to a court; the right to remain silent and to be told of that right; the obligations to provide appropriate cautions to detainees and to abstain from cross-examining a person in detention under section 30 of the 1939 Act and from unfair and oppressive questioning of such detainees; and the conditions attaching to any extension of the length of detention under section 30 of the 1939 Act.

16. By a judgment dated 23 July 1996 the Supreme Court rejected the applicants' appeal, finding that section 52 of the 1939 Act was not inconsistent with the Constitution. It was noted that section 52 of the 1939 Act was silent on the use which could be made of statements provided pursuant to requests made under section 52. While the Court of Criminal Appeal had suggested in a previous case (The People (Director of Public Prosecutions) v. McGowan [1979] Irish Reports 45) that information lawfully obtained under section 52 might be later used in evidence, the Supreme Court expressly reserved its position as to whether that view was correct or not.

The Supreme Court considered that the right to silence was a corollary to freedom of expression guaranteed by Article 40 of the Constitution and that the relevant assessment was to consider the proportionality of the restriction on the right to silence in view of the public order exception to Article 40 of the Constitution. It noted that the 1939 Act was aimed at actions and conduct calculated to undermine public order and the authority of the State and that the proclamation made pursuant to section 35 of the 1939 Act remained in force.

As to whether section 52 restricted the right to silence more than was necessary in light of the disorder against which the State was attempting to protect the public, the court noted that an innocent person had nothing to fear from giving an account of his or her movements even though such a person may wish, nevertheless, to take a stand on grounds of principle and to assert his or her constitutional rights. However, it considered that the entitlement of citizens to take such a stand must yield to the right of the State to protect itself. The entitlement of those with something relevant to disclose concerning the commission of a crime to remain silent must be regarded as of an even lesser order. The Supreme Court concluded that the restriction in section 52 was proportionate to the State's entitlement to protect itself.

17. The applicants' appeal to the Court of Criminal Appeal in relation to their conviction under section 52 of the 1939 Act has been adjourned generally pending the outcome of the present application.

II. RELEVANT DOMESTIC LAW

A. Pertinent Constitutional provisions

18. Article 38 § 1 of the Irish Constitution provides that no person shall be tried on any criminal charge save in due course of law. By Article 40, the State guarantees liberty for

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the exercise, subject to public order and morality, of the right of citizens to express freely their convictions and opinions.

B. The Offences against the State Act 1939

19. The Offences against the State Act 1939 is described in its long (explanatory) title as an Act to make provision for actions and conduct calculated to undermine public order and the authority of the State and, for that purpose, to provide for the punishment of persons guilty of offences against the State, and to establish Special Criminal Courts.

20. Section 21 of the 1939 Act makes it an offence to be a member of an unlawful organisation as defined in the Act.

21. Section 30 deals with the arrest and detention of suspected persons and provides that a member of the police can arrest and detain a person whom he suspects of having committed an offence under the 1939 Act or an offence scheduled under Part V of the 1939 Act (the scheduled offences are mainly offences under the firearms and explosive substances' legislation). This power of arrest is a permanent power so that it is not dependent on a section 35 proclamation (see the following paragraph).

22. Section 35 of the 1939 Act provides that Part V of that Act (which establishes the Special Criminal Courts and contains section 52) is to come into force by means of a proclamation by the government made when the government is satisfied that the ordinary courts are inadequate to secure the effective administration of justice and the preservation of public peace and order, and when the government therefore makes and publishes a proclamation to that effect. The proclamation was made in 1972 and is still in force. Accordingly, section 52 of the 1939 Act has been in force since 1972 to date.

23. By section 36 of the 1939 Act the government may declare that a particular class or kind of offence is a scheduled offence for the purpose of the 1939 Act and such offences are to be tried by the Special Criminal Courts established under section 38 of the 1939 Act.

24. Section 52 of the 1939 Act reads as follows:

“1. Whenever a person is detained in custody under the provisions in that behalf contained in Part IV of this Act, any member of the [police] may demand of such person, at any time while he is so detained, a full account of such person's movements and actions during any specified period and all information in his possession in relation to the commission or intended commission by another person of any offence under any section or sub-section of this Act or any scheduled offence.

2. If any person, of whom any such account or information as is mentioned in the foregoing sub-section of this section is demanded under that sub-section by a member of the [police], fails or refuses to give to such member such account or any such information or gives to such member any account or information which is false or misleading, he shall be guilty of an offence under this section and shall be liable on summary conviction thereof to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months.”

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25. Under the terms of the Good Friday Peace Agreement of 10 April 1998, the government committed to initiating a wide ranging review of, inter alia, the 1939 Act with a view to reform and dispensing with those elements of the 1939 Act which would no longer be required. The Minister for Justice, Equality and Law Reform has, with government approval, established a committee to examine all aspects of the Offences against the State Acts and to report to the Minister with recommendations for reform. The committee has already commenced its work.

C. Relevant case-law

26. In the McGowan case cited above, the accused had been arrested under section 30 of the 1939 Act and had made certain statements to the police. The defence argued that because of the basis of his arrest

(section 30), the existence of section 52 of the 1939 Act and even though no section 52 requests had actually been made, the accused was bound under penalty to give an account of his movements. Accordingly, the statements which had been made by him were involuntary and not therefore admissible. The court did not find this argument persuasive since no section 52 requests had in fact been made. It went on to point out that, even if section 52 had been relied on by the police, the defence submission was not well-founded because of previous Irish case-law which had held that statements obtained in accordance with Irish law, even a law which made it a criminal offence to refuse to answer, were not inadmissible in any legal proceedings.

27. The Garda Siochana (police) Handbook contains relevant legislation and commentaries and is published by the Incorporated Law Society of Ireland in association with the Garda Siochana. The commentary on

section 52 of the 1939 Act in the sixth edition (1991) provides as follows:

“The fact that the accused is bound under threat of penalty to answer questions lawfully put under section 52 does not render the resultant answers or statements inadmissible in evidence.”

The judicial authority for that proposition was noted in the handbook as being found in the McGowan case cited above and the earlier Irish case-law approved in the McGowan case.

28. In the case of National Irish Bank Ltd (In the matter of National Irish Bank Ltd and the Companies Act 1990, [1999] 1 Irish Law Reports Monthly 343) the Supreme Court found that a confession of a bank official obtained by inspectors as a result of the exercise by them of their powers under

section 10 of the Companies Act 1990 would not, in general, be admissible at a subsequent criminal trial of that official unless, in any particular case, the trial judge was satisfied that the confession was voluntary. The Supreme Court considered that compelling a person to confess and then convicting that person on the basis of the

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compelled confession would be contrary to Article 38 of the Constitution. That court also found that any other evidence obtained as a result of information provided under section 52 of the

1939 Act would be admitted in evidence in a subsequent trial if the trial judge considered, in all the circumstances, that it would be just and fair to admit it.

THE LAW

I. ALLEGED VIOLATION OF ARTICLE 6 §§ 1 AND 2 OF THE CONVENTION

29. The applicants complained that section 52 of the 1939 Act violated their rights to silence and against self-incrimination guaranteed by Article 6 § 1 of the Convention and inverted the presumption of innocence guaranteed by Article 6 § 2. The relevant parts of Article 6 read as follows:

“1. In the determination ... of any criminal charge against him, everyone is entitled to a fair ... hearing ... by an independent and impartial tribunal established by law. ...

2. Everyone charged with a criminal offence shall be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law.”

A. The parties' submissions

1. The Government's submissions

30. The Government submitted, in the first place, that the applicants' complaints fell outside the scope of Article 6 §§ 1 and 2 of the Convention. They had had, for reasons outlined by the Government, a fair trial in respect of their conviction under section 52 of the 1939 Act. Since Article 6 provides protection of a procedural nature for the determination of a criminal charge, the applicants could not rely on Article 6 effectively to challenge the offence under section 52 itself. In addition, both were acquitted on the charge of membership of an illegal organisation so that they could not, in that respect, complain of a violation of the procedural guarantees of

Article 6 of the Convention.

31. Secondly, the Government pointed to substantial safeguards which exist in order to minimise the risk that an individual may wrongfully confess to a crime, which safeguards were noted by the High Court in the present applicants' constitutional action (see paragraph 15 above).

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32. Thirdly, the Government maintained that section 52 of the 1939 Act was a reasonable and appropriate measure given that that section did not provide for, or allow, the use in subsequent criminal proceedings against an accused of information obtained compulsorily from that person.

While the domestic courts in the applicants' case left the question open, if there were cases where information obtained pursuant to section 52 had been later introduced in evidence against the accused, the Government could not find any such case. They pointed out that the statement of the Court of Criminal Appeal in the McGowan case cited above on which the applicant relied was obiter dictum since no section 52 requests had been made of that accused. In any event, the matter was clarified for the future by the Supreme Court in its judgment of January 1999 in the National Irish Bank Ltd case cited above. That court found that compelling a person to confess and then convicting him on the basis of the compelled confession would be contrary to Article 38 of the Constitution. It also found that any other evidence obtained as a result of information provided under section 52 of the 1939 Act would be admitted in evidence in a subsequent trial only if the trial judge considered, in all the circumstances of the case, that it would be just and fair to admit it.

33. Fourthly, the Government also considered that section 52 of the 1939 Act was a proportionate response given the security situation pertaining in the Irish State related to Northern Ireland and the consequent concerns to ensure the effective administration of justice and to preserve public peace and order.

The Government maintained that, as it is legitimate to impose sanctions in civil matters (such as, for example, taxation matters) when a citizen does not divulge information, the power to obtain information under threat of sanction is all the more necessary in criminal matters where the information sought could be essential for the investigation of serious and subversive crime. They noted that the applicants were suspected by the police of membership of the IRA and of having been involved in the bombing of

23 October 1990 and that their questioning under section 52 of the 1939 Act took place in the context of police investigations into that bombing, an explosion which caused the death and serious injury of many persons.

The Government emphasised that section 52 of the 1939 Act remained applicable only as long as a proclamation under section 35 of the 1939 Act was in force. As such, section 52 was a part of Irish law only as long as it was considered warranted by a subsisting terrorist and security threat. The Government summarised the duration and level of violence to the date of their observations, detailed recent bombings and other atrocities, referred to a public statement in December 1999 of the Continuity IRA (who are committed to continuing an armed campaign) and outlined recent weapons, explosives and vehicle bomb seizures. Consequently, they considered that the maintenance of the section 35 proclamation continued to be necessary. This necessity had been constantly reviewed, most recently in March 1998, when it was decided to maintain the proclamation in force, the Government noting, in this context, that the single worst atrocity of the entire period of the proclamation occurred in August 1998 when twenty-nine persons lost their lives in a bombing in Omagh. The Government also referred to their commitment as regards the Offences against the State Acts in the Good Friday Peace Agreement of 10 April 1998.

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Moreover, the use of section 52 of the 1939 Act was strictly limited to arrests and detention under section 30 of that Act and the circumstances in which section 30 came into play were, in turn, strictly limited. The domestic courts were, in addition, vigilant in ensuring that the arrest powers under section 30 were not abused or used for improper purposes (The People (D.P.P.) v. Quilligan and O'Reilly [1986] Irish Reports 495 and The State (Trimbole) v. the Governor of Mountjoy Prison [1985] Irish Reports 550).

34. Finally, the Government distinguished the Saunders v. the United Kingdom judgment (17 December 1996, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996-VI) on the basis that the Court condemned the use at trial of evidence obtained from the accused under compulsion but not the means by which that evidence was initially obtained. They also distinguished the Funke v. France judgment (25 February 1993, Series A no. 256-A), pointing out that Mr Funke was subjected to a continuing sanction as long as he refused to provide the requested information. The John Murray v. the United Kingdom judgment (8 February 1996, Reports 1996-I) was also distinguished, the Government emphasising that Mr Murray's case related to the subsequent drawing of negative inferences from his silence during questioning whereas the present applicants were acquitted on the charges of membership of an unlawful organisation. The Government considered the Serves v. France case (judgment of 20 October 1997, Reports 1997-VI) to be similar to the present case but, nevertheless, also distinguishable in that Mr Serves's objection was premature because he refused to take the oath as a witness rather than being compelled to respond to questions.

2. The applicants' submissions

35. The applicants emphasised the precise nature of their complaints. Information was demanded of them while they were in police custody. On the one hand, they were warned that a failure to answer could itself entail a criminal conviction (section 52 of the 1939 Act) and, on the other, the police officers advised them of their right to remain silent (the standard caution).

They did not deny that the State was entitled to have certain information-gathering powers, but submitted that the State was not entitled to force a person to provide it and to use that information thereafter against that person. They relied on their rights to silence and against self-incrimination noting, as was accepted by the High Court in their case, that the fairness of a trial can be compromised because of what happened prior to it.

36. As to the domestic law applicable to the use against the accused of prior involuntary statements and the Government's reliance on the National Irish Bank Ltd case, the applicants pointed out that the legal position at the relevant time was that any information they provided could have been admissible in subsequent criminal proceedings against them and they referred, in this respect, to the judgments of the High and Supreme Courts in their constitutional proceedings.

In addition, they disputed the Government's interpretation of the judgment of the Supreme Court in the National Irish Bank Ltd case, pointing out that even after that judgment it is still not clear if involuntary confessions could be used in a subsequent trial or as a basis for gathering further evidence to be used in a subsequent trial. In the first place, the Supreme Court confirmed that Article 38 of the Irish Constitution required that

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any confession admitted against an accused person in a criminal trial should be a voluntary confession but that court did not, and did not have to, resolve the question of whether a test of proportionality could be applied to dilute the protection offered by Article 38 of the Constitution when, for example, national security matters are alleged to be at issue. The applicants considered this important as the domestic courts in their cases balanced the security concerns underlying the 1939 Act against their constitutional rights, an approach continued by the Government in their submissions to this Court. Secondly, the Supreme Court rejected the contention that no use at all could be made of any such confessions so that it would be for the trial judge to decide in all the circumstances of the case whether it would be fair to admit evidence obtained as a result of or in consequence of a compelled confession. This uncertainty is, according to the applicants, itself unacceptable under the Convention.

In any event, even if the National Irish Bank Ltd case did clarify the position as the Government alleged, it did not do so until January 1999, many years after the applicants were questioned and convicted under section 52 of the 1939 Act.

37. The applicants further considered the Government's reliance on matters of public security and proportionality to have been misplaced, noting that the Court in the Saunders case cited above pointed out that the public interest could not be relied on to justify the use of answers compulsorily obtained in a non-judicial investigation to incriminate the accused during later trial proceedings. In any event, the public policy and security concerns could have been addressed otherwise. Accordingly, if the purpose of the section 52 request was to prosecute the person to whom the request was made, certain negative inferences could have been drawn from that accused's silence (as in the John Murray case cited above) or if the objective of the section 52 request was to investigate a crime committed by others, the request could have been coupled with a clear immunity from prosecution in favour of the addressee of the request in respect of and based upon answers so provided.

38. As to the previous case-law of this Court referred to by the Government, the applicants pointed out that, inter alia, their punishment for not providing information placed them in an even worse position than

Mr Funke (see the Funke judgment cited above): the demands were made of them in police custody; the request was for oral admissions and not for physical evidence which existed independently of the applicants as in

Mr Funke's case; and they served substantial prison terms for refusing to provide the information requested. They were in a worse situation than

Mr Murray (see the John Murray judgment cited above) since he was only sanctioned by the drawing of adverse inferences at his trial.

B. The Court's assessment

1. Applicability of Article 6 §§ 1 and 2 of the Convention

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39. The Government argued that Article 6 could not apply to the applicants' complaints because of their later acquittal on the charge of membership of an unlawful organisation (“the substantive proceedings”) and because they had had a fair hearing in relation to the other charge under section 52 of the 1939 Act. The applicants considered that they are entitled to rely on Article 6 § 1 given that they were convicted of an offence and sentenced to imprisonment for having relied on their rights guaranteed by that Article.

40. The Court recalls its established case-law to the effect that, although not specifically mentioned in Article 6 of the Convention, the rights relied on by the applicants, the right to silence and the right not to incriminate oneself, are generally recognised international standards which lie at the heart of the notion of a fair procedure under Article 6. Their rationale lies, inter alia, in the protection of the accused against improper compulsion by the authorities, thereby contributing to the avoidance of miscarriages of justice and to the fulfilment of the aims of Article 6. The right not to incriminate oneself, in particular, presupposes that the prosecution in a criminal case seek to prove their case against the accused without resort to evidence obtained through methods of coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused. In this sense the right in question is closely linked to the presumption of innocence contained in Article 6 § 2 of the Convention (see the Saunders judgment cited above, p. 2064, § 68).

The right not to incriminate oneself is primarily concerned, however, with respecting the will of an accused person to remain silent. The Court would note, in this context, that the present case does not concern a request, through the use of compulsory powers, of material which had an existence independent of the will of the applicants, such as documents or blood samples (ibid., pp. 2064-65, § 69).

41. The Court observes that the applicants complained under Article 6 of the Convention about having been punished, through the application of section 52 of the 1939 Act, for relying on their rights to silence, against self-incrimination and to be presumed innocent during police questioning in the course of a serious criminal investigation. It recalls that the autonomous meaning of the expression “charge” in Article 6 § 1 of the Convention means that a person can be considered to have been “charged” for the purposes of that Article when that individual's situation has been “substantially affected” (see the Serves judgment cited above, p. 2172,

§ 42).

42. While the present applicants had not yet been formally charged on 24 October 1990 when the section 52 requests were made, the Court considers that they were, at that stage, “substantially affected” and therefore “charged”, in the above-noted sense, with membership of the IRA and with some involvement in the bombing in October 1990.

The High Court noted that it was suspected that the bombing had been carried out by the IRA and that the applicants had been arrested on suspicion of membership of the IRA and of involvement in that bombing. The Government confirmed this in their observations. They were arrested within approximately twenty-four hours of the bombing in a house close to the site of the explosion while that house was being searched by the police on the basis of a warrant. They were expressly arrested and detained under section 30 of the 1939 Act. Having been cautioned, they were questioned, inter alia, about the bombing. The subsequent section 52 requests related to the applicants' movements around the time of that bombing.

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43. However, it is true that, while the applicants may have been so charged within the meaning of Article 6 when the section 52 requests were made, they were acquitted in the substantive proceedings relating to the charge of membership of the IRA. The Court recalls that an accused's acquittal, in general, precludes that person from claiming to be a victim of a violation of the procedural guarantees of Article 6 (see, for example, Byrn v. Denmark, application no. 13156/87, Commission decision of 1 July 1992, Decisions and Reports 73, p. 5).

44. Nevertheless, the Court notes that this latter principle has been refined in certain circumstances.

Article 6 § 2 has already been applied, and violations of that provision found, in the Minelli and Sekanina cases (Minelli v. Switzerland, judgment of 25 March 1983, Series A no. 62, and Sekanina v. Austria, judgment of

25 August 1993 Series A no. 266-A), even though the relevant national courts concerned had, in the former case, closed the proceedings because the limitation period had expired and had, in the latter case, acquitted the applicant. It has also found Article 6 § 2 to be applicable in respect of the public comments of police officers suggestive of an accused's guilt of charges even though the proceedings on those charges were subsequently discontinued (see the Allenet de Ribemont v. France judgment of

10 February 1995, Series A no. 308, pp. 15-17, §§ 32-37). Moreover, while Mr Funke was convicted for not supplying information to the customs authorities, the criminal proceedings initially considered by those authorities as regards his financial dealings with other countries were never actually initiated against him (see the Funke judgment cited above).

45. In the Allenet de Ribemont case, the Court explained this refinement, pointing out that the Convention, including Article 6 § 2, must be interpreted in such a way as to guarantee rights which are practical and effective as opposed to theoretical and illusory (see the Allenet de Ribemont judgment cited above, p. 16, § 35). Applying this approach to the present case, the Court observes that, if the applicants were unable to rely on Article 6, their acquittal in the substantive proceedings would exclude any consideration under Article 6 of their complaints that they had been, nevertheless, already punished prior to that acquittal for having defended what they considered to be their rights guaranteed by Article 6 of the Convention.

46. In such circumstances, the Court finds that the applicants can rely on Article 6 §§ 1 and 2 in respect of their conviction and imprisonment under section 52 of the 1939 Act.

2. Compliance with Article 6 §§ 1 and 2 of the Convention

47. The Court accepts that the right to silence and the right not to incriminate oneself guaranteed by Article 6 § 1 are not absolute rights (see the John Murray judgment cited above, pp. 49-50, § 47).

48. However, it is also recalled that Mr Funke's criminal conviction for refusing to provide information requested by the customs authorities was considered to amount to a violation of Article 6 § 1. In that case, the Court noted that the customs authorities had secured Mr Funke's conviction in order to obtain certain documents which they believed

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existed, although they were not certain of the fact. The Court found that the customs authorities, being unable or unwilling to procure them by some other means, attempted to compel Mr Funke himself to provide the evidence of offences he had allegedly committed. The special features of customs law were found insufficient by the Court to justify such an infringement of the right of anyone charged with a criminal offence, within the autonomous meaning of that expression in Article 6, to remain silent and not to contribute to incriminating himself (see the Funke judgment cited above, p. 22, § 44).

In the John Murray judgment, the Court described the Funke case, pointing out that the “degree of compulsion” which had been applied through the initiation of criminal proceedings against Mr Funke was found to have been incompatible with Article 6 because “in effect, it destroyed the very essence of the privilege against self-incrimination” (see the John Murray judgment cited above, p. 50, § 49).

49. The Government distinguished the Funke case from the present application on the basis of the sanctions imposed. The Court does not find this argument persuasive. The nature of the sanction inflicted on Mr Funke (accumulating fines) may have been different from that imposed in the present case (a single prison sentence). However, both cases concerned the threat and imposition of a criminal sanction on the applicants in question because they failed to supply information to authorities investigating the alleged commission of criminal offences by them.

50. However, the Government pointed out that section 52 of the 1939 Act should be considered against the background of the numerous protections available to persons in the applicants' position.

51. The Court notes that the High Court considered that such protections minimised the risk of accused persons wrongfully confessing to a crime and of an abuse of the powers conferred by section 52 of the 1939 Act. Important as they are, the Court is, however, of the view that such protections could only be relevant to the present complaints if they could effectively and sufficiently reduce the degree of compulsion imposed by section 52 of the 1939 Act to the extent that the essence of the rights at issue would not be impaired by that domestic provision. However, it is considered that the protections listed by the High Court, and subsequently raised by the Government before this Court, could not have had this effect. The application of section 52 of the 1939 Act in an entirely lawful manner and in circumstances which conformed with all of the safeguards referred to above could not change the choice presented by section 52 of the 1939 Act: either the information requested was provided by the applicants or they faced potentially six months' imprisonment.

52. The Government also maintained that section 52 of the 1939 Act was a reasonable measure given that a statement made pursuant to that section was not later admissible in evidence against its author and because any evidence obtained as a result of such a statement could only be admitted if the trial judge considered it fair and equitable to do so. The applicants essentially considered that any relevant indications in the domestic case-law prior to the National Irish Bank Ltd judgment cited above indicated that such section 52 statements could be later admitted in evidence against their author and that the latter case did not authoritatively clarify this question. In any event, the applicants pointed to the conflicting cautions given to them on 24 October 1990.

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53. The Court considers that the legal position as regards the admission into evidence of section 52 statements was particularly uncertain in October 1990 when the applicants were questioned.

It notes that the text of section 52 of the 1939 Act is silent on this point. The Government did not refer to any domestic case-law prior to October 1990 which would have authoritatively excluded the later admission into evidence against the applicants of any statements made by them pursuant to those requests. Nor did the Government exclude the possibility that, prior to October 1990, statements made pursuant to section 52 had in fact been admitted in evidence against accused persons. The Government's position was rather that, in any event, the situation had been clarified for the future by the January 1999 judgment in the National Irish Bank Ltd case. This uncertainty about the domestic legal position in October 1990 is underlined by the comments of the Supreme Court in the present applicants' constitutional proceedings on the judgment of the Court of Criminal Appeal in the earlier McGowan case (see paragraphs 16 and 26-27 above).

In any event, the applicants were provided with conflicting information in this respect by the questioning police officers on 24 October 1990. At the beginning of their interviews they were informed that they had the right to remain silent. Nevertheless, when the section 52 requests were made during those interviews, they were then effectively informed that, if they did not account for their movements at particular times, they risked six months' imprisonment. The only reference during the interviews to the possible use of statements made by the applicants in any later proceedings was to inform them that anything they did say would be written down and might be used against them.

54. Given this uncertainty, the position in October 1990 as regards the later admission into evidence of section 52 statements could not have, in the Court's view, contributed to restoring the essence of the present applicant's rights to silence and against self-incrimination guaranteed by Article 6 of the Convention.

The Court is not, therefore, called upon in the present case to consider the impact on the rights to silence or against self-incrimination of the direct or indirect use made in later proceedings against an accused of statements made pursuant to section 52 of the 1939 Act.

55. Accordingly, the Court finds that the “degree of compulsion” imposed on the applicants by the application of section 52 of the 1939 Act with a view to compelling them to provide information relating to charges against them under that Act in effect destroyed the very essence of their privilege against self-incrimination and their right to remain silent.

56. The Government contended that section 52 of the 1939 Act is, nevertheless, a proportionate response to the subsisting terrorist and security threat given the need to ensure the proper administration of justice and the maintenance of public order and peace.

57. The Court has taken judicial notice of the security and public order concerns detailed by the Government.

However, the Court recalls that in the Saunders case (judgment cited above, pp. 2066-67, § 74) it found that the argument of the United Kingdom government that the

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complexity of corporate fraud and the vital public interest in the investigation of such fraud and the punishment of those responsible could not justify such a marked departure in that case from one of the basic principles of a fair procedure. It considered that the general requirements of fairness contained in Article 6, including the right not to incriminate oneself, “apply to criminal proceedings in respect of all types of criminal offences without distinction from the most simple to the most complex”. It concluded that the public interest could not be relied on to justify the use of answers compulsorily obtained in a non-judicial investigation to incriminate the accused during the trial proceedings.

Moreover, the Court also recalls that the Brogan case (Brogan and Others v. the United Kingdom judgment of 29 November 1988, Series A

no. 145-B) concerned the arrest and detention, by virtue of powers granted under special legislation, of persons suspected of involvement in terrorism in Northern Ireland. The United Kingdom government had relied on the special security context of Northern Ireland to justify the length of the impugned detention periods under Article 5 § 3. The Court found that even the shortest periods of detention at issue in that case would have entailed consequences impairing the very essence of the relevant right protected by Article 5 § 3. It concluded that the fact that the arrest and detention of the applicants were inspired by the legitimate aim of protecting the community as a whole from terrorism was not, on its own, sufficient to ensure compliance with the specific requirements of Article 5 § 3 of the Convention.

58. The Court, accordingly, finds that the security and public order concerns relied on by the Government cannot justify a provision which extinguishes the very essence of the applicants' rights to silence and against self-incrimination guaranteed by Article 6 § 1 of the Convention.

59. It concludes, therefore, that there has been a violation of the applicants' right to silence and their right not to incriminate themselves guaranteed by Article 6 § 1 of the Convention.

Moreover, given the close link, in this context, between those rights guaranteed by Article 6 § 1 of the Convention and the presumption of innocence guaranteed by Article 6 § 2 (see paragraph 40 above), the Court also concludes that there has been a violation of the latter provision.

II. ALLEGED VIOLATION OF ARTICLES 8 AND 10 OF THE CONVENTION

60. The applicants also complained that section 52 of the 1939 Act constituted a violation of their rights guaranteed by Article 8 (referring to the private life aspect of that provision) and by Article 10 of the Convention.

61. The relevant parts of Article 8 read as follows:

“1. Everyone has the right to respect for his private ... life ...

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2. There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety ..., for the prevention of disorder or crime, ... or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.”

The relevant parts of Article 10 read as follows:

“1. Everyone has the right to freedom of expression. This right shall include freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority ...

2. The exercise of these freedoms, since it carries with it duties and responsibilities, may be subject to such formalities, conditions, restrictions or penalties as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society, in the interests of national security, territorial integrity or public safety, for the prevention of disorder or crime, ... for the protection of the ... rights of others ...”

62. The Government submitted that there had been no violation of either Article, pointing out that any interference with the applicants' rights under those Articles was in accordance with the law and proportionate to legitimate aims pursued, taking account of the margin of appreciation afforded to the State in such cases. The section 52 requests made of the applicants could have served either in the investigation of crimes of which the applicants were suspected or of crimes committed by others. Moreover, the background to the present case was the commission of an atrocity by subversives and, given the secrecy surrounding the activities of subversives, the Government considered it difficult to see how the relevant information could have been otherwise obtained.

The applicants referred to the correlative right not to speak or furnish information guaranteed by Article 10 and to their entitlement to maintain the privacy of their own personal lives and maintained that their conviction and sentencing under section 52 of the 1939 Act constituted a disproportionate interference with their rights protected by Articles 8 and 10 of the Convention.

63. The Court considers that the essential issue raised by the applicants was the compulsion imposed by section 52 of the 1939 Act to respond to the questions of police officers investigating the commission of a serious criminal offence, a matter considered above by the Court under Article 6 of the Convention. It does not consider therefore that the applicants' complaints under Articles 8 and 10 of the Convention give rise to any separate issue.

III. APPLICATION OF ARTICLE 41 OF THE CONVENTION

64. Article 41 of the Convention provides:

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“If the Court finds that there has been a violation of the Convention or the Protocols thereto, and if the internal law of the High Contracting Party concerned allows only partial reparation to be made, the Court shall, if necessary, afford just satisfaction to the injured party.”

A. Damage

65. The applicants did not claim that they had suffered any pecuniary damage.

66. They claimed compensation, however, for non-pecuniary damage. They pointed out that, as a direct result of section 52 of the 1939 Act, they were each convicted of a criminal offence and each served a substantial term of imprisonment (from 26 June to 10 November 1991). They therefore claimed 50,000 Irish pounds (IEP) for all “injuries” sustained and a further unspecified sum in compensation for the damage to their reputations and for the distress and anxiety suffered.

67. The Government argued that, in the absence of any substantiation of the alleged injuries, anxiety, distress or damage to their reputations, the Court should reject those claims. Alternatively, should the Court consider that the applicants had suffered some non-pecuniary damage as a result of their convictions and imprisonment, the Government maintained that a finding of a violation would be sufficient just satisfaction. Should, nevertheless, the Court award some damages as regards the injuries sustained as a result of their convictions and imprisonment, the Government submitted that this could be regarded as sufficient to cover any alleged damage to their reputation. The Government requested the Court to take into account, in considering the applicants' claims, that they were asked to account for their movements during an investigation into a bombing which resulted in the death and serious injury of several persons.

68. The Court observes that, as a direct consequence of the violation found in this case, each applicant was convicted of a criminal offence and spent from 26 June to 10 November 1991 in prison. It notes that neither applicant has attempted in any way to detail or substantiate the alleged impairment of reputations to which they referred, although it accepts that, as a result of his criminal conviction and imprisonment, each applicant experienced certain inconvenience, anxiety and distress.

The Court concludes that each applicant suffered non-pecuniary damage for which a finding of a violation does not afford just satisfaction. Making its assessment on a equitable basis, it awards each applicant IEP 4,000 in compensation for non-pecuniary damage.

B. Costs and expenses

69. The applicants initially claimed legal costs and expenses for both the domestic and Convention proceedings. The High and Supreme Courts had recommended that the legal costs and expenses before those courts be discharged by the “Attorney-General's Scheme”, but by letter dated

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15 January 1999 the Attorney-General indicated that the proceedings were not of a type that fell within the relevant scheme. The applicants' counsel gave the opinion in August 1999 that the Attorney-General's refusal to cover those costs from the relevant scheme of legal aid was invalid. The Attorney-General then indicated, by a letter dated 24 February 2000, that the relevant scheme would in fact discharge the costs of the applicants' domestic proceedings, without prejudice to the Attorney-General's position that the scheme was not liable to do so. Accordingly, the applicants discontinued their claim before this Court for the costs of the domestic proceedings.

Their remaining claim relates to the costs of the Convention proceedings only and is made up of solicitors' costs in the sum of IEP 5,000, counsel's fees in the sum of IEP 2,250 and expenses of IEP 500 amounting to a total sum claimed (inclusive of value-added tax (VAT)) of IEP 9,377.50.

The Government accepted that, subject to certain items in the applicants' bill of costs being properly vouched (including counsel's fees), those fees were reasonable apart from two matters. They considered that a sum of

IEP 250 would be more appropriate as regards outlay and they rejected the applicants' claim for costs regarding the preparation of a bill of the costs of the domestic proceedings, since the applicants withdrew their claim before this Court for the costs of those proceedings.

70. The Court recalls that only legal costs and expenses found to have been actually and necessarily incurred and which are reasonable as to quantum are recoverable under Article 41 of the Convention (see, among other authorities, Nikolova v. Bulgaria [GC], no. 31195/96, § 79, ECHR 1999-II).

The Court notes that the applicants did not pursue before this Court their claim for the costs of the domestic proceedings before the High and Supreme Courts, given the undertaking from the Attorney-General to discharge those legal costs and expenses out of the Attorney-General's Scheme.

As to the counsel's fees to which the Government refer, the Court considers the work completed by counsel for the Convention proceedings to be evident from the detailed bill of costs submitted by the applicants' solicitor and it notes that the Government did not in principle contest the amount claimed in respect of counsel. It also considers the outlay claimed to be reasonable as to quantum. As to the applicants' claim regarding time spent preparing a bill of the costs of the domestic proceedings for the purposes of their just satisfaction proposals to this Court, the Court notes that they were not informed that the costs of those proceedings would be discharged from the Attorney-General's scheme until they had prepared and submitted their just satisfaction proposals. Accordingly, the Court finds that the costs incurred and claimed in preparing the relevant bill of costs were necessarily and reasonably incurred.

71. Having regard to the foregoing, the Court awards to the applicants, in respect of their legal costs and expenses, the sums claimed by them namely, IEP 9,377.50 (which figure is inclusive of any VAT that may be chargeable) less the amount of legal aid paid by the Council of Europe to the applicants in the sum of 5,000 French francs.

C. Default interest

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72. According to the information available to the Court, the statutory rate of interest applicable in Ireland at the date of adoption of the present judgment is 8% per annum.

FOR THESE REASONS, THE COURT UNANIMOUSLY

1. Holds that there has been a violation of Article 6 §§ 1 and 2 of the Convention;

2. Holds that no separate issue arises under Articles 8 or 10 of the Convention;

3. Holds

(a) that the respondent State is to pay, within three months from the date on which the judgment becomes final according to Article 44 § 2 of the Convention:

(i) IEP 4,000 (four thousand Irish pounds) to each applicant in respect of non-pecuniary damage;

(ii) a total of IEP 9,377.50 (nine thousand three hundred and seventy-seven Irish pounds fifty pence) to the applicants for costs and expenses of the Strasbourg proceedings (inclusive of any value-added tax that may be chargeable) less FRF 5,000 (five thousand French francs) paid by the Council of Europe in legal aid;

(b) that simple interest at an annual rate of 8% shall be payable from the expiry of the above-mentioned three months until settlement;

4. Dismisses the remainder of the applicants' claims for just satisfaction.

Done in English, and notified in writing on 21 December 2000, pursuant to Rule 77 §§ 2 and 3 of the Rules of Court.

Vincent Berger Georg Ress

Registrar President

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NJ 2003, 354: Verplichting inlichtingen te verschaffen aan Zwitserse belastingdienst over verzwegen inkomsten. Nemo teneturbeginsel geschonden. Art...

Instantie: Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens Datum: 3 mei 2001

Magistraten:

C.L. Rozakis, A.B. Baka, L. Wildhaber, G. Bonello, P. Lorenzen, M. Tsatsa-Nikolovska, A. Kovler

Zaaknr: 31827/96

Conclusie: - LJN: AL1323

Noot: T.M. Schalken Roepnaam: J.B. vs Zwitserland

Wetingang: EVRM art. 6 lid 1

Snel naar: EssentieSamenvattingPartij(en)UitspraakNoot

EssentieNaar boven

Verplichting inlichtingen te verschaffen aan Zwitserse belastingdienst over verzwegen inkomsten. Nemo teneturbeginsel geschonden. Art. 6 lid 1 EVRM.

SamenvattingNaar boven

Oplegging van vier bestuurlijke boetes door Zwitserse belastingdienst wegens weigering inlichtingen te verschaffen omtrent de herkomst van verzwegen inkomsten. Herhaald wordt dat het zwijgrecht en het recht om zichzelf niet te hoeven beschuldigen opgesloten ligt in het begrip van een faire procedure van art. 6 lid 1 EVRM. In het onderhavige geval lijkt het erop dat de autoriteiten trachtten verzoeker te dwingen documenten over te leggen waaruit informatie zou kunnen blijken over zijn inkomen met het oog op de vaststelling van zijn belastingverplichting. Niet uitgesloten was dat het uit dergelijke documenten blijken van extra inkomen zou kunnen leiden tot vervolging wegens het strafbare feit van belastingontduiking. In de visie van het Hof gaat het in deze zaak niet om materiaal dat bestond geheel buiten de betrokkene, dat zonder dwang en zonder miskenning van de wil kan worden verkregen. Weliswaar heeft de Zwitserse regering aangevoerd dat de autoriteiten reeds op de hoogte waren van de betrokken informatie en dat de verzoeker het bestaan van de betrokken inkomsten had toegegeven, maar het Hof is niet overtuigd door dit argument, gelet op de vasthoudendheid waarmee de belastingautoriteiten hun doel trachtten te bereiken. Immers, zij achtten het noodzakelijk gedurende drie jaar bij acht afzonderlijke gelegenheden te vorderen dat verzoeker de betrokken inlichtingen zou verschaffen en, na weigering van zijn kant, in totaal vier bestuurlijke boetes op te leggen.

Het argument van de regering dat het scheiden van reguliere belastingprocedures enerzijds en strafrechtelijke procedures anderzijds onpraktisch zou zijn overtuigt het Hof evenmin, aangezien het niet zijn taak is aan te geven hoe een nationale Staat aan zijn verplichtingen op grond van het EVRM moet voldoen. Schending van art. 6 lid 1 EVRM, met toekenning van schadevergoeding.[1]

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Partij(en)Naar boven

J.B.,

tegen

Zwitserland.

UitspraakNaar boven

De feiten

I. De omstandigheden van het geval

Verzoeker is Zwitsers onderdaan, geboren in 1914 en gepensioneerd skileraar en berggids en is woonachtig in X., Zwitserland.

A. Administratieve procedures die tegen verzoeker zijn gevoerd

In 1987 raadpleegde de Federale Belastingdienst (Erdgenössische Steuerverwaltung) het dossier van de financieel manager P. Het viel op dat verzoeker tussen 1979 en 1985 samen met P. en diens bedrijven beleggingen had gedaan. Deze bedragen waren echter niet aangegeven in de belastingjaren 1982/82 tot 1987/88.

Met het oog daarop startte de regionale Belastingcommissie (Bezirkssteuerkommission) te X. op 11 december 1987 een procedure in verband met belastingontduiking (Steuerhinterziehungsverfahren) tegen verzoeker. Hem werd verzocht alle documenten die hij bezat met betrekking tot deze beleggingsbedrijven over te leggen. Op 22 december 1987 gaf verzoeker toe dat hij inderdaad beleggingen had gedaan in de bedrijven van P. en dat hij over inkomen beschikte dat hij niet op de juiste wijze in zijn belastingaangifte had opgenomen. De verzoeker legde echter niet de gevraagde documenten over.

Op 24 juni 1988 werd verzoeker opnieuw verzocht de bron van zijn inkomsten, tot het bedrag van 238.000 Zwitserse Franken (CHF) dat hij bij P. had belegd, aan te geven. Op dat verzoek werd niet gereageerd.

Op 2 september 1988 besloot de Belastingcommissie om een naheffingsaanslag (Nachsteuer) op te leggen, over de jaren 1979–1986, ter zake van de rente over het bij P. geïnvesteerde inkomen. Bij brieven van 29 september en 11 oktober 1988 werd verzoeker op de hoogte gesteld van de vaststelling van zijn belastingbedrag en de verschuldigde naheffing.

Na een aanwijzing van de federale belastinginspecteur werd deze beslissing echter teruggedraaid, in twee brieven van 7 en 20 oktober 1988. Tegelijkertijd verzocht de regionale Belastingcommissie opnieuw aan verzoeker om de bron van zijn inkomsten te onthullen. Een herhaald verzoek werd gedaan op 19 januari 1989.

Aangezien verzoeker niet reageerde op deze verzoeken legde de Kantonale belastingdienst (Kantonale Verwaltung für die direkte Bundessteuer) op 28 februari 1989

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een bestuurlijke boete (Ordnungsbusse) op van CHF 1000. De administratie baseerde zich daarbij op S. 131 par. 1 van het Besluit van de Bondsraad inzake de heffing van directe belastingen (Bundesratsbeschluss über die Erhebung einer direkten Bundessteuer). De boete werd door verzoeker tijdig betaald.

Op verschillende data in 1989 en 1990 maande de Belastingcommissie de verzoeker nogmaals aan de gevraagde inlichtingen te verschaffen.

Op 3 augustus en 5 september 1990 berichtte de verzoeker dat in zijn visie de eerdere beslissingen om een naheffingsaanslag op te leggen kracht van gewijsde hadden verkregen (Rechtskracht) en dat hij daarom niet meer verplicht kon worden om nadere informatie te verschaffen.

Als gevolg daarvan legde de Kantonale Belastingdienst op 29 november 1990 verzoeker een tweede bestuurlijke boete op van CHF 2000, wederom gebaseerd op S. 131 par. 1 van het Bondsraadsbesluit.

Op 4 december 1990 en 22 januari 1991 legde de Kantonale Belastingcommissie een derde bestuurlijke boete op van CHF 2000 met betrekking tot kantonale belastingen.

Het beroep van verzoeker tegen de tweede bestuurlijke boete werd op 18 december 1992 verworpen door de beroepscommissie (Steuerrekurskommission) van het kanton Valais. In haar beslissing stelde de beroepscommissie vast dat de verzoeker opzettelijk niet had voldaan aan de opdracht om inlichtingen verstrekken, hoewel hij op grond van S. 131 par. 2 van het Bondsraadsbesluit verplicht was om rekeningen, documenten en andere geschriften in zijn bezit over te leggen die van belang zouden kunnen zijn voor de vaststelling van de belastingen. Verder werd vastgesteld dat de eerdere naheffingsaanslagen geen rechtskracht hadden verkregen aangezien deze waren ingetrokken door de regionale Belastingcommissie.

B. Procedure bij het Federale Hof

Tegen de tweede bestuurlijke boete stelde verzoeker administratief beroep in (Verwaltungsgerichtsbeschwerde) bij het Federale Hof (Bundesgericht), waarbij hij onder meer erover klaagde dat hij als verdachte, op grond van art. 6 EVRM, niet verplicht kon worden zichzelf te beschuldigen.

Intussen stelde verzoeker ook bezwaar in tegen de derde bestuurlijke boete, maar deze procedure werd geschorst hangende het beroep bij het Federale Hof.

Op 7 juli 1995 verklaarde het Federale Hof het administratieve beroep van verzoeker ongegrond.

In zijn uitspraak overwoog het Federale Hof dat de door verzoeker gedane beleggingen bij P. niet waren weersproken en dat deze niet bij de belastingdienst waren aangegeven. De belastingautoriteiten konden niet zonder meer aannemen dat de geïnvesteerde middelen afkomstig waren van inkomsten of vermogen die aan belastingheffing onderworpen waren geweest. Daarom hadden ze geheel terecht verzoeker gevraagd naar de bron van deze middelen.

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De relevante jurisprudentie werd door het Hof samengevat. Belastingontduikingsprocedures waren te beschouwen als zijnde van strafrechtelijke aard, waarbij de procedurele garanties van art. 6 EVRM van toepassing waren. Immers, het strafbare feit van belastingontduiking leidt tot oplegging van een boete, die bovenop het verschuldigde belastingbedrag komt. De boete is een sanctie met zowel een preventieve als een repressieve functie; de hoogte ervan, tot maximaal vier keer het ontweken belastingbedrag, heeft hetzelfde effect voor de betrokkene als een strafrechtelijke veroordeling.

Anderzijds was het Federale Hof van oordeel dat de verplichting om alsnog de verschuldigde belasting te betalen niet neerkwam op een strafrechtelijke sanctie. Deze claim stond niet los van de oorspronkelijke belastingschuld. Als zodanig had dit geen punitieve functie.

Niettemin, overwoog het Hof, ook al is er dan geen sprake van een strafrechtelijke sanctie, gelden toch in zulke gevallen de procedurele vereisten van een strafrechtelijke procedure. De vraag rijst derhalve of de belastingplichtige kan worden gedwongen om inlichtingen over zijn financiële omstandigheden te verschaffen.

Het Hof herhaalde vervolgens dat het uitgangspunt van de belastingontduikingsprocedure is dat de bewijslast, om aan te tonen dat een persoon bepaalde inkomsten niet heeft aangegeven bij de belastingautoriteiten ligt. Niet gezegd kan worden dat de betrokken persoon verplicht is zichzelf te beschuldigen. Veel meer gezegd kan worden dat de betrokkene verplicht was informatie te verschaffen over inkomsten, waarvan de belastingdienst de aanwezigheid al wist. Als in dergelijke gevallen de betrokkene een zwijgrecht zou hebben, zou het hele belastingstelsel in twijfel kunnen worden getrokken. De normale procedure voor vaststelling van de belastingplicht zou dan ingericht moeten worden als een strafrechtelijke procedure. Het zwijgrecht zou het systeem ernstig belemmeren, of zelfs onmogelijk maken. Dat kon nooit het doel zijn van art. 6 van het Verdrag.

Volgens het Hof bestonden in de normale strafrechtelijke procedures een aantal verplichtingen om zich op een bepaalde manier te gedragen, met het doel een veroordeling mogelijk te maken. Genoemd werden onder meer de verplichting voor vrachtwagenchauffeurs om de tachograafschijf te overhandigen in geval van een ongeluk. Eveneens zijn automobilisten verplicht zich te onderwerpen aan een bloed‑ of urineproef, op weigering waarvan straf is gesteld.

Het Federale Hof wees op een essentieel verschil met de zaak Funke tegen Frankrijk (EHRM 25 februari 1993, Serie A nr. 256, NJ 1993, 485, m.nt. Kn). In die zaak geloofden de autoriteiten alleen maar dat bepaalde documenten zouden bestaan zonder dat ze daarvan zeker waren. In het onderhavige geval waren de autoriteiten op de hoogte van de geïnvesteerde bedragen. Het doel van hun optreden was vast te stellen of de betrokken inkomensbestanddelen aan belastingheffing waren onderworpen geweest. De verzoeker behoefde slechts opheldering te verschaffen over de bron van dat inkomen. In feite had hij dat in de reguliere belastingprocedure ook moeten doen.

Tenslotte refereerde het Federale Hof aan de zaak Salabiaku tegen Frankrijk, waarin werd gesteld dat vooronderstellingen van feiten en recht niet in strijd zijn met art. 6 lid 2 van het Verdrag, zolang deze binnen redelijke grenzen blijven en de verdedigingsrechten

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gehandhaafd blijven (zie EHRM 7 oktober 1988, Serie A nr. 141–A, NJ 1991, 351, m.nt. EAA)

De slotsom van het Federale Hof was dat er geen schending was geweest van verzoekers recht op de onschuldpresumptie en het recht om zichzelf niet te hoeven beschuldigen.

C. Verdere ontwikkelingen

Op 5 juni 1996 legden de kantonale autoriteiten verzoeker een vierde boete op, van CHF 5000, die echter nimmer in kracht van gewijsde is gegaan.

Na de beslissing van het Federale Hof van 7 juli 1995 troffen verzoeker en de kantonale belastingdienst een schikking, waarmee alle belasting‑ en strafrechtelijke procedures werden beëindigd. Enerzijds werd in de overeenkomst het te betalen bedrag aan belastingen gefixeerd op in totaal CHF 91 878,95, waarvan de boete, verminderd met een derde, werd vastgesteld op CHF 21 625,95. Anderzijds werd overeengekomen alle nog lopende procedures te beëindigden, echter met uitzondering van de aanhangig gemaakte procedure bij de Straatsburgse organen van het EVRM tegen de beslissing van het Federale Hof.

II. Relevant nationaal recht

A. Aanvullende belastingprocedure en belastingontduikingsprocedure

De aanvullende belastingprocedure (Nachsteuerverfahren) heeft als doel een navorderingsaanslag (Nachsteuer) op te leggen als bepaalde belastingen niet op de juiste wijze zijn voldaan. De Belastingontduikingsprocedure (Steuerhinterziehungsverfahren) kan, in aanvulling op de verplichting om de verschuldigde belasting te voldoen, leiden tot het opleggen van een strafverhoging, waarvan de hoogte afhangt van het ontdoken bedrag.

B. Bondsraadsbesluit inzake de oplegging van directe belastingen

Het Bondsraadsbesluit van 1940 inzake de oplegging van directe belastingen refereert in Hoofdstuk 9 aan Overtredingen (Widerhandlungen).

S. 129 en 130 van Hoofdstuk 9 betreffen ‘belastingontduiking’ en bevatten de mogelijkheid een geldboete op te leggen. Par. 1 van S. 129 ziet bijvoorbeeld op personen die belasting ontduiken door aangiftes onjuist in te vullen. S 130bis betreft belastingfraude (Steuer‑ und Inventarbetrug) en kent een strafbedreiging met geldboete dan wel gevangenisstraf.

S. 131 par. 1 van het Besluit stelt:

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Degene die ... belasting verschuldigd is dan wel informatie dient te verschaffen en die, opzettelijk of door onachtzaamheid, de beslissingen of bevelen uit dit Besluit overtreedt, in het bijzonder met betrekking tot:

het doen van aangifte;

het overleggen van rekeningen en andere documenten;

het voldoen aan aanmaningen dan wel bevelen om handelingen na te laten;

inlichtingen te verstrekken;

betalingen te doen dan wel zekerheid te stellen,

wordt beboet met een bedrag tussen CHF 5 en CHF 10 000. Dezelfde straf is van toepassing als niet voldaan is aan de plicht van S. 90, par. 5,6 en 8 om inlichtingen te verschaffen.

S. 90, par. 5,6 en 8 betreft onder meer verplichtingen van derden om inlichtingen te verschaffen. S. 89 stelt dat de belastingplichtige juiste informatie moet verschaffen en dat hem kan worden verzocht documenten etc. te overleggen die van belang kunnen zijn voor de vaststelling van belastingen. S. 132 betreft de procedure ingeval van belastingontduiking. Op grond daarvan kan de kantonale belastingdienst het vereiste onderzoek instellen.

The law

I Alleged violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention

1

The applicant alleged that the proceedings in which he was involved were unfair in that he was obliged to submit documents which could have incriminated him. He invoked Article 6 § 1 of the Convention which provides insofar as relevant:

‘In the determination of his civil rights and obligations or of any criminal charge against him, everyone is entitled to a fair ... hearing ...’

2

The Government contested that submission.

A. Applicability of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention

1

Parties’ submissions

a The applicant

3

The applicant submitted that the proceedings at issue concerned both the imposition of a supplementary tax as well as tax evasion proceedings leading to a fine. The former matter did not fall under the Convention, whereas according to the case-law of both the

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Court and the Federal Court, the tax evasion proceedings at issue amounted to criminal proceedings within the meaning of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention requiring the necessary guarantees. Reference was made in particular to the cases of A.P., M.P. and T.P. as well as E.L., R.L. and J.O.-L. v. Switzerland (both judgments of 29 August 1997, Reports of Judgments and Decisions, 1997–V, pp. 1487–1488, and pp. 1519–1520, respectively). The amount of the fine for tax evasion was determined on the basis of the amount of supplementary tax. In the applicant's case, the fine of CHF 21,625.95 imposed on him had the same effect as a criminal conviction.

b The Government

4

In the Government's opinion, the procedures at issue were sui generis, though they resembled more administrative than criminal procedures. The Federal Court had accepted that Article 6 of the Convention applied to such proceedings, without stating that they determined a ‘criminal charge’. In the Government's view, when deciding on the applicability of this provision, it had to be considered which type of ‘criminal charge’ was at issue. In such proceedings, both a person's taxes and any tax evasion were examined in one and the same, mixed procedure. To the extent that the proceedings concerned the determination of a supplementary tax, they involved no criminal element. On the other hand, to the extent that a fine could be fixed for tax evasion, the proceedings were of a criminal nature within the meaning of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention. In the present case, Article 6 § 1 of the Convention was not applicable to the proceedings at issue. The Government referred in particular to the case of M.-T.P. v. France (dec.), no. 41545/98, 7.3.2000, in which, as in the present case, that applicant was not prosecuted for tax evasion. In that case, moreover, the Court considered that the tax measures imposed on the applicant were not criminal as they did not attain the necessary level of prejudice.

2

The Court's assessment

5

The Court reiterates that the concept of ‘criminal charge’ within the meaning of Article 6 is an autonomous one. In its earlier case-law the Court has established that there are three criteria to be taken into account when it is being decided whether a person was ‘charged with a criminal offence’ for the purposes of Article 6. These are the classification of the offence under national law, the nature of the offence and the nature and degree of severity of the penalty that the person concerned risked incurring (see, among other authorities, the Öztürk v. Germany judgment of 21 February 1984, Series A nr. 73, p. 18, § 50). In the A.P., M.P. and T.P. v. Switzerland judgment, the Court moreover found that proceedings leading to the imposition of a fine on account of the criminal offence of tax evasion fall in principle to be examined under Article 6 § 1 of the Convention (see the judgment cited above).

6

In the present case it was not in dispute between the parties that any tax evasion proceedings instituted against the applicant, inasmuch as they determined a ‘criminal

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charge’ within the meaning of Article 6 of the Convention, would fall to be examined under this provision.

7

The Government, however, contended that the proceedings in the present case were of a sui generis nature and outside the scope of Article 6 of the Convention. The Federal Court, on the other hand, considered in its judgment of 7 July 1995 that Article 6 of the Convention applied to the present proceedings.

8

In the present case, the Court observes that the proceedings served the various purposes of establishing the taxes due by the applicant and, if the conditions herefor were met, of imposing a supplementary tax and a fine for tax evasion on him. Nevertheless, the proceedings were not expressly classified as constituting either supplementary tax proceedings or tax evasion proceedings.

9

The Court furthermore considers, and this was not in dispute between the parties, that from the beginning and throughout the proceedings the tax authorities could have imposed a fine on the applicant on account of the criminal offence of tax evasion. According to the settlement reached on 28 November 1996 the applicant did indeed incur such a fine amounting to CHF 21 625.95. The penalty was not, however, intended as pecuniary compensation, rather, it was essentially punitive and deterrent in nature. Moreover, the amount of the fine incurred was not inconsiderable. Finally, there can be no doubt that the fine was ‘penal’ in character (see the A.P., M.P. and T.P. v. Switzerland judgment cited above).

10

In the Court's opinion, whatever other purposes the proceedings served, by enabling the imposition of such a fine on the applicant, the proceedings amounted in the light of the Court's case-law to the determination of a criminal charge.

11

As a result, the Court finds that Article 6 is applicable under its criminal head.

12

Accordingly, the question arises whether Article 6 § 1 of the Convention was complied with.

B Compliance with Article 6 § 1 of the Convention

1

Parties’ submissions

a The applicant

13

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The applicant contended that the right to remain silent in criminal proceedings according to Article 6 § 1 of the Convention was breached as he had been punished for remaining silent. A procedure in which the fine determined for tax evasion depended on the amount of supplementary tax, and in which both proceedings were decided by the same authorities, could not be considered fair.

14

In the applicant's opinion, it was clear that in his case the authorities suspected further amounts of income and of fortune which they could not prove for which reason they requested information as to all bank documents. The applicant queried why the authorities, if they already knew everything about his investments, asked for the documents concerned. The fines served as a substitute for the tools normally at the disposal of criminal investigating authorities, and were disproportionate. They were particularly high when compared with the amounts imposed in the Funke v. France case (see the judgment of 25 February 1993, Series A no. 256–A, p. 22, § 44). The applicant submitted that he had not been in a position to submit the documents at issue as they had either already been destroyed, or as they were deposited with third persons, in particular with banks which were not obliged to hand out the documents.

15

The applicant considered that the information required amounted to ‘fishing expeditions’ on the part of the authorities. When the applicant refused to supply the information, he was punished with a fine contrary to Article 6 § 1 of the Convention. It was up to the authorities to prove any criminal conduct of his, and he was entitled to remain silent. In fact, the authorities had originally promised the applicant not to undertake further investigations if he admitted the amounts, and it was unfair if they later requested more documents in the hope of finding more taxable income and fortune.

16

The applicant was aware that he would be fined for tax evasion. However, as the amount of the fine depended on the amount of the supplementary tax rather than the applicant's culpability, the authorities aimed at demonstrating further tax debts as this would have enabled them to impose a higher fine. In the applicant's view, it was unclear why in tax evasion proceedings in which fines of millions of Swiss francs (CHF) were imposed, other principles should apply than those in regular criminal proceedings. In fact, the new Tax Act of the Canton of Berne separated these two proceedings if the taxpayer did not agree to combine them. This separation was not considered impracticable.

17

Finally, in respect of the agreement reached between the applicant and the tax authorities after the Federal Court's decision of 7 July 1995, the applicant pointed out that the amounts fined for refusing to submit information had not been included. In view of the enormous sum involved in the settlement — over CHF 80,000 — it could not be said that the agreement amounted to an acquittal of the applicant.

b The Government

18

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The Government contended that the guarantees of this provision had been complied with. Thus, there was no difference in the procedure concerning taxation and that of tax evasion. The obligation to submit further information applied equally to both proceedings and served the purpose of determining the tax debt, in particular the amount of taxes which the person concerned had not declared. A breach of the obligation to submit information led to a fine according to S. 131 § 1 of the Decree of the Federal Council. This fine, which could be pronounced in either procedure, had to be distinguished from the fine resulting from tax evasion. In the present case, the proceedings originally instituted against the applicant concerned tax evasion in view of the fact that the applicant had neither declared certain investments with P. nor the resulting income. When the applicant failed to submit the information required, a disciplinary fine was imposed on him according to S. 131 § 1 of the Decree of the Federal Council.

19

The Government submitted that in 1987, when the tax evasion proceedings were instituted against the applicant, the tax authorities were aware of the investments made with P. as well as the resulting income for the years 1979–1985. The applicant himself had referred to these amounts on 22 December 1987. It was clear that the applicant's fortune could not have been obtained in any other manner than by means of undeclared income. From the beginning, the tax authorities could have imposed a fine on the applicant for tax evasion, even without punishing him for not submitting the necessary information according to S. 131 § 1 of the Decree of the Federal Council. The subsequent requests by the tax authorities concerned information of which they already were aware. The requests had as their only purpose the clarification of the source of the amounts invested with P. which would have permitted the determination of the amount of back payment of taxes. The documents requested from the applicant would have served to confirm this knowledge rather than to obtain the applicant's conviction.

20

The Government considered that in such cases, as a matter of political choice, the tax authorities have no powers of investigation so as not to penalise the person concerned. They could not search a person's premises, confiscate objects, hear witnesses, or impose detention. The bank secret remained intangible. To compensate for these shortcomings, the authorities could oblige a person to furnish pertinent documents. The fine mentioned in S. 131 of the Federal Decree was the only coercive measure left to the authorities. In this respect, the Government distinguished the present case from the cases of Funke and Bendenoun v. France where the French authorities imposed more severe fines and had far reaching powers, such as searching premises and confiscating documents (see the judgments, respectively, of 25 February 1993, Series A no. 256–A, and of 24 February 1994, Series A no. 284).

21

The Government submitted that a separation of proceedings as practised for instance in Germany — the regular tax proceedings, on the one hand, and the criminal tax evasion proceedings, on the other — would be impractical as the administration would have to conduct two different sets of proceedings, and the taxpayer would have to defend himself twice. The additional problem arose whether or not information gathered in the regular tax proceedings could be used in the criminal proceedings. Indeed, if a breach of Article 6

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of the Convention were to be found in the present case, the legislative changes would be disproportionate and would not advance human rights, since the tax authorities would be obliged to resort to all the means normally reserved for the criminal investigation organs.

22

In the Government's view, it could not be said that the authorities were out on a ‘fishing expedition’. To the extent that the applicant had himself admitted the amounts which he had evaded, without having been obliged to do so, the tax authorities could not be reproached for having breached his right to remain silent and not to incriminate himself. In this respect, too, the present case differed from the case of Funke v. France (see the judgment cited above, p. 22, § 44). While it could not be excluded that the information provided by the applicant on 22 December 1988 was incomplete, the authorities did not ex officio presume such an offence. With reference, mutatis mutandis, to the judgment in the case of Condron v. the United Kingdom, the Government concluded that these requests did not breach the requirements of a fair trial (see no. 35718/97, § 55, ECHR, 2000).

23

Finally, the Government drew attention to the settlement reached between the applicant and the tax authorities after the Federal Court's decision of 7 July 1995. The back payments of taxes mentioned therein in respect of the years 1981–1988 were known to the authorities as from the beginning of the procedures, and the fine imposed on the applicant amounted to two-thirds of the back payment of taxes. On the other hand, the tax authorities had not imposed the undeclared amounts which the applicant had invested with P.

2

The Court's assessment

24

The Court recalls at the outset that in proceedings originating in an individual application it has to confine itself, as far as possible, to an examination of the concrete case before it (see the Minelli v. Switzerland judgment of 25 March 1983, Series A nr. 62, p. 17, § 35). Accordingly, what is at stake in the present case is not the fairness of the proceedings as such which were instituted against the applicant. Rather, the Court is called upon to examine whether or not the imposition of a fine on the applicant for having failed to provide certain information complied with the requirements under the Convention. It follows from this that the Court is not deciding in the present case the issue whether a State can oblige a taxpayer to give information for the sole purpose of securing a correct tax assessment.

25

Although not specifically mentioned in Article 6 of the Convention, the right to remain silent and the privilege against self-incrimination are generally recognised international standards which lie at the heart of the notion of a fair procedure under Article 6 § 1 of the Convention. The right not to incriminate oneself in particular presupposes that the authorities seek to prove their case without resort to evidence obtained through methods of coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the ‘person charged’. By providing the

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accused with protection against improper compulsion by the authorities these immunities contribute to avoiding miscarriages of justice and securing the aims of Article 6 (see the Funke judgment cited above; the John Murray v. the United Kingdom judgment of 8 February 1996, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996–I, p. 49, § 45; the Saunders v. the United Kingdom judgment of 17 December 1996, Reports 1996-VI, pp. 2064–2065, §§ 68–69; the Servès v. France judgment of 20 October 1997, Reports 1997 VI, p. 2173–2174, § 46.)

26

In the present case, when on 11 December 1987 the X. District Office instituted tax evasion proceedings against the applicant, he was requested to submit all documents concerning the companies in which he had invested money. When the applicant failed to do so, he was requested on three further occasions to declare the source of his income. The applicant not having reacted to these requests, a disciplinary fine of CHF 1000 was imposed on him on 28 February 1989. After four additional admonitions, a second disciplinary fine of CHF 2,000 was imposed on the applicant. The latter fine he eventually contested unsuccessfully before the Federal Court. Subsequently, he received two further disciplinary fines.

27

Thus, it appears that the authorities were attempting to compel the applicant to submit documents which would have provided information as to his income in view of the assessment of his taxes. Indeed, according to the Federal Court's judgment of 7 July 1995, it was in particular important for the authorities to know whether or not the applicant had obtained any income which had not been taxed. While it is not for the Court to speculate what the nature of such information would have been, the applicant could not exclude that any additional income which transpired from these documents from untaxed sources could have constituted the offence of tax evasion.

28

It is true that the applicant and the authorities reached an agreement on 28 November 1996 which closed various tax and criminal tax proceedings, including proceedings concerning disciplinary fines. However, the agreement expressly excluded the present application before the European Court which is directed against the judgment of the Federal Court of 7 July 1995 concerning the disciplinary fine imposed on the applicant on 20 November 1990.

29

The Court notes that in its judgment of 7 July 1995 the Federal Court referred to various obligations in criminal law obliging a person to act in a particular way in order to be able to obtain his conviction, for instance by means of a tachograph installed in lorries, or by being obliged to submit to a blood or a urine test. In the Court's opinion, however, the present case differs from such material which, as the Court found in the Saunders case, had an existence independent of the person concerned and was not, therefore, obtained by means of coercion and in defiance of the will of that person (see the judgment of 17 December 1996, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996-VI, p. 2064–2065, § 69).

30

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The Government have further submitted that the applicant had not been obliged to incriminate himself since the authorities were in fact already aware of the information concerned and he had admitted the amounts concerned. The Court remains unconvinced by this argument in view of the persistence with which the domestic tax authorities attempted to achieve their aim. Thus, between 1987 and 1990 the authorities found it necessary to request the applicant on eight separate occasions to submit the information concerned and, when he refused to do so, they successively imposed altogether four disciplinary fines on him.

31

Finally, the Government have submitted that a separation of proceedings — the regular tax proceedings, on the one hand, and the criminal tax evasion proceedings, on the other — would be impractical. However, the Court recalls that its task is to determine whether the Contracting States have achieved the result called for by the Convention, but not to indicate which means a State should utilise in order to perform its obligations under the Convention (see the de Cubber v. Belgium judgment of 26 October 1984, Series A nr. 86, p. 29, § 35).

32

As a result, and against the above background, the Court considers that there has been a violation of the right under Article 6 § 1 of the Convention not to incriminate oneself.

II Application of Article 41 of the convention

33

Article 41 of the Convention provides:

‘If the Court finds that there has been a violation of the Convention or the Protocols thereto, and if the internal law of the High Contracting Party concerned allows only partial reparation to be made, the Court shall, if necessary, afford just satisfaction to the injured party.’

A. Damage

34

The applicant claimed damages amounting to CHF 4,000 for two disciplinary fines incurred of CHF 2,000 each. The Government accepted reimbursement of the first fine, but not the second, concerning cantonal and communal taxes, since only the first fine had been contested before the Federal Court.

35

The Court agrees with the Government and awards the applicant CHF 2,000 under this head.

B. Costs and expenses

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36

Under this head the applicant claimed a total of CHF 33,909.80, namely CHF 409.80 for the costs for the proceedings before the Tax Appeals Commission; CHF 2,000 for the costs for the proceedings before the Federal Court; as well as CHF 31,500 as costs for legal representation before the Federal Court and in the Strasbourg proceedings.

37

The Government submitted that the agreement reached by the applicant and the authorities brought to an end all pending tax proceedings, with the exception of the proceedings before the European Court. This agreement covered in particular the costs for the proceedings before the Tax Appeals Commission and the Federal Court. For the same reason, and with reference to the Sunday Times judgment (Article 50), the Government considered that the costs for legal representation before the Federal Court could not be considered (see judgment of 6 November 1980, Series A no. 38, pp. 12–13, § 22). The Government moreover recalled that the Court in its admissibility decision of 6 April 2000 declared inadmissible the applicant's complaint under Article 4 of Protocol No. 7. As a result, the Government considered the sum of CHF 5,000 as adequate for the expenses incurred by the applicant.

38

In accordance with its case-law, the Court will consider whether the costs and expenses claimed were actually and necessarily incurred in order to prevent or obtain redress for the matter found to constitute a violation of the Convention and were reasonable as to quantum (see, for instance, Nilsen and Johnsen v. Norway[GC], no. 23118/93, § 62, ECHR 1999‑).

39

The Court considers, on the one hand, that the costs of CHF 2,409.80 incurred in the proceedings before the Tax Appeals Commission and the Federal Court were necessary insofar as the applicant had to raise his complaints before these instances in order to comply with the requirements under Article 35 of the Convention. Neither these costs nor the costs for legal representation before the Federal Court were identified as such in the settlement reached on 28 November 1996 which concerned the applicant's taxes and fines for tax evasion, but excluded the present application directed against the Federal Court proceedings. On the other hand, as regards the costs for legal representation in Strasbourg, the Court agrees with the Government that the award of costs and expenses should take into account that part of the applicant's complaints was declared inadmissible. Making an assessment on an equitable basis, the Court awards him CHF 8,000 in respect of costs for legal representation.

40

As a result, the Court awards the applicant altogether CHF 10,409.80 under the head of costs and expenses.

C. Default interest

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41

According to the information available to the Court, the statutory rate of interest applicable in Switzerland at the date of adoption of the present judgment is 5% per annum.

For these reasons, the court unanimously

1

Holds that Article 6 of the Convention is applicable and that there has been a violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention;

2

Holds

a.

that the respondent State is to pay the applicant, within three months from the date on which the judgment becomes final, according to Article 44 § 2 of the Convention, the following amounts:

i.

2,000 (two thousand) Swiss francs in respect of pecuniary damage;

ii.

10 409 (ten thousand four hundred and nine) Swiss francs and 80 (eighty) centimes in respect of costs and expenses;

b.

that simple interest at an annual rate of 5% shall be payable from the expiry of the above-mentioned three months until settlement;

3

Dismisses the remainder of the applicant's claims for just satisfaction.

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FED 2003/589: Het 'zwijgrecht' van art. 6, eerste lid, EVRM houdt geen recht in om vragen ten behoeve van de belastingheffing niet of onvolledig te...

Instantie: Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens Datum: 10 september 2002

Magistraten:

Pellonpää; Bratza; Pastor Ridruejo; Palm; Maruste; Pavlovschi; Garlicki

Zaaknr: 76574/01

Conclusie: - LJN: BI9566

Noot: - Roepnaam: -

Wetingang: Art. 6, eerste lid, EVRM

Snel naar: EssentieSamenvattingUitspraakNoot

EssentieNaar boven

Het 'zwijgrecht' van art. 6, eerste lid, EVRM houdt geen recht in om vragen ten behoeve van de belastingheffing niet of onvolledig te beantwoorden THE FACTS

SamenvattingNaar boven

De klager, Brian Roger Allen, werd op 9 mei 1991 door de Inland Revenue (belastingdienst van het Verenigd Koninkrijk) verzocht om een overzicht te verstrekken van zijn bezittingen en schulden per ultimo 1991. De heer Allen reageerde niet op deze brief en werd op 13 augustus 1991 opgeroepen om te verschijnen bij de belastingdienst op straffe van een boete van GBP 300.

Op 18 oktober 1991 kreeg hij een schriftelijke 'Hansard Warning'. In deze 'Warning' werd het beleid van de Inland Revenue uiteengezet dat in potentiële fraudezaken bij de schikkingsbereidheid van de belastingdienst (een 'transactie') het feit of een belastingplichtige volledige medewerking aan het onderzoek van de Inland Revenue heeft verleend, kan worden meegewogen.

Op of omstreeks 3 april 1992 verstrekt de klager aan de Inland Revenu een overzicht van zijn bezittingen op 31 december 1991. Klager wordt vervolgens strafrechtelijk vervolgd op basis van dertien verdenkingen die alle verband hielden met 'belastingfraude'. Klager wordt voor 'belastingfraude' veroordeeld omdat het overzicht van zijn bezittingen en dat van zijn minderjarige kinderen later onjuist en onvolledig bleek te zijn.

Het EHRM overweegt dat het verbod om gedwongen informatie te verstrekken over de verdenking van een bepaalde 'criminal charge' (het verbod tot 'zelf-incriminatie') c.q. het zwijgrecht van degene die onder verdenking staat, moet worden onderscheiden van het verstrekken van onjuiste informatie. Dit verbod tot zelf-incriminatie mag niet worden uitgelegd als een algemeen recht om handelingen te verrichten die een onderzoek door de fiscale autoriteiten bemoeilijken.

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Dit zou anders zijn - volgens het EHRM - als het overzicht van de bezittingen zou worden gebruikt in een daarna aangevangen onderzoek naar een bepaalde 'criminal charge' (de casus van het arrest Saunders) of vervolging zou plaatsvinden voor de 'criminal charge' van het niet-verstrekken van dit overzicht (de casus van onder meer de arresten Funke en J.B.).

Het verbod tot zelf-incriminatie gaat niet zover dat het iedere maatregel van autoriteiten verbiedt die druk op individuen uitoefent om informatie te verstrekken die in een latere vervolging kan worden gebruikt. Er is geen ontoelaatbare druk uitgeoefend door te wijzen op het beleid dat is opgenomen in de 'Hansard Warning'.

Er is derhalve geen schending van 'the right to remain silent' en 'the privilige against selfincrimination', welke besloten liggen in art. 6 EVRM.

UitspraakNaar boven

The applicant, Mr Brian Roger Allen, is a United Kingdom national, who was born in 1948 and is currently serving a sentence of imprisonment in HM Prison Coldingley, Surrey. He is represented before the Court by Mr Newman and Mr Kessler, lawyers practising in London.

A The circumstances of the case

The facts of the case, as submitted by the applicant, may be summarised as follows.

On 9 May 1991, the applicant was served by the Inland Revenue with a Notice pursuant to section 20(1) of the Taxes Management Act 1970, which, inter alia, required the applicant to provide a certified statement of his assets and liabilities as at 31 January 1991.

On 13 August 1991, when the applicant had failed to comply, he was summonsed to appear before the General Commissioners. The summons warned him that failure to comply with the notice rendered him liable to a penalty not exceeding 50 pounds sterling (GBP) pursuant to section 98(1) of the 1970 Act. (The penalty had in fact been increased to GBP 300).

On 30 October 1991, the applicant still having failed to comply was presented with a 'Hansard Warning.' This involved the reading out to him of the reply of the Chancellor of the Exchequer to a Parliamentary question on 18 October 1991. This outlined the practice of the Inland Revenue in cases of fraud indicating that it might accept a money settlement instead of instituting criminal proceedings and that its decision as to whether to accept a settlement or institute criminal proceedings would take into account whether the taxpayer had inter alia given full facilities for investigation into his affairs.

On or about 3 April 1992, the applicant delivered to the Inland Revenue a schedule of his assets as at 31 January 1991 as required by the notice.

The applicant was later charged with 13 counts of cheating the public revenue of income tax and corporation tax. Count 11 specified:

'Statement of offence

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Cheating Her Majesty the Queen and the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, contrary to common law.

Particulars of offence

[The applicant] on or about 3 April 1992 with intent to defraud... cheated Her Majesty the Queen and the Commissioners of Inland Revenue of public revenue, namely, income tax, by delivering... to an Inspector of Taxes a schedule of assets as at 31 January 1991 in respect of his assets and the assets of his minor children which was false, misleading and deceptive in that it omitted to disclose divers assets which were owned by him. Particulars of the omitted assets are - his beneficial interest in shares issued by off-shore companies, his beneficial interest in properties held in the names of off-shore companies and his beneficial interest in bank accounts held in the United Kingdom and in Jersey in the names of off-shore companies.'

The applicant was convicted of all counts on 19 February 1998. On 20 February 1998, he was sentenced to 13 concurrent terms of seven years' imprisonment and a confiscation order made in the sum of 3,137,165 pounds sterling (GBP). This sum was calculated as being the lesser of the two sums, namely the amount of benefit from the offences (GBP 4 million) and the applicant's total realisable assets (GBP 3,137,165).

On 7 July 1999, the Court of Appeal dismissed his appeal against conviction and on 11 October 1999, dismissed his appeal against sentence. In relation to the applicant's argument that he remained liable to pay the outstanding unpaid tax, it noted the undertaking given by the Inland Revenue on 20 February 1998 that it would not pursue the applicant for pre-existing tax liabilities out of any income which he might acquire in future.

On 10 October 2000, the House of Lords, reversing an earlier refusal, allowed his petition for leave to appeal from the Court of Appeal on a number of points and also permitted him to raise a new point relating to Article 6 of the Convention as concerned his conviction on count 11.

On 11 October 2001, the House of Lords dismissed his appeal. Lord Hutton giving judgment noted the applicant's arguments under the Convention in which he relied in particular upon the cases of Funke v. France and Saunders v. the United Kingdom, that the prosecution case against him breached his right to a fair trial as he had been compelled under threat of penalty to incriminate himself by providing the schedule of assets and found as follows:

'... the present case is one which relates to the obligation of a citizen to pay taxes and to his duty not to cheat the Revenue. It is self evident that payment of taxes fixed by the legislature is essential for the functioning of any democratic state. It is also self-evident that to ensure the due payment of taxes the State must have power to require its citizens to inform it of the amount of their annual income and to have sanctions available to enforce the provision of that information ...'

He proceeded to review the tax legislation which required taxpayers to make tax returns.

'It is clearly permissible for a State to enact such provisions and there could be no substance in an argument that there is a violation of Article 6 § 1 if the revenue prosecuted a citizen for cheating the revenue by furnishing a standard tax return

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containing false information. Similarly, in the present case, viewed against that background that the State, for the purpose of collecting tax, is entitled to require a citizen to inform it of his income and to enforce penalties for failure to do so, the section 20(1) notice requiring information cannot constitute a violation of the right against self-incrimination. The present case is therefore clearly distinguishable from Saunders on that ground ...'

Complaints

The applicant complained that the Hansard warning procedure infringed Article 6 § 1 as it infringed the privilege against self-incrimination and his right to silence. He was placed under both threat and inducement to give information and the schedule of assets which he then gave comprised the totality of the evidence against him on count 11 of the indictment.

The applicant also complains that he has been victim of a double punishment. Though the confiscation order was set having regard to the tax liability which he had evaded, the applicant's tax liability remained payable. This results in confiscation of all his assets and continuation unabated of his tax liability which he argues is disproportionate and unfair. In that context, he invokes Article 1 of Protocol No. 1.

The applicant also invokes Article 5 of the Convention, alleging that he has been deprived of his liberty not in accordance with a procedure prescribed by law.

The law

1 The applicant complains that he was required to incriminate himself contrary to Article 6 § 1 of the Convention which provides as relevant:

'In the determination ... of any criminal charge against him, everyone is entitled to a fair ... hearing ... by an independent and impartial tribunal established by law. ...

The Court recalls its established case-law to the effect that, although not specifically mentioned in Article 6 of the Convention, the rights invoked by the applicant, the right to silence and the right not to incriminate oneself, are generally recognised international standards which lie at the heart of the notion of a fair procedure under Article 6. Their rationale lies, inter alia, in the protection of the accused against improper compulsion by the authorities, thereby contributing to the avoidance of miscarriages of justice and to the fulfilment of the aims of Article 6 (see the John Murray v. the United Kingdom judgment of 8 February 1996, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996-I, pp. 49-50, §§ 44-47). The right not to incriminate oneself, in particular, presupposes that the prosecution in a criminal case seek to prove their case against the accused without resort to evidence obtained through methods of coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused. In this sense the right in question is closely linked to the presumption of innocence contained in Article 6 § 2 of the Convention (the above-cited Saunders judgment, § 68).

The right not to incriminate oneself is primarily concerned, however, with respecting the will of an accused person to remain silent in the context of criminal proceedings and the use made of compulsorily obtained information in criminal prosecutions. It does not per se prohibit the use of compulsory powers to require persons to provide information about their financial or company affairs (see the above mentioned Saunders judgment, where

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the procedure whereby the applicant was required to answer the questions of the Department of Trade Inspectors was not in issue). In the present case, therefore, the Court finds that the requirement on the applicant to make a declaration of his assets to the Inland Revenue does not disclose any issue under Article 6 § 1, even though a penalty was attached to a failure to do so. The obligation to make disclosure of income and capital for the purposes of the calculation and assessment of tax is indeed a common feature of the taxation systems of Contracting States and it would be difficult to envisage them functioning effectively without it.

The Court notes that in this case the applicant does not complain that the information about his assets which he gave the Inland Revenue was used against him in the sense that it incriminated him in the commission of an offence due to acts or omissions in which he had been involved prior to that moment. His situation may therefore be distinguished from that of the applicant in Saunders (judgment cited above). Nor was he prosecuted for failing to provide information which might incriminate him in pending or anticipated criminal proceedings, as in the cases of Funke, Heaney and McGuinness and J.B. (Funke v. France judgment of 25 February 1993, Series A no. 256-A; Heaney and McGuinness v. Ireland, no. 34720/97, ECHR 2000-XII; J.B. v. Switzerland, no. 31827/96, ECHR 2001-III). The applicant was charged with and convicted of the offence of making a false declaration of his assets to the Inland Revenue. In other words, he lied, or perjured himself through giving inaccurate information about his assets. This was not an example of forced self-incrimination about an offence which he had previously committed; it was the offence itself. It may be that the applicant lied in order to prevent the Inland Revenue uncovering conduct which might possibly be criminal and lead to a prosecution. However, the privilege against self-incrimination cannot be interpreted as giving a general immunity to actions motivated by the desire to evade investigation by the revenue authorities.

Furthermore, not every measure taken with a view to encouraging individuals to give the authorities information which may be of potential use in later criminal proceedings must be regarded as improper compulsion (see the above-mentioned John Murray v. the United Kingdom judgment, § 46). The applicant faced the risk of imposition of a penalty of a maximum of GBP 300 if he persisted in refusing to make a declaration of assets, which may be contrasted with the position in the Saunders case, where a two year prison sentence was the maximum penalty (above mentioned judgment, § 70). Nor does the Court consider that any improper inducement was brought to bear through the use of the so-called 'Hansard Warning' which informed the applicant of the practice of the Inland Revenue of taking into account the co-operation of the taxpayer in deciding whether to bring any prosecution for fraud. There is no indication that the applicant was misled as to the effect of the warning, accepting that it could not be interpreted as any kind of guarantee of freedom from prosecution.

Consequently, the Court does not find that the facts of this case disclose any infringement of the right to silence or privilege against self-incrimination or that there has been any unfairness contrary to Article 6 § 1 of the Convention. It follows that this part of the application must be rejected as manifestly ill-founded within the meaning of Article 35 §§ 3 and 4 of the Convention.

2 The applicant complains of remaining subject to tax liability after imposition of a confiscation order on his assets, invoking Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 which provides

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'Every natural or legal person is entitled to the peaceful enjoyment of his possessions. No one shall be deprived of his possessions except in the public interest and subject to the conditions provided for by law and by the general principles of international law.

The preceding provisions shall not, however, in any way impair the right of a State to enforce such laws as it deems necessary to control the use of property in accordance with the general interest or to secure the payment of taxes or other contributions or penalties.'

The Court recalls that the applicant was sentenced on conviction to a confiscation order calculated with reference to the amount of his gain from his offences, namely the amount of tax evaded and the amount of his assets. While it appears that the applicant remains liable under the applicable tax provisions for the amount of outstanding tax, this point was raised on appeal and the Court of Appeal found that it had no substance as the Inland Revenue had given an undertaking not to pursue the outstanding tax. The applicant has not argued that this undertaking would not be enforceable. The Court is not therefore persuaded that he remains subject to a real risk of an attempt by the Inland Revenue to recover the same amount of tax twice.

This complaint must therefore be rejected as manifestly ill-founded within the meaning of Article 35 §§ 3 and 4 of the Convention.

3 Finally, the applicant invokes Article 5 of the Convention which provides as relevant:

'1 Everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. No one shall be deprived of his liberty save in the following cases and in accordance with a procedure prescribed by law:

(a) the lawful detention of a person after conviction by a competent court;'

The applicant was convicted of various offences and sentenced after trial to a term of 12 years' imprisonment. He raised grounds of appeal concerning his conviction which were rejected by the Court of Appeal and House of Lords. The Court finds no basis on which to find that his detention after conviction was not 'in accordance with a procedure prescribed by law' or justified in terms of Article 5 § 1(a) above. Accordingly it rejects this complaint as manifestly ill-founded within the meaning of Article 35 §§ 3 and 4 of the Convention.

For these reasons, the Court unanimously

Declares the application inadmissible.

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VR 2005, 155: Informatieplicht kentekenhouder. Nemo tenetur-beginsel. Zwijgrecht.

Instantie: Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens Datum: 8 april 2004

Magistraten:

mrs Lorenzen, Levits, Botoucharova, Kovler, Zagrebelsky, Steiner, Hajiyev

Zaaknr: 38544/97

Conclusie: - LJN: AU8849

Noot: - Roepnaam: -

Wetingang: art. 6 EVRM

Snel naar: EssentieSamenvattingUitspraak

EssentieNaar boven

Informatieplicht kentekenhouder. Nemo tenetur-beginsel. Zwijgrecht.

SamenvattingNaar boven

Verplichting van de kentekenhouder om naar Oostenrijks recht de bestuurder bekend te maken die met zijn auto een snelheidsovertreding heeft begaan. Geen strijd met art. 6 EVRM.

(zie ook het artikel van C.J.G. Bleichrodt op p. 365 e.v.)

UitspraakNaar boven

Het Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens enz.

Post alia:

The facts

I. The circumstances of the case

10.

The applicant, Mr W. Weh, was born in 1952 and lives in Bregenz.

11.

On 21 March 1995 the Bregenz District Authority (Bezirkshaupt-mannschaft) served an anonymous order (Anonymverfügung) upon the applicant in the sum of 800 Austrian

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schillings (ATS). It stated that on 5 March 1995 the driver of the car, registered in the applicant's name, had exceeded the city area speed limit of 50 km/h by 21 km/h.

12.

The applicant did not comply with the anonymous order. Consequently, the order became invalid (see paragraph 31, below).

13.

Subsequently, the Bregenz District Authority opened criminal proceedings for exceeding the speed limit against unknown offenders and, on 27 April 1995, it ordered the applicant as the registered car owner, under section 103 § 2 of the Motor Vehicles Act (Kraftfahrgesetz), to disclose who had been driving his car. The applicant answered that "C. K.", living in "USA/University of Texas" was the person who had used the car.

14.

On 25 July 1995 the Bregenz District Authority issued a provisional penal order (Strafverfügung) in which it sentenced the applicant under sections 103 § 2 and 134 of the Motor Vehicles Act to pay a fine of ATS 900 (with 54 hours' imprisonment in default). It noted that he had submitted inaccurate information.

15.

The applicant filed an objection (Einspruch) against this decision. On 22 August 1995 the Bregenz District Authority requested the applicant to submit his defence either in writing or to appear at an oral hearing. The applicant did not react to this request.

16.

On 18 September 1995 the Bregenz District Authority issued a penal order (Straferkenntnis) confirming its previous decision and sentenced the applicant to a fine of ATS 900 (with 24 hours' imprisonment in default). In addition it ordered him to pay ATS 90 by way of contribution to the costs of the proceedings. The District Authority found that the information supplied by the applicant had been inaccurate.

17.

The applicant appealed to the Vorarlberg Independent Administrative Panel (Unabhängiger Verwaltungssenat).

18.

On 15 April 1996 the Vorarlberg Independent Administrative Panel dismissed the applicant's appeal and ordered him to pay ATS 180 by way of contribution to the costs of the appeal proceedings. Prior to giving its decision, the Panel held a hearing in the presence of the applicant who stated that he considered the information submitted by him to be sufficiently accurate.

19.

The Panel dismissed the applicant's defence, noting that section 103 § 2 of the Motor Vehicles Act required the registered car owner to disclose the name and address of the

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driver. Further, it referred to the Administrative Court's case-law according to which not only the failure to give any information at all but also the disclosure of inaccurate information amounted to a failure to comply with section 103 § 2. Finally, the Panel observed that the University of Texas had 14 different locations in Texas. Therefore the information provided by the first applicant had indeed been inaccurate.

20.

On 3 June 1996 the applicant lodged a complaint with the Constitutional Court (Verfassungsgerichtshof). He raised various issues regarding the tribunal quality of the Independent Administrative Panel and the fairness of the proceedings. However, given that the relevant sentence of section 103 § 2 of the Motor Vehicles Act has the rank of constitutional law (see paragraph 25, below), he did not raise the issue of his right to remain silent and not to incriminate himself.

21.

On 26 November 1996 the Constitutional Court refused to deal with the applicant's complaint for lack of prospects of success.

22.

On 27 June 1997 the Administrative Court (Verwaltungsgerichtshof) refused to deal with the applicant's complaint pursuant to section 33a of the Administrative Court Act (Verwaltungsgerichtshofgesetz) since the amount of the penalty did not exceed ATS 10,000, and no important legal problem was at stake.

23.

The applicant was not prosecuted for exceeding the speed limit.

II. Irrelevant domestic law

A. The Motor Vehicles Act

24.

Section 103 § 2 of the Motor Vehicles Act (Kraftfahrgesetz), as amended in 1986, provides as follows:

The authority may request information as to who had driven a certain motor vehicle identified by the number plate (…) at a certain time or had last parked such a motor vehicle (…) at a certain place before a certain date. The registered car owner (…) must provide such information, which must include the name and address of the person concerned; if he or she is unable to give such information, he/she must name a person who can do so and who will then be under an obligation to inform the authority; the statements made by the person required to give information do not release the authority from its duty to review such statements where this seems appropriate in the circumstances of the case. The requested information is to be provided immediately or, in case of a written request, within two weeks after the request has been served; where

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such information cannot be provided without keeping pertinent records, such records shall be kept. The authority's right to require such information shall take precedence over the right to refuse to give information.

25.

The ultimate sentence of this provision was enacted as a provision of constitutional rank after the Constitutional Court had, in its judgments of 3 March 1984 and 8 March 1985, quashed previous similar provisions on the ground that they were contrary to Article 90 § 2 of the Federal Constitution which prohibits inter alia that a suspect be obliged on pain of a fine to incriminate himself.

26.

In its judgment of 29 September 1988 the Constitutional Court found that the first to third sentences of section 103 § 2 of the Motor Vehicles Act as amended in 1986 were, like the previous provisions, contrary to the right not to incriminate oneself which flowed from Article 90 § 2 of the Federal Constitution and from Article 6 of the European Convention of Human Rights but were saved by the ultimate sentence of that provision which had constitutional rank. In reaching that conclusion the Constitutional Court had examined whether the ultimate sentence of section 103 § 2 was contrary to the guiding principles of the Constitution, but had found that this was not the case.

27.

Section 134 of the Motor Vehicles Act, in the version in force at the material time, provided for a fine of up to ATS 30,000 to be imposed on a person who violates the regulations of this Act.

B. The Law on Administrative Offences

28.

The 1987 amendment of the Law on Administrative Offences (Verwaltungsstrafgesetz) introduced a possibility to issue and serve an anonymous order (Anonymverfügung) in case of minor administrative criminal offences.

29.

According to section 49a of the Law on Administrative Offences, the competent authority may determine by decree minor offences for which it may serve an anonymous order.

30.

If the person who has committed a minor administrative criminal offence is unknown to the competent authorities, the latter may serve an anonymous order on the person who is supposed to know the offender. The fine imposed must not exceed ATS 1,000 and may not be converted into a prison term in default.

31.

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The anonymous order is not regarded as an act of prosecution. No remedy lies against it. If the fine imposed is not paid within four weeks, the anonymous order automatically becomes invalid and a normal prosecution against unknown offenders is to be commenced. If the fine imposed is paid within four weeks, no prosecution is to take place. The anonymous order is not entered into any register and may not be taken into account when determining the sentence for other administrative criminal offences.

The law

I. Alleged violation of article 6 § 1 of the convention

32.

The applicant complained under Article 6 § 1 of the Convention that the obligation to divulge the driver of his car pursuant to section 103 § 2 of the Motor Vehicles Act violated his right to remain silent and the privilege against self-incrimination. Article 6, insofar as relevant, reads as follows:

1.

In the determination of … any criminal charge against him, everyone is entitled to a fair and public hearing (…) by an independent and impartial tribunal (…).

A. The parties' submissions

33.

The applicant pointed out that the Constitutional Court had quashed two previous versions of section 103 § 2 of the Motor Vehicles Act on the ground that the registered car owner's obligation to disclose who had been driving the car at a specific time, violated the right not to incriminate oneself. The current version of section 103 § 2 equally did so, although the legislator had exempted it from review by the Constitutional Court by enacting the relevant sentence as a provision of constitutional rank.

34.

Further, the applicant contended that the case of P., R. and H. v.Austria (nos. 15135/89, 15136/89 and 15137/89, Commission's decision of 5 September 1989, Decisions and Reports 62, p. 319) was no longer relevant, as it had been issued before the Court's Funke v. France judgment (of 25 February 1993, Series A no. 256-A) and had, moreover, only examined whether the car owner's obligation to divulge the driver of the car violated the presumption of innocence.

35.

The Government argued that the right to remain silent was not absolute. However, in the present case the applicant's failure to give adequate information did not lead the authorities to the conclusion that he committed the offence of exceeding the speed limit.

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In fact he was not sentenced for this offence but was punished under section 103 § 2 of the Motor Vehicles Act for failure to give accurate information. In this connection the Government expressed doubt's whether the applicant could at all claim to be a victim of a violation of his right not to incriminate himself as the - albeit inaccurate - information he had provided to the authorities - made it clear that he had not been the driver at the relevant time.

36.

Furthermore, the Government referred to the case-law of the European Commission of Human Rights (P., K. and H. v. Austria, cited above; Duschel v. Austria, no. 15226/89, Commission decision of 11 October 1989) which had found that a sentence under section 103 § 2 of the Motor Vehicles Act and under a similar provision of the Vienna Parking Fees Act, respectively, did not violate Article 6.

37.

The Government distinguished the present case from cases in which the Court found a violation of the right to remain silent (in particular, Funke, cited above and, as a recent authority, J.B. v. Switzerland, no. 31827/96, ECHR 2001-III), in that the applicant's choice was not limited to either remaining silent and having a fine imposed on him or incriminating himself. He remained free to disclose the name and address of a third person as driver of the car or to state that the car had been used without his consent by a person unknown to him. Moreover, the offence to which he could have indirectly confessed as well as the fine imposed on him under section 103 § 2 of the Motor Vehicles Act were not of a very severe nature.

38.

Finally, given the public interest in the prosecution of speeding, which is frequently the cause of serious traffic accidents, the provision strikes a fair balance between this public interest and the individual car owner's interest to remain silent and therefore appears proportionate.

B. The Court's assessment

39.

The Court reiterates that, although not specifically mentioned in Article 6 of the Convention, the right to silence and the right not to incriminate oneself are generally recognised international standards which lie at the heart of the notion of a fair procedure under Article 6. Their rationale lies, inter alia, in the protection of the accused against improper compulsion by the authorities, thereby contributing to the avoidance of miscarriages of justice and to the fulfilment of the aims of Article 6 (see, John Murray v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 8 February 1996, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996-I, p. 49, § 45). The right not to incriminate oneself in particular presupposes that the prosecution in a criminal case seek to prove their case against the accused without resort to evidence obtained through methods of coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused. In this sense the right in question is closely linked to the presumption of innocence contained in Article 6 § 2 of the Convention (see Saunders v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 17 December 1996, Reports 1996-VI, p. 2064, § 68; Serves v.

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France, judgment of 20 October 1997, Reports 1997-VI, p. 2173-74, § 46; Heaney and McGuinness v. Ireland, no. 34720/97, § 40, ECHR 2000-XII; J.B., cited above, § 64).

40.

The right not to incriminate oneself is primarily concerned with respecting the will of an accused person to remain silent (Saunders, cited above, p. 2064, § 69; Heaney and McGuinness, cited above, § 40).

41.

A perusal of the Court's case-law shows that there are two types of cases in which it found violations of the right to silence and the privilege against self-incrimination.

42.

First, there are cases relating to the use of compulsion for the purpose of obtaining information which might incriminate the person concerned in pending or anticipated criminal proceedings against him, or - in other words - in respect of an offence with which that person has been 'charged' within the autonomous meaning of Article 6 § 1 (see Funke, p. 22, § 44; Heaney and McGuinness, § 55-59; J.B., § 66-71, all cited above).

43.

Second, there are cases concerning the use of incriminating information compulsorily obtained outside the context of criminal proceedings in a subsequent criminal prosecution (Saunders, cited above, p. 2064, § 67, I.J.L. and Others v. the United Kingdom, no. 29522/95, § 82-83, 2000-IX).

44.

However, it also follows from the Court's case-law that the privilege against self-incrimination does not per se prohibit the use of compulsory powers to obtain information outside the context of criminal proceedings against the person concerned.

45.

For instance, it has not been suggested in Saunders that the procedure whereby the applicant was requested to answer questions on his company and financial affairs, with a possible penalty of up to two years' imprisonment, in itself raised an issue under Article 6 § 1 (Saunders, ibid.; see also I.J.L. and Others, cited above, § 100). Moreover, in a recent case the Court found that a requirement to make a declaration of assets to the tax authorities did not disclose any issue under Article 6 § 1, although a penalty was attached to a failure to comply and the applicant was actually fined for making a false declaration. The Court noted that there were no pending or anticipated criminal proceedings against the applicant and the fact that he may have lied in order to prevent the revenue authorities from uncovering conduct which might possibly lead to a prosecution did not suffice to bring the privilege against self-incrimination into play (see Allen v. the United Kingdom (dec.), no. 76574/01, ECHR 2002-VIII). Indeed, obligations to inform the authorities are a common feature of the Contracting States' legal orders and may concern a wide range of issues (see for instance, as to the obligation to reveal

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one's identity to the police in certain situations, Vasileva v. Denmark, no. 52792/99, § 34, 25 September 2003).

46.

Furthermore, the Court accepts that the right to silence and the right not to incriminate oneself are not absolute, as for instance the drawing of inferences from an accused's silence may be admissible (Heaney and McGuinness, § 47 with a reference to John Murray, cited above, p. 49, § 47). Given the close link between the right not to incriminate oneself and the presumption of innocence, it is also important to reiterate that Article 6 § 2 does not prohibit, in principle, the use of presumptions in criminal law (see Salabiaku v. France, judgment of 7 October 1988, Series A no. 141, p. 15, p. 28).

47.

The Court notes in this connection that the Government relied on the case-law of the Commission which, in the above cited P., R. and H. v. Austria case, had found that the rule contained in section 103 § 2 of the Motor Vehicles Act (in the version here at issue) was akin to a presumption in that it obliged a car-owner either to assume responsibility for the use of the car or to name the actual driver.

48.

The Court is not convinced by this argument, as section 103 § 2 does not contain a presumption that the registered car owner was the driver and does not allow for the prosecution of the registered car owner - unless he admits to having driven the car - for the underlying traffic offence. Moreover, as the applicant has correctly pointed out, the decision in the P. R. and H. case was given before the Court's Funke judgment. A subsequent case concerning the imposition of a fine on a car-owner for refusal to disclose who had driven his car when it had been caught speeding (Tora Tolmos v. Spain, no. 23816/94, decision of 17 May 1995, Decisions and Reports 81, p. 82) is not indicative either, as the Commission simply followed its previous approach without examining the possible implications of the Funke judgment. The Court will therefore examine the issue in the light of the Funke case and its subsequent case-law outlined above.

49.

Before turning to the facts of the present case, the Court reiterates that in proceedings originating in an individual application it has to confine itself, as far as possible, to an examination of the concrete case before it (see for instance, J.B., cited above, § 63). Consequently, it is only called upon to decide whether, in the circumstances of the present case, the applicant's right to silence and his right not to incriminate himself were violated.

50.

The heart of the applicant's complaint is that he was punished for failure to give information which may have incriminated him in the context of criminal proceedings for speeding. However, neither at the time when the applicant was requested to disclose the driver of his car nor thereafter were these proceedings conducted against him.

51.

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Thus, the present case is not one concerned with the use of compulsorily obtained information in subsequent criminal proceedings (see the cases referred to above, paragraph 43).

52.

Moreover, the present case differs from the group of cases in which persons, against whom criminal proceedings were pending or were at least anticipated, were compelled on pain of a penalty to give potentially incriminating information. In J.B. (cited above) mixed tax-evasion and tax-assessment proceedings had already been opened against the applicant when he was requested to provide information on investments made by him. In Funke and in Heaney and McGuinnes (both cited above) criminal proceedings were anticipated, though they had not been formally opened, at the time the respective applicants were required to give potentially incriminating information. In Funke the customs authorities had a specific suspicion against the applicant, in Heaney and McGuinness the applicants had been arrested on suspicion of terrorist offences.

53.

In the present case the proceedings for speeding were conducted against unknown offenders, when the authorities requested the applicant under section 103 § 2 of the Motor Vehicles Act to disclose who had been driving his car on 5 March 1995. There were clearly no proceedings for speeding pending against the applicant and it cannot even be said that they were anticipated as the authorities did not have any element of suspicion against him.

54.

There is nothing to show that the applicant was 'substantially affected' so as to consider him being 'charged' with the offence of speeding within the autonomous meaning of Article 6 § 1 (see Heaney and McGuinness, cited above, § 41, with a reference to Serves, also cited above, p. 2172, § 42). It was merely in his capacity as the registered car owner that he was required to give information. Moreover, he was only required to state a simple fact – namely who had been the driver of his car – which is not in itself incriminating.

55.

In addition, although this is not a decisive element in itself, the Court notes that the applicant did not refuse to give information, but exonerated himself in that he informed the authorities that a third person had been driving at the relevant time. He was punished under section 103 § 2 of the Motor Vehicles Act only on account of the fact that he had given inaccurate information as he had failed to indicate the person's complete address. Neither in the domestic proceedings nor before the Court did he ever allege that he had been the driver of the car at the time of the offence.

56.

The Court reiterates that it is not called upon to pronounce on the existence or otherwise of potential violations of the Convention (see mutatis mutandis, Soering v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 7 July 1989, Series A no. 161, p. 35, § 90). It considers that, in the present case, the link between the applicant's obligation under section 130 § 2 of the Motor Vehicles Act to disclose the driver of his car and possible criminal proceedings for

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speeding against him remains remote and hypothetical. However, without a sufficiently concrete link with these criminal proceedings the use of compulsory powers (i.e. the imposition of a fine) to obtain information does not raise an issue with regard to the applicant's right to remain silent and the privilege against self-incrimination.

57.

Accordingly, there has been no violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention.

For these reasons, the court

1.

Holds by four votes to three that there has been no violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention;

Joint dissenting opinion of judges Lorenzen, Levits and Hajiyev

For the reasons stated below we are not able to share the majority's opinion that there has been no violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention:

1.

The present case differs in the majority's opinion from the group of cases in which persons, against whom criminal proceedings were pending or were at least anticipated, were compelled on pain of a penalty to give potentially incriminating information (cf. § 52 above). Even if we agree that the applicants in the various cases were not in an identical situation, we cannot find that a distinction between the cases in respect of the existence of a "criminal charge" is justified. Looking behind the appearances at the reality of the situation, criminal proceedings for speeding were with some probability contemplated against the applicant. In our opinion the request under section 103 § 2 was no more than a preliminary to such proceedings against the applicant (see Deweer v. Belgium, judgment of 27 February1980, Series A no. 35, p. 23-24, § 44-45). When the applicant was requested to disclose who had been the driver of his car at a specific time when it had been speeding, he was in a situation in which he was compelled on pain of a fine up to ATS 30,000 to give potentially incriminating information or to be punished for remaining silent. There is little doubt that the proceedings for speeding which were so far conducted against unknown offenders would have been turned into proceedings against the applicant had he admitted to having driven the car and, thus, furnished the prosecution with a major element of the case against him. In these circumstances the applicant was in our opinion "substantially affected" and therefore "charged" within the autonomous meaning of Article 6 § 1 (see Heaney and McGuinness, cited above, § 41, with a reference to Serves, also cited above, p. 2172, § 42) with the offence of speeding, once the request to divulge the driver of the car was made. The fact that eventually no criminal proceedings for speeding were brought against the applicant, does not remove his victim status (Funke, cited above, p. 20, § 39 and Quinn v. Ireland, no. 36887/97, § 43-46, 21 December 2000, unreported; see also, mutatis mutandis, Heaney and McGuinness, cited above, § 43-46).

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2.

In cases concerning the use of compulsory powers to obtain information, the Court has examined whether the degree of compulsion imposed on the accused destroyed the very essence of the privilege against self-incrimination and the right to remain silent (see Heaney and McGuiness, cited above, § 48 and 55 with a reference to the Funke, cited above, p. 22, § 44 and to John Murray, cited above, p. 50, § 49). What is decisive for the finding of a violation is that the accused had no other choice than either to break his silence and to provide possibly incriminating information or to have a fine or term of imprisonment imposed on him for failure to do so. It is true that the applicant was not punished for remaining silent, but for giving the name and incomplete address of a third person. However, he may have done so to protect himself from prosecution for speeding and there is no other evidence in the case which excludes that the applicant could himself have been the driver. We are, therefore, not convinced by the Government's argument that, on the facts of the case, the applicant was not the driver and could therefore not incriminate himself. When assessing a possible risk of incriminating oneself, we see no reason to distinguish between situations where the owner of the car has refused to give any information and where he has given wrong or insufficient information. However, the situation is different where on the basis of the evidence it is clear that the owner of the car could not have been the driver and therefore would not risk to incriminate himself of speeding by being compelled to identify the driver.

3.

The Government appear to argue that the degree of compulsion involved in the present case was not sufficiently important, as they pointed to the minor nature of the sanction. It is true that that the Court has found that not every measure taken with a view to encouraging individuals to give the authorities information which may be of potential use in criminal proceedings must be regarded as improper compulsion (see Allen cited above). In the present case the applicant risked being fined up to ATS 30,000 and was in fact sentenced to pay a fine of ATS 900 with 24 hours' imprisonment in default. We consider that these sanctions, though being less severe than the penalties in comparable cases (accumulating fines in Funke, a six months' prison term in Heaney and McGuiness and repeated fines in J.B), were not negligible and, therefore, brought a degree of compulsion to bear on the applicant which was capable of destroying the very essence of the privilege against self-incrimination and the right to remain silent.

4.

Finally, we are not convinced by the Government's argument that the registered car owner's obligation to divulge the driver was a proportionate response to the public interest in the prosecution of speeding which outweighs a car owner's interest in not being compelled to incriminate himself of having committed such an offence. The general requirements of fairness contained in Article 6 including the right not to incriminate oneself, apply to criminal proceedings in respect of all types of criminal offences without distinction from the most simple to the most complex (see Saunders, cited above, p. 2066, § 74). It certainly should not be overlooked that the prosecution of traffic offences like speeding, though they are in themselves often of a minor nature, serves to prevent traffic accidents and thus to prevent injury and loss of life. Nevertheless, a provision like section 103 § 2 of the Motor Vehicles Act possibly obliges the registered car owner, on pain of a fine, to admit to having driven the car at the time a specific offence was

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committed. He will thus have to provide the prosecution with a major element of evidence, being left with limited possibilities of defence in the subsequent criminal proceedings. Seen in this light the infringement of the right to remain silent does not appear proportionate. Consequently, the vital public interest in the prosecution of traffic offences cannot in our opinion justify the departure from one of the basic principles of a fair procedure (see, mutatis mutandis, Saunders, cited above, § 74, relating to corporate fraud and Heaney and McGuinness, cited above, § 58, relating to terrorist offences).

5.

In conclusion, we find that there has been a violation of the applicant's right to remain silent and his right not to incriminate himself guaranteed by Article 6 § 1 of the Convention.

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FOURTH SECTION

CASE OF SHANNON v. THE UNITED KINGDOM

(Application no. 6563/03)

JUDGMENT

STRASBOURG

4 October 2005

FINAL

04/01/2006

This judgment will become final in the circumstances set out in Article 44 § 2 of the Convention. It may be subject to editorial revision.

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In the case of Shannon v. the United Kingdom,

The European Court of Human Rights (Fourth Section), sitting as a Chamber composed of:

Mr J. Casadevall, President,

Sir Nicolas Bratza,

Mr M. Pellonpää,

Mr R. Maruste,

Mr S. Pavlovschi,

Mr J. Borrego Borrego,

Mr J. Šikuta, judges,

and Mr M. O'Boyle, Section Registrar,

Having deliberated in private on 13 September 2005,

Delivers the following judgment, which was adopted on that date:

PROCEDURE

1. The case originated in an application (no. 6563/03) against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland lodged with the Court under Article 34 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (“the Convention”) by an Irish national, Mr William Shannon (“the applicant”), on 5 February 2003.

2. The applicant was represented by Mr B. McGrory, a solicitor practising in Belfast. The United Kingdom Government (“the Government”) were represented by their Agent, Mr J. Grainger, of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, London.

3. The applicant alleged that his conviction and fine for failing to reply to questions about specific offences from financial investigators, where he had already been charged with the self-same offences, violated Article 6 of the Convention.

4. The application was allocated to the Fourth Section of the Court (Rule 52 § 1 of the Rules of Court). Within that Section, the Chamber that would consider the case (Article 27 § 1 of the Convention) was constituted as provided in Rule 26 § 1.

5. By a decision of 23 November 2004, the Court declared the application admissible.

6. The parties did not file observations on the merits. The Chamber decided, after consulting the parties, that no hearing on the merits was required (Rule 59 § 3 in fine).

THE FACTS

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I. THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE CASE

7. The applicant was born in 1948 and lives in Belfast.

8. The applicant was the chair of the Irish Republican Felons Club[1], a registered social club operating on the Falls Road, Belfast. In May 1997, the Royal Ulster Constabulary (“RUC”) carried out a search of the premises and removed many documents.

9. The applicant was subsequently required to attend for interview with a financial investigator appointed under the Proceeds of Crime (Northern Ireland) Order 1996. He did so on 27 January 1998 and answered all questions put to him.

10. On 16 April 1998, the applicant was charged by the police with false accounting and conspiracy to defraud.

11. On 2 June 1998, a further notice was served on the applicant under the 1996 Order, requiring his attendance before financial investigators at a police station on 11 June 1998. The maximum penalty for failure to attend an interview was six months' imprisonment or a fine not exceeding GBP 5,000. The notice, which was dated 1 June, stated that the investigation was into whether any person had benefited from theft or false accounting, contributing to the resources of a proscribed organisation or from contraventions of betting regulations. The applicant was required to attend at Woodbourne Police Station on 26 June 1998.

12. On 9 June 1998, the applicant's solicitors sent a letter seeking a written guarantee that no information or statements obtained during the interview would be used in criminal proceedings.

13. On 16 June 1998, a further notice, dated 16 June, was served on the applicant, again requiring him to attend the interview on 26 June 1998. The notice was served with a letter in which the investigators confirmed that they were aware of the criminal proceedings pending against the applicant. They set out the safeguards in paragraph 6 of Schedule 2 to the Order, and stated that the applicant therefore had the guarantees he sought. They added that paragraph 7 of Schedule 2 restricted the disclosure of information obtained by a financial investigator, and added that “this does not prevent the answers or information being used to further the investigation”.

14. On 22 June 1998, the applicant's solicitor sent a letter to the financial investigators indicating that the applicant's replies could become admissible evidence at a trial and suggesting that the purpose of the interview was to compel him to disclose his defence. He added that the applicant had been advised not to attend an interview unless a satisfactory response to the letter was received.

15. On 23 June 1998, the applicant's solicitor was informed by letter that the reason for the interview was not to force the applicant to disclose his defence but that a number of matters from the earlier interview required clarification and additional matters had also arisen.

16. On a request by the investigators, on 25 June the applicant's representatives informed the investigators that the applicant would not attend the interview. The interview did not take place.

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17. On 14 September 1998, a summons charged the applicant with the offence of failing without reasonable excuse to comply with the financial investigator's requirement to answer questions or otherwise furnish information, contrary to paragraph 5(1) of Schedule 2 to the 1996 Order. On 25 February 1999, the applicant was convicted of this offence in the Magistrates' Court and fined the sum of GBP 200.

18. On 5 July 2002, the Belfast County Court allowed the applicant's appeal against conviction, finding that the prosecution had not proved the absence of a reasonable excuse. The judge noted that the Northern Ireland Court of Appeal had dealt with a similar case (Clinton v. Bradley [2000] NI 196) which related to the same legislation and the same investigation. The Northern Ireland Court of Appeal had held that as Parliament had put in place certain express limitations on the use of information obtained by investigators, it could not have intended that the person concerned could put forward the risk of self-incrimination as a “reasonable excuse”. In Clinton v. Bradley, however, the accused had refused to answer questions at an interview, and he had not been interviewed by the police, or charged with any offence.

19. The judge further noted that one of the grounds on which the information obtained by investigators could be used in criminal proceedings was where evidence inconsistent with the information was relied on by the defence. That ground had been amended in the light of the Court's judgment in the case of Saunders v. the United Kingdom, and the amendment would have afforded the applicant the protection he sought had it been in place at the time. The judge took the view that once he had been questioned by the police and charged, the applicant had a right not to answer questions that would have tended to incriminate him. The only outstanding matter was whether the applicant should have attended the interview and then refused to answer questions, or, as he did, refuse to attend the interview once he failed to receive the assurances he had asked for. The judge regarded the distinction as technical, and found that the prosecution had failed to establish the absence of a “reasonable excuse” for not answering questions about the proceeds of a crime, with which he had been formally charged.

20. On 17 July 2002, the prosecutor requested the County Court to state a case for the purpose of an appeal to the Court of Appeal in Northern Ireland.

21. On 11 December 2002, the Court of Appeal in Northern Ireland heard the appeal. On 20 December 2002, Lord Justice Carswell, giving judgment, considered, in the light of R. v. Hertfordshire County Council, ex parte Green Environmental Industries Ltd ([2000] AC 326), that Article 6 § 1 of the Convention is directed towards the fairness of the trial itself and is not concerned with extra-judicial inquiries “with the consequence that a person to whom those inquiries are directed does not have a reasonable excuse for failing or refusing to comply with a financial investigator's requirements merely because the information sought may be potentially incriminating”. The appeal was upheld, and the applicant's conviction confirmed.

22. The criminal proceedings for false accounting and conspiracy to defraud (see § 10 above) were struck out on grounds of delay by the Belfast Magistrates' Court in June 2002. The magistrate was asked by the office of the Director of Public Prosecutions to state a case for the Court of Appeal, but he died before having prepared the stated case.

II. RELEVANT DOMESTIC LAW

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23. The Proceeds of Crime (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 inter alia provides for investigatory measures and powers in respect of the tracing and confiscation of proceeds of criminal conduct.

24. Pursuant to paragraph 5(1) of Schedule 2, it was an offence for a person to fail, without reasonable excuse, to attend to answer questions by a Financial Investigator appointed under the Order. Paragraph 6 restricted the use that could be made of the statements made to three situations:

(a) on a prosecution for an offence under the Perjury (Northern Ireland) Order 1979;

(b) on a prosecution for some other offence where evidence inconsistent with any such answers or information is relied on by the defence, or

(c) on a prosecution for failing to comply with a requirement of the 1996 Order, such as attending to answer questions

On 14 April 2000, paragraph 6(b) was limited by the Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999 to permit use of the statements only if they are adduced, or if they are the subject of questions at trial, by the defence.

25. According to paragraph 7 of Schedule 2, information obtained by a person in his capacity as a financial investigator may not be disclosed by him except to (a) a constable; (b) any Northern Ireland department or government department discharging its functions on behalf of the Crown; (c) to any competent body as defined, or (d) any foreign equivalent of (a) –(c).

THE LAW

I. ALLEGED VIOLATION OF ARTICLE 6 OF THE CONVENTION

26. The applicant contended that the requirement to attend an interview and give information to financial investigators exercising their powers under the Proceeds of Crime (Northern Ireland) Order 1996, and the ensuing prosecution and conviction for failing to attend, amounted to a violation of Article 6 of the Convention. That Article provides, so far as relevant, as follows:

“In the determination of ... any criminal charge against him, everyone is entitled to a fair ... hearing ... by [a] ... tribunal...”

27. The Government referred to the case of Green Environmental Industries Ltd (cited above) and to the subsequent Court of Appeal case of R. v. Kearns ([EWCA] Crim 748). They concluded that the right to remain silent in Article 6 is not absolute, even in the case of a statutory power to demand information which could be used in criminal proceedings. Questions arise under Article 6 once, and only once, the criminal proceedings have begun. There is nothing objectionable under Article 6 in requiring the provision of answers or information where that is done for use in an extra-judicial

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inquiry. Whether the use made of evidence in a subsequent trial is compatible with Article 6 depends on the circumstances of the case.

28. Applying these principles to the instant facts, the Government contended that there could only be a violation in the present case once (a) there had been a trial of the applicant for the independent offences of false accounting and conspiracy to defraud; (b) he had brought himself within the “inconsistency” exception in paragraph 6 of Schedule 2 of the Order, and (c) the trial court had decided that the answers could be used against him. The Government do not accept that the fact that the charge preceded the second interview can affect the analysis.

29. Alternatively, the Government submitted that the compulsion applied to the applicant in the present case was justified. They noted that the information that the investigators were looking for was required for the important purposes of tracing the proceedings of crime under the regime set up by the Order. Any answers the applicant gave could not have been used in independent criminal proceedings unless he advanced a case inconsistent with the answers given, and even then the judge would have had a discretion not to allow the answers to be admitted. If the mere existence of the possibility of use justified a complete refusal to answer or to co-operate with the investigation, the Order would be rendered largely ineffective.

30. In connection with the link between the proceedings under the Order and the proceedings for false accounting and conspiracy to defraud, the applicant noted that, by virtue of paragraph 7 of Schedule 2 to the Order, it would have been open to the financial investigators to supply any information they had received to a constable. He commented that in any event, a violation of Article 6 can result even if the underlying criminal proceedings do not subsequently come to trial (Funke v. France, judgment of 25 February 1993, Series A no. 256‑A), which was not expressly disapproved by the majority in Saunders (Saunders v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 17 December 1996, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996‑VI).

31. The applicant added that the appointment of financial investigators was to assist an investigation into whether a person had benefited from crime, and one might anticipate such an investigation to follow the conviction of individuals for a crime. Conducting such an investigation during the course of a criminal investigation is not necessary for the purposes of the legislation, nor is it justified.

32. The Court recalls the case-law on the use of coercive measures to obtain information, as summarised in the case of Weh (Weh v. Austria, no. 38544/97, 8 April 2004):

“39. The Court reiterates that, although not specifically mentioned in Article 6 of the Convention, the right to silence and the right not to incriminate oneself are generally recognised international standards which lie at the heart of the notion of a fair procedure under Article 6. Their rationale lies, inter alia, in the protection of the accused against improper compulsion by the authorities, thereby contributing to the avoidance of miscarriages of justice and to the fulfilment of the aims of Article 6 (see, John Murray v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 8 February 1996, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996-I, p. 49, § 45). The right not to incriminate oneself in particular presupposes that the prosecution in a criminal case seek to prove their case against the accused without resort to evidence obtained through methods of coercion or oppression in defiance of the

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will of the accused. In this sense the right in question is closely linked to the presumption of innocence contained in Article 6 § 2 of the Convention (see Saunders v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 17 December 1996, Reports 1996-VI, p. 2064, § 68; Serves v. France, judgment of 20 October 1997, Reports 1997-VI, pp. 2173-74, § 46; Heaney and McGuinness v. Ireland, no. 34720/97, § 40, ECHR 2000-XII; [J.B. v. Switzerland, no. 31827/96, ECHR 2001‑III], § 64).

40. The right not to incriminate oneself is primarily concerned with respecting the will of an accused person to remain silent (Saunders, cited above, p. 2064, § 69; Heaney and McGuinness, cited above, § 40).

41. A perusal of the Court's case-law shows that there are two types of cases in which it found violations of the right to silence and the privilege against self-incrimination.

42. First, there are cases relating to the use of compulsion for the purpose of obtaining information which might incriminate the person concerned in pending or anticipated criminal proceedings against him, or - in other words - in respect of an offence with which that person has been “charged” within the autonomous meaning of Article 6 § 1 (see Funke v. France, judgment of 25 February 1993, Series A no. 256‑A], p. 22, § 44; Heaney and McGuinness, §§ 55-59; J.B., §§ 66-71, ... cited above).

43. Second, there are cases concerning the use of incriminating information compulsorily obtained outside the context of criminal proceedings in a subsequent criminal prosecution (Saunders, cited above, p. 2064, § 67, I.J.L. and Others v. the United Kingdom, no. 29522/95, § 82-83, 2000-IX).

44. However, it also follows from the Court's case-law that the privilege against self-incrimination does not per se prohibit the use of compulsory powers to obtain information outside the context of criminal proceedings against the person concerned.

45. For instance, it has not been suggested in Saunders that the procedure whereby the applicant was requested to answer questions on his company and financial affairs, with a possible penalty of up to two years' imprisonment, in itself raised an issue under Article 6 § 1 (Saunders, ibid.; see also I.J.L. and Others, cited above, § 100). Moreover, in a recent case the Court found that a requirement to make a declaration of assets to the tax authorities did not disclose any issue under Article 6 § 1, although a penalty was attached to a failure to comply and the applicant was actually fined for making a false declaration. The Court noted that there were no pending or anticipated criminal proceedings against the applicant and the fact that he may have lied in order to prevent the revenue authorities from uncovering conduct which might possibly lead to a prosecution did not suffice to bring the privilege against self-incrimination into play (see

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Allen v. the United Kingdom (dec.), no. 76574/01, ECHR 2002-VIII). Indeed, obligations to inform the authorities are a common feature of the Contracting States' legal orders and may concern a wide range of issues (see for instance, as to the obligation to reveal one's identity to the police in certain situations, Vasileva v. Denmark, no. 52792/99, § 34, 25 September 2003).

46. Furthermore, the Court accepts that the right to silence and the right not to incriminate oneself are not absolute, as for instance the drawing of inferences from an accused's silence may be admissible (Heaney and McGuinness, § 47 with a reference to John Murray, cited above, p. 49, § 47). Given the close link between the right not to incriminate oneself and the presumption of innocence, it is also important to reiterate that Article 6 § 2 does not prohibit, in principle, the use of presumptions in criminal law (see Salabiaku v. France, judgment of 7 October 1988, Series A no. 141, p. 15, p. 28).”

33. The underlying proceedings in the present case – the prosecution for false accounting and conspiracy to defraud – were never pursued. The Government conclude from this that the right not to incriminate oneself cannot be at issue in the present case because in the event, there were no substantive proceedings in which the evidence could have been used in an incriminating way.

34. The Court recalls that in previous cases it has expressly found that there is no requirement that allegedly incriminating evidence obtained by coercion actually be used in criminal proceedings before the right not to incriminate oneself applies. In particular, in Heaney and McGuinness (cited above; §§ 43-46), it found that the applicants could rely on Article 6 §§ 1 and 2 in respect of their conviction and imprisonment for failing to reply to questions, even though they were subsequently acquitted of the underlying offence. Indeed, in Funke, the Court found a violation of the right not to incriminate oneself even though no underlying proceedings were brought, and by the time of the Strasbourg proceedings none could be (cited above, §§ 39, 40).

35. It is thus open to the applicant to complain of an interference with his right not to incriminate himself, even though no self-incriminating evidence (or reliance on a failure to provide information) was used in other, substantive criminal proceedings.

36. As to a justification for the coercive measures imposed on the applicant, the Court recalls that not all coercive measures give rise to the conclusion of an unjustified interference with the right not to incriminate oneself. In Saunders, for example, the Court listed types of material which exists independently of the will of a suspect and which fall outside the scope of the right (matters such as documents acquired pursuant to a warrant, breath, blood, DNA and urine samples – see the Saunders judgment cited above, § 69). In other cases, where no proceedings (other than the “coercive” proceedings) were pending or anticipated, the Court found no violation of the right not to incriminate oneself (see the Weh judgment and the Allen decision, both cited above).

37. The Government saw justification for the proceedings against the applicant for failing to attend the interview on 26 June 1998 in the importance of the tracing the proceeds of crime under the 1996 Order, and they noted the procedural protection available, namely the limitation on the use of any evidence obtained.

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38. The Court recalls that in Heaney and McGuinness (cited above, § 58) it found that the security context of the relevant provision in that case (Section 52 of the Irish Offences against the State Act 1939) could not justify a provision which “extinguishes the very essence of the ... right to silence and ... right not to incriminate [oneself]”. If the requirement to attend an interview had been put on a person in respect of whom there was no suspicion and no intention to bring proceedings, the use of the coercive powers under the 1996 Order might well have been compatible with the right not to incriminate oneself, in the same way as a statutory requirement to give information on public health grounds (see the case of Green Environmental Industries referred to by the Government, although in that case the applicants were also liable to prosecution by the local authority). The applicant, however, was not merely at risk of prosecution in respect of the crimes which were being examined by the investigators: he had already been charged with a crime arising out of the same raid. In these circumstances, attending the interview would have involved a very real likelihood of being required to give information on matters which could subsequently arise in the criminal proceedings for which the applicant had been charged. The security context – the special problems of investigating crime in Northern Ireland – cannot justify the application of the 1996 Order in the present case any more than could that in Heaney and McGuinness.

39. As to the procedural protection available to the applicant if he had attended the interview and if he had subsequently wished to prevent the use of information given in criminal proceedings, the Court first notes that it would have been open to the investigators to forward information to the police. Even though, as the Government say, the two investigations were being run separately, once the information had been passed to the police who were working on the criminal proceedings against the applicant, they would have converged, at least as far as the applicant was concerned.

40. Secondly, the Court notes that information obtained from the applicant at interview could have been used at a subsequent criminal trial if he had relied on evidence inconsistent with it. Such use would have deprived the applicant of the right to determine what evidence he wished to put before the trial court, and could have amounted to “resort to evidence obtained through methods of coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused”. The limitation on use in paragraph 6(b) of Schedule 2 cannot be seen as providing procedural protection for the applicant. It is true, as the Government note, that the applicant might not have been tried, and that even if he had, it would have been open to the trial judge to exclude the information obtained at interview. Both of those points, however, depend on the evidence actually being used in subsequent proceedings, whereas it is clear from the case-law referred to above that there is no need for proceedings even to be brought for the right not to incriminate oneself to be at issue.

41. The Court concludes that the requirement for the applicant to attend an interview with financial investigators and to be compelled to answer questions in connection with events in respect of which he had already been charged with offences was not compatible with his right not to incriminate himself. There has therefore been a violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention.

II. APPLICATION OF ARTICLE 41 OF THE CONVENTION

42. Article 41 of the Convention provides:

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“If the Court finds that there has been a violation of the Convention or the Protocols thereto, and if the internal law of the High Contracting Party concerned allows only partial reparation to be made, the Court shall, if necessary, afford just satisfaction to the injured party.”

A. Damage

43. The applicant claimed the sum of GBP 200 by way of pecuniary damage in respect of the fine which he was required to pay. He also claimed the sum of GBP 5,000 in respect of the inconvenience, loss and distress of having to undergo interviews with the financial investigators in the midst of criminal proceedings.

44. The Government submitted that a finding of a violation would constitute sufficient just satisfaction in the case. They noted, in particular, that in the case of Heaney and McGuinness (cited above), where the Court awarded a sum in respect of inconvenience, anxiety and distress, the applicants were imprisoned, rather than merely fined.

45. The Court agrees with the Government that the applicant must have suffered substantially less inconvenience than the applicants in Heaney and McGuinness, and awards him the sum of EUR 1,750 by way of pecuniary and non-pecuniary damage together.

B. Costs and expenses

46. The applicant claimed the sum of GBP 8,225, made up of solicitors' fees of GBP 5,000 and counsel's fees of GBP 2,000, plus VAT at 17.5%.

47. The Government noted that the applicant's representatives' bills of costs were not itemised, such that they could not comment on them. They submitted that the figures should not in any event exceed GBP 1,000 in respect of the solicitors and GBP 500 in respect of counsel.

48. Again, the Court agrees with the Government that in the absence of any itemised bill it is difficult to assess the reasonableness and necessity of the costs claims made by the applicant. It awards him the sum EUR 2,200 in respect of costs and expenses.

C. Default interest

49. The Court considers it appropriate that the default interest should be based on the marginal lending rate of the European Central Bank, to which should be added three percentage points.

FOR THESE REASONS, THE COURT UNANIMOUSLY

1. Holds that there has been a violation of Article 6 § 1of the Convention;

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2. Holds

(a) that the respondent State is to pay the applicant, within three months from the date on which the judgment becomes final in accordance with Article 44 § 2 of the Convention, the following amounts to be converted into pounds sterling at the rate applicable at the date of settlement:

(i) EUR 1,750 (one thousand seven hundred and fifty euros) in respect of pecuniary and non-pecuniary damage;

(ii) EUR 2,200 (two thousand two hundred euros) in respect of costs and expenses;

(iii) any tax that may be chargeable on the above amounts;

(b) that from the expiry of the above-mentioned three months until settlement simple interest shall be payable on the above amounts at a rate equal to the marginal lending rate of the European Central Bank during the default period plus three percentage points;

3. Dismisses the remainder of the applicant's claim for just satisfaction.

Done in English, and notified in writing on 4 October 2005, pursuant to Rule 77 §§ 2 and 3 of the Rules of Court.

Michael O'Boyle Josep Casadevall

Registrar President

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NJ 2007, 226: Folterverbod. Gedwongen medische ingreep bij een verdachte om bewijs te verkrijgen overschrijdt het minimum level of severity als bed...

Instantie: Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens (Grote kamer) Datum: 11 juli 2006

Magistraten:

Wildhaber, Rozakis, Bratza, Zupančič, Ress, Bonello, Caflisch, Cabral Barreto, Pellonpää, Baka, Maruste, Botoucharova, Borrego, Borrego, Fura-Sandström, Gyulumyan, Hajiyev, Šèikuta

Zaaknr: 54810/00

Conclusie: - LJN: AY9133

Noot: T.M. Schalken Roepnaam: -

Wetingang: EVRM art. 3; EVRM art. 6 lid 1

Snel naar: EssentieSamenvattingPartij(en)UitspraakNoot

EssentieNaar boven

Folterverbod. Gedwongen medische ingreep bij een verdachte om bewijs te verkrijgen overschrijdt het minimum level of severity als bedoeld in art. 3 EVRM. Geen noodzaak voor maatregel. Schending.

Eerlijk proces. Gebruik tot bewijs van via schending art. 3 EVRM verkregen materiaal in strijd met recht op eerlijk proces. Gebruik ook in strijd met het nemo tenetur beginsel, ook al gaat het in principe om bewijs dat onafhankelijk van de wil van verdachte bestaat. Schending.

SamenvattingNaar boven

Artikel 3: De medische interventie was niet ingegeven door eventuele gevaren voor de gezondheid van verzoeker, maar had bewijsverkrijging tot doel. Het Verdrag bevat daarop geen principieel verbod, maar inbreuken op de fysieke integriteit ten behoeve van bewijsverkrijging moeten strikt worden beoordeeld. De volgende factoren zijn daarbij van belang: (1) de noodzaak van de ingreep met het oog op bewijsverkrijging; (2) gezondheidsrisico's voor de verdachte; (3) de uitvoering van de ingreep en fysieke pijn en lijden die het tot gevolg heeft; (4) de aanwezigheid van medisch toezicht en (5) de gevolgen voor de gezondheid van de verdachte. De inbreuk mag niet het ‘minimum level of severity’ behalen die hem zou brengen onder het bereik van art. 3 EVRM. Gelet op de geringe ernst van het feit en de mogelijkheid die er was om te wachten totdat de verdovende middelen op natuurlijke wijze het lichaam van klager zouden verlaten, was de ingreep niet noodzakelijk. De procedure heeft eerder tot het overlijden van twee personen geleid en om die reden kan niet worden gesteld dat alleen verwaarloosbare gezondheidsrisico's zijn verbonden aan de ingreep. Bij de ingreep werd ‘force verging on brutality’ gebruikt (§ 79). Klager moet onder pijn en spanning hebben geleden door de interventie zelf. Nu verzoeker zich verzette tegen de ingreep en geen Duits en alleen gebrekkig Engels sprak, gaat het Hof ervan uit, ook omdat de Duitse overheid geen

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bewijs voor het tegendeel had aangedragen, dat klager niet vooraf medisch was onderzocht. Het ‘minimum level of severity’ was aldus bereikt. Schending van art. 3 EVRM.

Artikel 6 lid 1: Bij de beoordeling van de eerlijkheid van het gebruik van onrechtmatig verkregen bewijs kan de ernst van een delict en het publieke belang bij vervolging een rol spelen in de afweging. Maatregelen die de ‘very essence of an applicant's defence rights’ schenden, waaronder het recht niet mee te werken aan de eigen veroordeling, zijn echter nimmer te rechtvaardigen. Art. 3 EVRM betreft één van de meest fundamentele waarden in democratische samenlevingen en staat nimmer derogatie toe. Waneer sprake is van bewijsverkrijging via foltering, is bewijsgebruik onder art. 6 EVRM uitgesloten. In casu werd geen foltering vastgesteld, maar werd door de inbreuk het ‘minimum level of severity covered by the ambit of the Article 3 prohibition’ bereikt. Ook in dat geval kan niet worden uitgesloten dat bewijsgebruik oneerlijk is, ongeacht de ernst van het delict, het gewicht van het bewijs bij de veroordeling en de mogelijkheden die voor de verdachte beschikbaar waren om het bewijs en het gebruik daarvan aan te vechten. De via schending van een kernrecht verkregen bewijs speelde een beslissende rol bij de veroordeling van klager. Klager had weliswaar zijn recht op tegenspraak kunnen uitoefenen ten aanzien van het gebruik van het bewijs. Het publieke belang bij een veroordeling voor dit delict kon het bewijsgebruik niet rechtvaardigen.

Ook bij de beoordeling van de eerlijkheid van het gebruik van via schending van het zwijgrecht en het nemo tenetur beginsel verkregen bewijs gelden eigen, op die normen toegespitste, maatstaven. Het gaat hier algemeen erkende internationale standaarden die tot de kern van de notie van een eerlijk proces behoren. Bij de beoordeling van schendingen daarvan zijn de aard en mate van dwang, de aanwezigheid van relevante waarborgen en het gebruik van aldus verkregen materiaal van belang. Ondanks het feit dat het recht niet te mee te werken aan de eigen veroordeling primair betrekking heeft op het zwijgrecht en aldus geen betrekking heeft op materiaal dat onafhankelijk van de wil van de verdachte bestaat, kan dat recht een bredere betekenis hebben. In dit geval kan het bewijs worden begrepen als bewijs dat onafhankelijk van de wil van de verdachte bestond. Echter, de gewraakte maatregel werd gebruikt om ‘real evidence’ te verkrijgen tegen de wil van de verdachte.

Er bestaan significante verschillen tussen de mate van dwang die noodzakelijk is om de typen bewijs te verkrijgen. In casu ging het om dwang die een niet ongevaarlijke pathologische reactie in het lichaam van verzoeker teweegbracht. Het recht niet mee te werken is aldus van toepassing. Gelet op de ernst van het feit weegt het publieke belang niet op tegen de ernstige inbreuk die hier is gemaakt op de fysieke en geestelijke integriteit. Strijd met art. 6 vanuit het perspectief van het nemo tenetur beginsel.

Partij(en)Naar boven

Jalloh,

tegen

Duitsland.

UitspraakNaar boven

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Feiten

Klager, Abu Bakah Jalloh, woonachtig in Cologne (Duitsland) wordt op 29 oktober 1993 aangehouden nadat opsporingsambtenaren zien dat hij minstens tweemaal een plastic zakje uit zijn mond haalt en het zakje verkoopt aan andere personen. Bij zijn aanhouding slikt hij een zakje in. Verder blijkt hij geen verdovende middelen in zijn bezit te hebben. Omdat uitstel niet opportuun wordt geacht geeft de aanklager het bevel tot toediening van een braakmiddel door een arts. Die medische ingreep wordt uitgevoerd in een ziekenhuis. Terwijl vier opsporingsambtenaren klager vasthouden, brengt een arts via een door zijn neus ingebrachte tube een zoutoplossing en twee typen braakmiddel in zijn maag. Verzoeker braakt 0,2182 gram cocaïne op. Verzoeker spreekt geen Duits en gebrekkig Engels.

Procesverloop

Op 23 maart 1994 werd klager veroordeeld wegens handel in verdovende middelen tot 1 jaar voorwaardelijk. In hoger beroep werd de straf verminderd tot zes maanden voorwaardelijk. Het federale constitutionele hof verklaarde klagers beroep niet-ontvankelijk.

Klager diende in 2000 een klacht in bij het Hof, waarin hij stelde dat de gedwongen ingreep, in strijd met art. 3 EVRM, neerkwam op wrede en onmenselijke behandeling. Hij stelde voorts dat het gebruik van dit onrechtmatig verkregen bewijs bij zijn strafvervolging in strijd was met art. 6 EVRM. Zijn klacht werd op 26 oktober 2004 gedeeltelijk ontvankelijk verklaard door een Kamer. Op 1 februari 2005 deed de Kamer afstand van rechtsmacht ten gunste van de Grote Kamer (art. 30 EVRM en Rule 72 van de Rules of Court).

EHRM:

The Law

I. Alleged violation of Article 3 of the Convention

1

The applicant claimed that he had been subjected to inhuman and degrading treatment as a result of having been forcibly administered emetics. He relied on Article 3 of the Convention, which provides:

‘No one shall be subjected to torture or to inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.’

2

The Government contested this allegation.

A.

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The parties’ submissions

‘1.The applicant

3.

According to the applicant, the administration of emetics by force had constituted a serious interference with his physical integrity and posed a serious threat to his health, and even life, since the emetics used

Ipecacuanha syrup and apomorphine — could have provoked life-threatening side effects. The insertion of a tube by force through the nose of a suspect who did not co-operate in the procedure could cause damage to the nose, throat and gullet and even burst drug bubbles in the stomach. The danger of administering emetics by force was illustrated by the fact that it had already resulted in the death of two suspects in Germany. The vast majority of the member States of the Council of Europe as well as the United States considered this method to be illegal. The interference could not be justified on grounds of medical assistance. On the contrary, it merely increased the risk of the suspect being poisoned by the drugs he had swallowed. A suspect's express opposition to undergoing medical treatment had to be respected in a democratic society as part of the individual's right to self-determination.

4.

The applicant further argued that the administration of emetics had been aimed at intimidating and debasing him in disregard of his human dignity. The manner in which he had been forced to undergo a life-threatening medical intervention had been violent, agonising and humiliating. He had been degraded to the point of having to vomit while being observed by several police officers. Being in police custody, he had found himself in a particularly vulnerable position.

5.

Moreover, the applicant maintained that no anamnesis to establish his medical history and physical condition had been obtained by a doctor prior to the execution of the impugned measure. Nor had he been given any medical care and supervision in prison afterwards.

6.

The applicant also stressed that he had sustained bodily injury, notably to his stomach, as was proved by a gastroscopy that had been performed in the prison hospital. Furthermore, he had been subjected to intense physical and mental suffering during the process of administration of the emetics and by the chemical effects of the substances concerned.

2.The Government

7.

According to the Government, the forcible administration of emetics entailed merely negligible risks to health. Ipecacuanha syrup was not a dangerous substance. In fact, it

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was given to children who had been poisoned. The introduction of a very flexible tube through the applicant's nose had not put him at risk, even though he had resisted the procedure. The injection of apomorphine had not been dangerous either. The side effects and dangers described by the applicant could only be caused by chronic abuse or misuse of the emetics in question. The fact that two suspected drug dealers had died following the forcible administration of emetics in Hamburg and Bremen did not warrant the conclusion that the measure in general posed health risks. The method had been used on numerous occasions without giving rise to complications. The authorities resorted to the administration of emetics in those Länder where drug trafficking was a serious problem. In the vast majority of cases suspects chose to swallow the emetics after being informed that force would be used if they refused to do so. In the Hamburg case the defendant had suffered from an undetected heart condition and would have been equally at risk if he had resisted a different kind of enforcement measure. In the Bremen case the possibility that the defendant was poisoned by the drugs he had swallowed could not be excluded.

8.

The Government pointed out that there had been a real, immediate risk that the drug bubbles, which had not been packaged for long-term transport inside the body, would leak and poison the applicant. Even though the emetics had been administered primarily to obtain evidence rather than for medical reasons, the removal of the drugs from the applicant's stomach could still be considered to be required on medical grounds. It was part of the State's positive obligation to protect the applicant by provoking the regurgitation of the drugs. Awaiting the natural excretion of the drugs would not have been as effective a method of investigation or any less humiliating and may, in fact, have posed risks to his health. It was significant in this connection that the administration of emetics to a juvenile was only considered an option if he or she was suspected of selling drugs on a commercial basis.

9.

In the Government's view, the impugned measure had not gone beyond what had been necessary to secure evidence of the commission of a drugs offence. The applicant had been administered harmless emetics in a hospital by a doctor acting lege artis. Such a measure could not be considered humiliating in the circumstances.

10.

The Government further maintained that the emetics were administered to the applicant only after an anamnesis had been obtained by a doctor in a hospital. The same doctor had duly supervised the administration of the emetics to the applicant.

11.

The Government stressed that there was no evidence that the applicant had suffered any injuries or lasting damage as a result of the administration of the emetics. He had merely been tired for several hours after the execution of the measure, either because of the effects of the apomorphine or because of the resistance he had put up. In the proceedings before the Court the applicant had claimed for the first time that he had suffered further damage to his health. However, he had not produced any documentary evidence to support his allegations.’

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B.

The Court's assessment

‘1.Relevant principles

12.

According to the Court's well-established case-law, ill-treatment must attain a minimum level of severity if it is to fall within the scope of Article 3. The assessment of this minimum level of severity is relative; it depends on all the circumstances of the case, such as the duration of the treatment, its physical and mental effects and, in some cases, the sex, age and state of health of the victim (see, inter alia, Price v. the United Kingdom, no. 33394/96, § 24, ECHR 2001-VII; Mouisel v. France, no. 67263/01, § 37, ECHR 2002-IX; Gennadi Naoumenko v. Ukraine, no. 42023/98, § 108, 10 February 2004). Allegations of ill-treatment must be supported by appropriate evidence (see, mutatis mutandis, Klaas v. Germany, judgment of 22 September 1993, Series A no. 269, pp. 17–18, § 30). To assess this evidence, the Court adopts the standard of proof ‘beyond reasonable doubt’ but adds that such proof may follow from the coexistence of sufficiently strong, clear and concordant inferences or of similar unrebutted presumptions of fact (see Ireland v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 18 January 1978, Series A no. 25, pp. 64–65, § 161in fine; Labita, cited above, § 121).

13.

Treatment has been held by the Court to be ‘inhuman’ because, inter alia, it was premeditated, was applied for hours at a stretch and caused either actual bodily injury or intense physical and mental suffering (see Labita v. Italy[GC], no. 26772/95, § 120, ECHR 2000-IV). Treatment has been considered ‘degrading’ when it was such as to arouse in its victims feelings of fear, anguish and inferiority capable of humiliating and debasing them and possibly breaking their physical or moral resistance (see Hurtado v. Switzerland, Commission's report of 8 July 1993, Series A no. 280, p. 14, § 67), or when it was such as to drive the victim to act against his will or conscience (see, for example, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and the Netherlands v. Greece (‘the Greek case’), nos. 3321/67 et al., Commission's report of 5 November 1969, Yearbook 12, p. 186; Keenan v. the United Kingdom, no. 27229/95, § 110, ECHR 2001-III). Furthermore, in considering whether treatment is ‘degrading’ within the meaning of Article 3, one of the factors which the Court will take into account is the question whether its object was to humiliate and debase the person concerned, although the absence of any such purpose cannot conclusively rule out a finding of violation of Article 3 (see Raninen v. Finland, judgment of 16 December 1997, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1997-VIII, pp. 2821–22, § 55; Peers v. Greece, no. 28524/95, §§ 68 and 74, ECHR 2001-III; Price, cited above, § 24). In order for a punishment or treatment associated with it to be ‘inhuman’ or ‘degrading’, the suffering or humiliation involved must in any event go beyond that inevitable element of suffering or humiliation connected with a given form of legitimate treatment or punishment (see Labita, cited above, § 120).

14.

With respect to medical interventions to which a detained person is subjected against his or her will, Article 3 of the Convention imposes an obligation on the State to protect the physical well-being of persons deprived of their liberty, for example by providing them

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with the requisite medical assistance. The persons concerned nevertheless remain under the protection of Article 3, whose requirements permit of no derogation (Mouisel, cited above, § 40; Gennadi Naoumenko, cited above, § 112). A measure which is of therapeutic necessity from the point of view of established principles of medicine cannot in principle be regarded as inhuman and degrading (see, in particular, Herczegfalvy v. Austria, judgment of 24 September 1992, Series A no. 244, pp. 25–26, § 82; Gennadi Naoumenko, cited above, § 112). This can be said, for instance, about force-feeding that is aimed at saving the life of a particular detainee who consciously refuses to take food. The Court must nevertheless satisfy itself that a medical necessity has been convincingly shown to exist and that procedural guarantees for the decision, for example to force-feed, exist and are complied with (Nevmerzhitsky v. Ukraine, no. 54825/00, § 94, 5 April 2005).

15.

Even where it is not motivated by reasons of medical necessity, Articles 3 and 8 of the Convention do not as such prohibit recourse to a medical procedure in defiance of the will of a suspect in order to obtain from him evidence of his involvement in the commission of a criminal offence. Thus, the Convention institutions have found on several occasions that the taking of blood or saliva samples against a suspect's will in order to investigate an offence did not breach these Articles in the circumstances of the cases examined by them (see, inter alia, X. v. the Netherlands, no. 8239/78, Commission decision of 4 December 1978, Decisions and Reports (DR) 16, pp. 187–189; Schmidt v. Germany (dec.), no. 32352/02, 5 January 2006).

16.

However, any recourse to a forcible medical intervention in order to obtain evidence of a crime must be convincingly justified on the facts of a particular case. This is especially true where the procedure is intended to retrieve from inside the individual's body real evidence of the very crime of which he is suspected. The particularly intrusive nature of such an act requires a strict scrutiny of all the surrounding circumstances. In this connection, due regard must be had to the seriousness of the offence at issue. The authorities must also demonstrate that they took into consideration alternative methods of recovering the evidence. Furthermore, the procedure must not entail any risk of lasting detriment to a suspect's health (see, mutatis mutandis, Nevmerzhitsky, cited above, §§ 94, 97; Schmidt, cited above).

17.

Moreover, as with interventions carried out for therapeutic purposes, the manner in which a person is subjected to a forcible medical procedure in order to retrieve evidence from his body must not exceed the minimum level of severity prescribed by the Court's case-law on Article 3 of the Convention. In particular, account has to be taken of whether the person concerned experienced serious physical pain or suffering as a result of the forcible medical intervention (see Peters v. the Netherlands, no. 21132/93, Commission decision of 6 April 1994; Schmidt, cited above; Nevmerzhitsky, cited above, §§ 94, 97).

18.

Another material consideration in such cases is whether the forcible medical procedure was ordered and administered by medical doctors and whether the person concerned was

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placed under constant medical supervision (see, for instance, Ilijkov v. Bulgaria, no. 33977/96, Commission decision of 20 October 1997).

19.

A further relevant factor is whether the forcible medical intervention resulted in any aggravation of his or her state of health and had lasting consequences for his or her health (see Ilijkov, cited above, and, mutatis mutandis, Krastanov v. Bulgaria, no. 50222/99, § 53, 30 September 2004).

2.Application of those principles to the present case

20.

At the outset the Court notes that in the Government's view the removal of the drugs from the applicant's stomach by the administration of emetics could be considered to be required on medical grounds, as he risked death through poisoning. However, it is to be observed that the domestic courts all accepted that, when ordering the administration of emetics, the authorities had acted on the basis of section 81a of the Code of Criminal Procedure. This provision entitles the prosecuting authorities to order a bodily intrusion to be effected by a doctor without the suspect's consent in order to obtain evidence, provided that there is no risk of damage to the suspect's health. However, section 81a does not cover measures taken to avert an imminent danger to a person's health. Furthermore, it is undisputed that the emetics were administered in the absence of any prior assessment of the dangers involved in leaving the drug bubble in the applicant's body. The Government also stated that emetics are never administered to juvenile dealers unless they are suspected of selling drugs on a commercial basis. Juvenile dealers are, however, in no less need of medical treatment than adults. Adult dealers, for their part, run the same risks to their health as juvenile dealers when administered emetics. Consequently, the Court is not satisfied that the prosecuting authorities’ decision to order the impugned measure was based on and required by medical reasons, that is, the need to protect the applicant's health. Instead, it was aimed at securing evidence of a drugs offence.

21.

This finding does not by itself warrant the conclusion that the impugned intervention contravenes Article 3. As noted above (see paragraph 70), the Court has found on several occasions that the Convention does not, in principle, prohibit recourse to a forcible medical intervention that will assist in the investigation of an offence. However, any interference with a person's physical integrity carried out with the aim of obtaining evidence must be the subject of rigorous scrutiny, with the following factors being of particular importance: the extent to which forcible medical intervention was necessary to obtain the evidence, the health risks for the suspect, the manner in which the procedure was carried out and the physical pain and mental suffering it caused, the degree of medical supervision available and the effects on the suspect's health (compare and contrast also the criteria established by the US courts in similar cases — see paragraphs 51–52 above). In the light of all the circumstances of the individual case, the intervention must not attain the minimum level of severity that would bring it within the scope of Article 3. The Court will now examine each of these elements in turn.

22.

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As regards the extent to which the forcible medical intervention was necessary to obtain the evidence, the Court notes that drug-trafficking is a serious offence. It is acutely aware of the problem confronting Contracting States in their efforts to combat the harm caused to their societies through the supply of drugs (see, in particular, D. v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 2 May 1997, Reports 1997-III, pp. 791–792, § 46). However, in the present case it was clear before the impugned measure was ordered and implemented that the street dealer on whom it was imposed had been storing the drugs in his mouth and could not, therefore, have been offering drugs for sale on a large scale. This is reflected in the sentence (a six months’ suspended prison sentence with probation), which is at the lower end of the range of possible sentences. The Court accepts that it was vital for the investigators to be able to determine the exact amount and quality of the drugs that were being offered for sale. However, it is not satisfied that the forcible administration of emetics was indispensable in the instant case to obtain the evidence. The prosecuting authorities could simply have waited for the drugs to pass out of the system naturally. It is significant in this connection that many other member States of the Council of Europe use this method to investigate drugs offences.

23.

As regards the health risks attendant on the forcible medical intervention, the Court notes that it is a matter of dispute between the parties whether and to what extent the administration of Ipecacuanha syrup through a tube introduced into the applicant's nose and the injection of apomorphine posed a risk to his health. Whether or not such measures are dangerous is, as has been noted above (see paragraphs 41–44), also a matter of dispute among medical experts. While some consider it to be entirely harmless and in the suspect's best interest, others argue that in particular the use of a nasogastric tube to administer emetics by force entails serious risks to life and limb and should therefore be prohibited. The Court is not satisfied that the forcible administration of emetics, a procedure that has to date resulted in the deaths of two people in the respondent State, entails merely negligible health risks. It also observes in this respect that the actual use of force — as opposed to the mere threat of force — has been found to be necessary in the respondent State in only a small proportion of the cases in which emetics have been administered. However, the fatalities occurred in cases in which force was used. Furthermore, the fact that in the majority of the German Länder and in at least a large majority of the other member States of the Council of Europe the authorities refrain from forcibly administering emetics does tend to suggest that such a measure is considered to pose health risks.

24.

As to the manner in which the emetics were administered, the Court notes that, after refusing to take the emetics voluntarily, the applicant was pinned down by four police officers, which shows that force verging on brutality was used against him. A tube was then fed through his nose into his stomach to overcome his physical and mental resistance. This must have caused him pain and anxiety. He was subjected to a further bodily intrusion against his will through the injection of another emetic. Account must also be taken of the applicant's mental suffering while he waited for the emetics to take effect. During this time he was restrained and kept under observation by police officers and a doctor. Being forced to regurgitate under these conditions must have been humiliating for him. The Court does not share the Government's view that waiting for the drugs to pass out of the body naturally would have been just as humiliating. Although it

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would have entailed some invasion of privacy because of the need for supervision, such a measure nevertheless involves a natural bodily function and so causes considerably less interference with a person's physical and mental integrity than forcible medical intervention (see, mutatis mutandis, Peters, cited above; Schmidt, cited above).

25.

As regards the medical supervision of the administration of the emetics, the Court notes that the impugned measure was carried out by a doctor in a hospital. In addition, after the measure was executed the applicant was examined by a doctor and declared fit for detention. However, it is a matter of dispute between the parties whether an anamnesis of the applicant was obtained prior to the execution of the measure in order to ascertain whether his health might be at risk if emetics were administered to him against his will. Since the applicant violently resisted the administration of the emetics and spoke no German and only broken English, the assumption must be that he was either unable or unwilling to answer any questions that were put by the doctor or to submit to a prior medical examination. The Government have not submitted any documentary or other evidence to show otherwise.

26.

As to the effects of the impugned measure on the suspect's health, the Court notes that the parties disagree about whether the applicant has suffered any lasting damage to his health, notably to his stomach. Having regard to the material before it, it finds that it has not been established that either his treatment for stomach troubles in the prison hospital two and a half months after his arrest or any subsequent medical treatment he received was caused by the forcible administration of the emetics. This conclusion does not, of course, call into question the Court's above finding that the forcible medical intervention was not without possible risk to the applicant's health.

27.

Having regard to all the circumstances of the case, the Court finds that the impugned measure attained the minimum level of severity required to bring it within the scope of Article 3. The authorities subjected the applicant to a grave interference with his physical and mental integrity against his will. They forced him to regurgitate, not for therapeutic reasons, but in order to retrieve evidence they could equally have obtained by less intrusive methods. The manner in which the impugned measure was carried out was liable to arouse in the applicant feelings of fear, anguish and inferiority that were capable of humiliating and debasing him. Furthermore, the procedure entailed risks to the applicant's health, not least because of the failure to obtain a proper anamnesis beforehand. Although this was not the intention, the measure was implemented in a way which caused the applicant both physical pain and mental suffering. He therefore has been subjected to inhuman and degrading treatment contrary to Article 3.

28.

Accordingly, the Court concludes that there has been a violation of Article 3 of the Convention.’

II. Alleged violation of Article 8 of the Convention

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29

In the applicant's submission, the administration of emetics by force also amounted to a disproportionate interference with his right to respect for his private life. He invoked Article 8 of the Convention, which, in so far as relevant, reads:

‘1. Everyone has the right to respect for his private ... life ...

2. There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.’

30

The Government disagreed with that submission.

31

The Court has already examined the applicant's complaint concerning the forcible administration of emetics to him under Article 3 of the Convention. In view of its conclusion that there has been a violation of that provision, it finds that no separate issue arises under Article 8 of the Convention.

III. Alleged violation of Article 6 of the Convention

32

The applicant further considered that his right to a fair trial guaranteed by Article 6 of the Convention had been infringed by the use at his trial of the evidence obtained by the administration of the emetics. He claimed in particular that his right not to incriminate himself had been violated. Article 6, in so far as relevant, provides:

‘In the determination of ... any criminal charge against him, everyone is entitled to a fair ... hearing ... by [a] ... tribunal...’

33

The Government contested this view.

A.

The parties’ submissions

‘1.The applicant

34.

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In the applicant's view, the administration of the emetics was illegal and violated Articles 3 and 8 of the Convention. As the evidence thereby obtained had formed the sole basis for his conviction, the criminal proceedings against him had been unfair.

35.

The applicant further argued that by forcing him against his will to produce evidence of an offence the authorities had violated his right not to incriminate himself and therefore his right to a fair trial. The principle against self-incrimination was not limited to statements obtained by coercion, but extended to objects so obtained. Moreover, the facts of his case were distinguishable from those in the Saunders v. the United Kingdom case. Unlike the cases of blood or DNA testing referred to by the Court in its judgment in that case, the administration of emetics entailed the use of chemical substances that provoked an unnatural and involuntary activity of the body in order to obtain the evidence. His refusal to swallow the emetics was overcome by the use of considerable force. Therefore, the evidence that had been obtained had not existed independently of his will and he had been forced actively to contribute to his own conviction. The administration of emetics was comparable to the administration of a truth serum to obtain a confession, a practice which was expressly forbidden by section 136a of the Code of Criminal Procedure. He referred to the judgment of the Frankfurt (Main) Court of Appeal of 11 October 1996 in support of his contention.

2.The Government

36.

In the Government's view, the administration of the emetics to the applicant had not contravened either Article 3 or Article 8 of the Convention. Consequently, the use of the drug bubbles thereby obtained as evidence in the criminal proceedings against the applicant had not rendered his trial unfair. Determining the exact nature, amount and quality of the drugs being sold by the applicant had been a crucial factor in securing the applicant's conviction and passing sentence.

37.

The Government further submitted that the right not to incriminate oneself only prohibited forcing a person to act against his or her will. Provoking an emesis was a mere reaction of the body which could not be controlled by a person's will, and was therefore not prohibited by the principle against self-incrimination. The suspect was not thereby forced to contribute actively to securing the evidence. The accused's initial refusal to take the emetics could not be relevant, as otherwise all investigative measures aimed at breaking a suspect's will to conceal evidence, such as taking blood samples by force or searching houses, would be prohibited.

38.

Moreover, the Government argued that according to the Court's judgment in the case of Saunders v. the United Kingdom, drugs obtained by the forcible administration of emetics were admissible in evidence. If it was possible to use bodily fluids or cells as evidence, then a fortiori it had to be possible to use objects which were not part of the defendant's body. Furthermore, the administration of emetics, which the applicant merely had to endure passively, was not comparable to the administration of a truth serum as

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prohibited by section 136a of the Code of Criminal Procedure, which broke the suspect's will not to testify.’

B.

The Court's assessment

‘1.General principles established under the Court's case-law

39.

The Court reiterates that its duty, according to Article 19 of the Convention, is to ensure the observance of the engagements undertaken by the Contracting States to the Convention. In particular, it is not its function to deal with errors of fact or of law allegedly committed by a national court unless and in so far as they may have infringed rights and freedoms protected by the Convention. While Article 6 guarantees the right to a fair hearing, it does not lay down any rules on the admissibility of evidence as such, which is primarily a matter for regulation under national law (see Schenk v. Switzerland, judgment of 12 July 1988, Series A no. 140, p. 29, §§ 45–46; Teixeira de Castro v. Portugal, judgment of 9 June 1998, Reports 1998-IV, p. 1462, § 34).

40.

It is therefore not the role of the Court to determine, as a matter of principle, whether particular types of evidence — for example, evidence obtained unlawfully in terms of domestic law — may be admissible or, indeed, whether the applicant was guilty or not. The question which must be answered is whether the proceedings as a whole, including the way in which the evidence was obtained, were fair. This involves an examination of the ‘unlawfulness’ in question and, where violation of another Convention right is concerned, the nature of the violation found (see, inter alia, Khan v. the United Kingdom, no. 35394/97, § 34, ECHR 2000–V; P.G. and J.H. v. the United Kingdom, no. 44787/98, § 76, ECHR 2001-IX; Allan v. the United Kingdom, no. 48539/99, § 42, ECHR 2002-IX).

41.

In determining whether the proceedings as a whole were fair, regard must also be had to whether the rights of the defence have been respected. It must be examined in particular whether the applicant was given the opportunity of challenging the authenticity of the evidence and of opposing its use. In addition, the quality of the evidence must be taken into consideration, including whether the circumstances in which it was obtained cast doubts on its reliability or accuracy. While no problem of fairness necessarily arises where the evidence obtained was unsupported by other material, it may be noted that where the evidence is very strong and there is no risk of its being unreliable, the need for supporting evidence is correspondingly weaker (see, inter alia, Khan, cited above, §§ 35, 37; Allan, cited above, § 43).

42.

The general requirements of fairness contained in Article 6 apply to all criminal proceedings, irrespective of the type of offence at issue. Nevertheless, when determining whether the proceedings as a whole have been fair the weight of the public interest in the investigation and punishment of the particular offence at issue may be taken into consideration and be weighed against the individual interest that the evidence against

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him be gathered lawfully. However, public interest concerns cannot justify measures which extinguish the very essence of an applicant's defence rights, including the privilege against self-incrimination guaranteed by Article 6 of the Convention (see, mutatis mutandis, Heaney and McGuinness v. Ireland, no. 34720/97, §§ 57–58, ECHR 2000-XII).

43.

As regards, in particular, the examination of the nature of the Convention violation found the Court recalls that notably in the cases of Khan (cited above, §§ 25–28) and P.G. and J.H. v. the United Kingdom (cited above, §§ 37–38) it has found the use of covert listening devices to be in breach of Article 8 since recourse to such devices lacked a legal basis in domestic law and the interferences with those applicants’ right to respect for private life were not ‘in accordance with the law’. Nonetheless, the admission in evidence of information obtained thereby did not in the circumstances of the cases conflict with the requirements of fairness guaranteed by Article 6 § 1.

44.

However, different considerations apply to evidence recovered by a measure found to violate Article 3. An issue may arise under Article 6 § 1 in respect of evidence obtained in violation of Article 3 of the Convention, even if the admission of such evidence was not decisive in securing the conviction (see İçöz v. Turkey (dec.), no. 54919/00, 9 January 2003; and Koç v. Turkey (dec.), no. 32580/96, 23 September 2003). The Court reiterates in this connection that Article 3 enshrines one of the most fundamental values of democratic societies. Even in the most difficult circumstances, such as the fight against terrorism and organised crime, the Convention prohibits in absolute terms torture and inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, irrespective of the victim's conduct. Unlike most of the substantive clauses of the Convention, Article 3 makes no provision for exceptions and no derogation from it is permissible under Article 15 § 2 even in the event of a public emergency threatening the life of the nation (see, inter alia, Chahal v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 15 November 1996, Reports 1996–V, p. 1855, § 79; and Selmouni v. France[GC], no. 25803/94, § 95, ECHR 1999–V).

45.

As regards the use of evidence obtained in breach of the right to silence and the privilege against self-incrimination, the Court recalls that these are generally recognised international standards which lie at the heart of the notion of a fair procedure under Article 6. Their rationale lies, inter alia, in the protection of the accused against improper compulsion by the authorities, thereby contributing to the avoidance of miscarriages of justice and to the fulfilment of the aims of Article 6. The right not to incriminate oneself, in particular, presupposes that the prosecution in a criminal case seek to prove their case against the accused without resort to evidence obtained through methods of coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused (see, inter alia, Saunders v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 17 December 1996, Reports 1996-VI, p. 2064, § 68; Heaney and McGuinness, cited above, § 40; J.B. v.Switzerland, no. 31827/96, § 64, ECHR 2001-III; and Allan, cited above, § 44).

46.

In examining whether a procedure has extinguished the very essence of the privilege against self-incrimination, the Court will have regard, in particular, to the following

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elements: the nature and degree of the compulsion, the existence of any relevant safeguards in the procedures and the use to which any material so obtained is put (see, for example, Tirado Ortiz and Lozano Martin v. Spain (dec.), no. 43486/98, ECHR 1999–V; Heaney and McGuinness, cited above, §§ 51–55; and Allan, cited above, § 44).

47.

The Court has consistently held, however, that the right not to incriminate oneself is primarily concerned with respecting the will of an accused person to remain silent. As commonly understood in the legal systems of the Contracting Parties to the Convention and elsewhere, it does not extend to the use in criminal proceedings of material which may be obtained from the accused through the use of compulsory powers but which has an existence independent of the will of the suspect such as, inter alia, documents acquired pursuant to a warrant, breath, blood, urine, hair or voice samples and bodily tissue for the purpose of DNA testing (see Saunders, cited above, pp. 2064–65, § 69; Choudhary v. the United Kingdom (dec.), no. 40084/98, 4 May 1999; J.B. v.Switzerland, cited above, § 68; and P.G. and J.H. v. the United Kingdom, cited above, § 80).

2.Application of those principles to the present case

48.

In determining whether in the light of these principles the criminal proceedings against the applicant can be considered fair, the Court notes at the outset that the evidence secured through the administration of emetics to the applicant was not obtained ‘unlawfully’ in breach of domestic law. It recalls in this connection that the national courts found that section 81a of the Code of Criminal Procedure permitted the impugned measure.

49.

The Court held above that the applicant was subjected to inhuman and degrading treatment contrary to the substantive provisions of Article 3 when emetics were administered to him in order to force him to regurgitate the drugs he had swallowed. The evidence used in the criminal proceedings against the applicant was thus obtained as a direct result of a violation of one of the core rights guaranteed by the Convention.

50.

As noted above, the use of evidence obtained in violation of Article 3 in criminal proceedings raises serious issues as to the fairness of such proceedings. The Court has not found in the instant case that the applicant was subjected to torture. In its view, incriminating evidence — whether in the form of a confession or real evidence — obtained as a result of acts of violence or brutality or other forms of treatment which can be characterised as torture — should never be relied on as proof of the victim's guilt, irrespective of its probative value. Any other conclusion would only serve to legitimate indirectly the sort of morally reprehensible conduct which the authors of Article 3 of the Convention sought to proscribe or, as it was so well put in the US Supreme Court's judgment in the Rochin case (see paragraph 50 above), to ‘afford brutality the cloak of law’. It notes in this connection that Article 15 of the UN Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment provides that statements

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which are established to have been made as a result of torture shall not be used in evidence in proceedings against the victim of torture.

51.

Although the treatment to which the applicant was subjected did not attract the special stigma reserved to acts of torture, it did attain in the circumstances the minimum level of severity covered by the ambit of the Article 3 prohibition. It cannot be excluded that on the facts of a particular case the use of evidence obtained by intentional acts of ill-treatment not amounting to torture will render the trial against the victim unfair irrespective of the seriousness of the offence allegedly committed, the weight attached to the evidence and the opportunities which the victim had to challenge its admission and use at his trial.

52.

In the present case, the general question whether the use of evidence obtained by an act qualified as inhuman and degrading treatment automatically renders a trial unfair can be left open. The Court notes that, even if it was not the intention of the authorities to inflict pain and suffering on the applicant, the evidence was obtained by a measure which breached one of the core rights guaranteed by the Convention. Furthermore, it was common ground between the parties that the drugs obtained by the impugned measure were the decisive element in securing the applicant's conviction. It is true that, as was equally uncontested, the applicant was given the opportunity, which he took, of challenging the use of the drugs obtained by the impugned measure. However, any discretion on the part of the national courts to exclude that evidence could not come into play as they considered the administration of emetics to be authorised by the domestic law. Moreover, the public interest in securing the applicant's conviction cannot be considered to have been of such weight as to warrant allowing that evidence to be used at the trial. As noted above, the measure targeted a street dealer selling drugs on a relatively small scale who was finally given a six months’ suspended prison sentence and probation.

53.

In these circumstances, the Court finds that the use in evidence of the drugs obtained by the forcible administration of emetics to the applicant rendered his trial as a whole unfair.

54.

This finding is of itself a sufficient basis on which to conclude that the applicant was denied a fair trial in breach of Article 6. However, it considers it appropriate to address also the applicant's argument that the manner in which the evidence was obtained and the use made of it undermined his right not to incriminate himself. To that end, it will examine, firstly, whether this particular right was relevant to the circumstances of the applicant's case and, in the affirmative, whether it has been breached.

55.

As regards the applicability of the principle against self-incrimination in this case, the Court observes that the use at the trial of ‘real’ evidence — as opposed to a confession — obtained by forcible interference with the applicant's bodily integrity is at issue. It notes that the privilege against self-incrimination is commonly understood in the Contracting

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States and elsewhere to be primarily concerned with respecting the will of the defendant to remain silent in the face of questioning and not to be compelled to provide a statement.

56.

However, the Court has on occasion given the principle of self-incrimination as protected under Article 6 § 1a broader meaning so as to encompass cases in which coercion to hand over real evidence to the authorities was at issue. In the Funke case (cited above, p. 22, § 44), for instance, the Court found that an attempt to compel the applicant to disclose documents, and thereby to provide evidence of offences he had allegedly committed, violated his right not to incriminate himself. Similarly, in J.B. v. Switzerland (cited above, §§ 63–71) the Court considered the State authorities’ attempt to compel the applicant to submit documents which might have provided information about tax evasion to be in breach of the principle against self-incrimination (in its broader sense).

57.

In the Saunders case, the Court considered that the principle against self-incrimination did not cover ‘material which may be obtained from the accused through the use of compulsory powers but which has an existence independent of the will of the suspect such as, inter alia, documents acquired pursuant to a warrant, breath, blood and urine samples and bodily tissue for the purpose of DNA testing’ (cited above, pp. 2064–65, § 69).

58.

In the Court's view, the evidence at issue in the present case, namely, drugs hidden in the applicant's body which were obtained by the forcible administration of emetics, could be considered to fall into the category of material having an existence independent of the will of the suspect, the use of which is generally not prohibited in criminal proceedings. However, there are several elements which distinguish the present case from the examples listed in Saunders. Firstly, as with the impugned measures in the Funke and J.B. v. Switzerland cases, the administration of emetics was used to retrieve real evidence in defiance of the applicant's will. Conversely, the bodily material listed in the Saunders case concerned material obtained by coercion for forensic examination with a view to detecting, for example, the presence of alcohol or drugs.

59.

Secondly, the degree of force used in the present case differs significantly from the degree of compulsion normally required to obtain the types of material referred to in the Saunders case. To obtain such material, a defendant is requested to endure passively a minor interference with his physical integrity (for example when blood or hair samples or bodily tissue are taken). Even if the defendant's active participation is required, it can be seen from Saunders that this concerns material produced by the normal functioning of the body (such as, for example, breath, urine or voice samples). In contrast, compelling the applicant in the instant case to regurgitate the evidence sought required the forcible introduction of a tube through his nose and the administration of a substance so as to provoke a pathological reaction in his body. As noted earlier, this procedure was not without risk to the applicant's health.

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60.

Thirdly, the evidence in the present case was obtained by means of a procedure which violated Article 3. The procedure used in the applicant's case is in striking contrast to procedures for obtaining, for example, a breath test or a blood sample. Procedures of the latter kind do not, unless in exceptional circumstances, attain the minimum level of severity so as to contravene Article 3. Moreover, though constituting an interference with the suspect's right to respect for private life, these procedures are, in general, justified under Article 8 § 2 as being necessary for the prevention of criminal offences (see, inter alia, Tirado Ortiz and Lozano Martin, cited above).

61.

Consequently, the principle against self-incrimination is applicable to the present proceedings.

62.

In order to determine whether the applicant's right not to incriminate himself has been violated, the Court will have regard, in turn, to the following factors: the nature and degree of compulsion used to obtain the evidence; the weight of the public interest in the investigation and punishment of the offence at issue; the existence of any relevant safeguards in the procedure; and the use to which any material so obtained is put.

63.

As regards the nature and degree of compulsion used to obtain the evidence in the present case, the Court reiterates that forcing the applicant to regurgitate the drugs significantly interfered with his physical and mental integrity. The applicant had to be immobilised by four policemen, a tube was fed through his nose into his stomach and chemical substances were administered to him in order to force him to surrender up the evidence sought by means of a pathological reaction of his body. This treatment was found to be inhuman and degrading and therefore to violate Article 3.

64.

As regards the weight of the public interest in using the evidence to secure the applicant's conviction, the Court observes that, as noted above, the impugned measure targeted a street dealer who was offering drugs for sale on a comparably small scale and was finally given a six months’ suspended prison sentence and probation. In the circumstances of the instant case, the public interest in securing the applicant's conviction could not justify recourse to such a grave interference with his physical and mental integrity.

65.

Turning to the existence of relevant safeguards in the procedure, the Court observes that section 81a of the Code of Criminal Procedure prescribed that bodily intrusions had to be carried out lege artis by a doctor in a hospital and only if there was no risk of damage to the defendant's health. Although it can be said that domestic law did in general provide for safeguards against arbitrary or improper use of the measure, the applicant, relying on his right to remain silent, refused to submit to a prior medical examination. He could only

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communicate in broken English, which meant that he was subjected to the procedure without a full examination of his physical aptitude to withstand it.

66.

As to the use to which the evidence obtained was put, the Court reiterates that the drugs obtained following the administration of the emetics were the decisive evidence in his conviction for drug-trafficking. It is true that the applicant was given and took the opportunity to oppose the use at his trial of this evidence. However, and as noted above, any possible discretion the national courts may have had to exclude the evidence could not come into play, as they considered the impugned treatment to be authorised by national law.

67.

Having regard to the foregoing, the Court would also have been prepared to find that allowing the use at the applicant's trial of evidence obtained by the forcible administration of emetics infringed his right not to incriminate himself and therefore rendered his trial as a whole unfair.

68.

Accordingly, there has been a violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention.

(…)’

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NJ 2008, 25

Instantie: Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens (Grote kamer) Datum: 29 juni 2007

Magistraten:

J.-P. Costa, L. Wildhaber, C.L. Rozakis, Sir Nicolas Bratza, B.M. Zupančič, R. Türmen, V. Butkevych, J. Casadevall, M. Pellonpää, S. Botoucharova, S. Pavlovschi, L. Garlicki, J. Borrego Borrego, A. Gyulumyan, L. Mijović, E. Myjer, J. Šikuta

Zaaknr: 15809/02, 25624/02

Conclusie: - LJN: BB3173

Noot: E.A. Alkema Roepnaam: -

Wetingang: EVRM art. 6 lid 1, 6 lid 2

Snel naar: EssentieSamenvattingPartij(en)UitspraakNoot

EssentieNaar boven

Zwijgrecht en nemo tenetur-beginsel. Via boetebedreiging toegepaste dwang bij het verkrijgen van inlichtingen omtrent verkeersdelict. Gebruik van onder directe dwang verkregen verklaring respectievelijk veroordeling voor het niet meewerken aan de inlichtingenplicht. Fair trial-beginsel niet geschonden.

SamenvattingNaar boven

Verzoekers zijn kentekenhouders van voertuigen die door middel van een flitspaal zijn geregistreerd bij een snelheidsovertreding. Op basis van de Road Traffic Act 1988 worden zij gevraagd inlichtingen te verstrekken over de identiteit van de bestuurders van de voertuigen op het moment van de snelheidsovertreding. O'Halloran verklaart zelf bestuurder te zijn geweest. Later trekt hij zijn verklaring in. Desondanks wordt hij veroordeeld. Francis weigert de inlichtingen te verstrekken en wordt wegens dat verzuim vervolgd en veroordeeld. Is in strijd gehandeld met het zwijgrecht en het nemo tenetur-beginsel?

Het zwijgrecht en het nemo tenetur-beginsel zijn niet absoluut. Van belang zijn de aard en mate van toegepaste dwang bij de bewijsverkrijging, het bestaan van eventuele waarborgen bij die procedure en het gebruik van aldus verkregen materiaal.

In de onderhavige gevallen was er sprake van directe dwang. Die dwang en de onderliggende delicten zijn punitief van aard. Aan het wettelijk regime ten aanzien van verkeersdelicten ligt de gedachte ten grondslag dat eigendom en gebruik van voertuigen potentieel ernstig lichamelijk letsel kan veroorzaken. De dwang is beperkt: zij betreft alleen relevante delicten en de identiteit van de bestuurder. De strafbedreiging is niet aanzienlijk en niet vrijheidsbenemend. O'Halloran heeft het gebruik van zijn verklaring in zijn strafvervolging voor de snelheidsovertreding (zonder succes) aangevochten. De bewijslast bleef bij de aanklager en verzoeker kon zelf bewijs inbrengen en getuigen oproepen indien hij dat wenselijk had geacht. De identiteit van de bestuurder betreft

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maar één element van het delict: inlichtingen verkregen via sectie 172 RTA 1988 kunnen niet de uitsluitende basis voor een veroordeling zijn.

Nu Francis geen verklaring heeft afgelegd is het gebruik daarvan niet aan de orde. Gelet op de omstandigheden van het geval, waaronder de bijzondere aard van het wettelijk regime dat aan de orde is en de beperkte aard van de inlichtingen die kunnen worden gevorderd, is het Hof van oordeel dat de essentie van het zwijgrecht en het nemo tenetur-beginsel niet is tenietgedaan. Het Hof komt eveneens tot het oordeel dat geen afzonderlijke kwesties in verband met art. 6 lid 2 EVRM aan de orde zijn.

Het Hof oordeelt met 15 stemmen tegen 2 dat art. 6 lid 1 EVRM niet is geschonden. Rechter Borrego Borrego heeft in deze zaak een concurring opinion geschreven. Rechters Pavlovschi en Myjer hebben dissenting opinions geschreven.

Partij(en)Naar boven

O'Halloran en Francis,

tegen

Verenigd Koninkrijk.

UitspraakNaar boven

De feiten

Verzoekers zijn kentekenhouders van voertuigen die door middel van een flitspaal zijn geregistreerd bij een snelheidsovertreding. Zij worden door de politie schriftelijk in kennis gesteld van de overtreding alsmede van het voornemen tot vervolging van de bestuurder over te gaan. Op basis van sectie 172 van de Road Traffic Act 1988 (RTA 1988) wordt hun gevraagd inlichtingen te verstrekken over de identiteit van de bestuurders van de voertuigen op het moment van de snelheidsovertreding. Het niet verstrekken van deze informatie is op basis van sectie 172 RTA 1988 strafbaar. Voor dat feit kan dezelfde boete worden opgelegd als voor de onderliggende snelheidsovertreding. O'Halloran voldoet aan het verzoek een geeft aan zelf de bestuurder te zijn geweest. Hij wordt vervolgd voor de snelheidsovertreding. Zijn verzoek om uitsluiting van zijn eerder afgelegde verklaring als bewijs wordt niet gehonoreerd en hij wordt veroordeeld tot een boete van 100 GBP en betaling van kosten (150 GBP). Ook worden zes strafpunten toegevoegd aan zijn rijbewijs. De veroordeling berust mede op zijn bekentenis en op een bij de snelheidsovertreding gemaakte foto. Zijn appelverzoek wordt afgewezen.

Francis weigert de inlichtingen te verstrekken en wordt wegens dat verzuim vervolgd. Hij wordt veroordeeld tot 750 GBP en betaling van kosten (250 GBP). Aan zijn rijbewijs worden drie strafpunten toegevoegd.

Verzoekers dienden op respectievelijk 3 april 2002 en 15 november 2001 een klacht in bij het EHRM, waarin zij klaagden over schending van art. 6 lid 1 en lid 2 EVRM, in het bijzonder hun zwijgrecht, het nemo tenetur-beginsel en de onschuldpresumptie.

O'Halloran klaagt erover dat zijn veroordeling voor een verkeersdelict uitsluitend of in overwegende mate berustte op de verklaring die hij onder dwang heeft afgelegd, onder dreiging van een boete die vergelijkbaar is met de boete die op het delict zelf staat.

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Francis klaagt erover dat hij werd gedwongen belastend bewijs te leveren ten aanzien van het delict waarvan hij werd verdacht, zulks in strijd was met het nemo tenetur-beginsel.

De klachten werden op 26 oktober 2004 gevoegd en op 25 oktober 2005 ontvankelijk verklaard. Op 11 april 2006 stond de kamer rechtsmacht af aan de Grote Kamer.

UitspraakNaar boven

EHRM:

The Law

Alleged violation of Article 6 §§ 1 and 2 of the Convention

32

The applicants complained that they had been subject to compulsion to give incriminating evidence in violation of the right to remain silent and the privilege against self-incrimination. Article 6 of the Convention provides, so far as relevant, as follows:

‘1. In the determination of … any criminal charge against him, everyone is entitled to a fair … hearing … by [a]… tribunal…

2. Everyone charged with a criminal offence shall be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law.’

A. Applicability of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention

33

The applicants submitted that the criminal limb of Article 6 § 1 was applicable in their case because each of them had received a Notice of Intended Prosecution, and each of them was fined, Mr O'Halloran for driving in excess of the speed limit, and Mr Francis for refusing to give the name of the driver on the occasion at issue.

34

The Government did not suggest that Article 6 § 1 was not applicable to the cases.

35

The Court finds that the applicants were ‘substantially affected’ by the Notices of Intended Prosecution they received, such that they were ‘charged’ with their respective speeding offences within the autonomous meaning of that term in Article 6 of the Convention (see Serves v. France, judgment of 20 October 1997, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1997-VI, p. 2172, § 42). In any event, Article 6 of the Convention can be applicable to cases of compulsion to give evidence even in the absence of any other proceedings, or where an applicant is acquitted in the underlying proceedings (Funke v.

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France, judgment of 25 February 1993, Series A no. 256-A, §§ 39 and 40 and Heaney and McGuinness v. Ireland, no. 34720/97, §§ 43–45, ECHR 2000-XII).

36

The Court accepts that Article 6 is applicable in the present case.

B. Compliance with Article 6 § 1 of the Convention

1. The parties' submissions

37

The Government submitted that the privilege against self-incrimination and the right to remain silent were not absolute and their application could be limited by reference to other legitimate aims in the public interest. In addition to the cases on the right to remain silent (e.g. Saunders v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 17 December 1996, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996-VI, § 62), they referred to the limitations on access to court (e.g. Ashingdane v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 28 May 1985, Series A no. 93, § 58), to case-law showing that in certain circumstances Contracting States were permitted to reverse the onus of proof of certain matters provided that this did not disturb the fair balance between the interests of the individual and the general interests of the community (e.g. Salabiaku v. France, judgment of 7 October 1988, Series A no. 141-A, § 28), to acceptable limitations on the rights of the defence in cases on equality of arms (Fitt v. the United Kingdom[GC], no. 29777/96, § 45, ECHR 2000-II) and the questioning of witnesses (S.N. v. Sweden, no. 34209/96, § 47, ECHR 2002-V) and also to the general principle that it is primarily for national law to regulate the admissibility of evidence, including incriminating evidence (e.g. Khan v. the United Kingdom, no. 35394/97, § 38, ECHR 2000-V).

38

The Government argued that the power under section 172 to obtain an answer to the question who was driving a car when a suspected motoring offence was committed and to use that answer as evidence in a prosecution or, alternatively, to prosecute a person who failed to provide information was compatible with Article 6. There were very good reasons why the owner should be required to identify the driver: driving offences are intended to deter dangerous conduct which causes risk to the public and deterrence depended on effective enforcement (research showed that speed cameras etc had reduced crashes by up to 28%), there was no obvious generally effective alternative to the power contained in section 172 and without such a power it would be impossible to investigate and prosecute traffic offences effectively, and the simple fact of being the driver of a motor car was not in itself incriminating. Nor did section 172 breach the presumption of innocence as the overall burden of proof remained on the prosecution. It provided for the putting of a single question in particular circumstances and all the usual protections against the use of unreliable evidence or evidence obtained by improper means remained in place, while the maximum penalty was only a fine of GBP 1,000.

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39

The Government considered that the use of section 172 was more limited in its effect on drivers than would-be alternatives such as the drawing of adverse inferences from a failure on the part of a registered keeper to provide the name of the driver when required to do so, or a statutory presumption of fact that the registered driver was the driver at the material time unless he showed otherwise. The Government also considered that the very fact that other legislative techniques could bring about substantially the same result indicated that questions of proportionality — rather than the absolute nature of the rights suggested by the applicants in cases of direct compulsion — were at issue.

40

The applicants submitted that the serious problem caused by the misuse of motor vehicles was not sufficient to justify a system of compulsion which extinguished the essence of the rights under Article 6. The relatively minor nature of the penalties was irrelevant as the Article 6 rights, including the principle against self-incrimination and right to remain silent, applied to criminal proceedings of all kinds without distinction. They disputed that there was no obvious alternative, asserting that methods of indirect compulsion, or the use of incriminating information obtained compulsorily outside the context of the criminal proceedings themselves, would achieve the same end. They argued that an actual or potential defendant could not be compelled on pain of penalty to provide information which only he was capable of providing and which could not be provided by documents or physical evidence independent of his will. The prosecution were required to prove their case without recourse to coercion in defiance of the will of the accused.

41

The applicants considered that the existence of other legislative techniques in bringing about the same or similar results but in a manner less intrusive of the rights of the accused (the drawing of adverse inferences from a failure to answer questions, or establishing a statutory presumption of fact that the registered owner was the driver unless he or she provided evidence to the contrary), confirmed that the existing regime was not strictly necessary in a democratic society.

42

They recalled that in the cases of Saunders and Heaney and McGuinness (both cited above) the Court had held that the public interest could not be invoked to justify the use of answers compulsorily obtained. They rejected the Government's arguments that there was any protection against use of the material in the provisions of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE) as sections 76 and 78 of PACE could not exclude testimony collected in accordance with a statutory provision. As the applicants had been subject to pending criminal proceedings and not a purely regulatory inquiry when subjected to direct compulsion, there had therefore been breaches of both Article 6 §§ 1 and 2 of the Convention.

2. The Court's assessment

(a) Introduction

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43

The Court first notes that the applicants were in different factual situations. Mr O'Halloran accepted that he had been the driver on the occasion at issue, and attempted, unsuccessfully, to have that evidence excluded from his trial. He was then convicted of speeding. Mr Francis refused to give the name of the driver at the time and date referred to in his Notice of Intended Prosecution, and was convicted for the refusal. The case of Mr O'Halloran appears at first sight to resemble the case of Saunders (referred to above), in which the applicant complained of the use in criminal proceedings of evidence which, he claimed, had been obtained in breach of Article 6. Mr Francis' case, on the other hand, would seem to be more similar to the cases of Funke (cited above), J.B. v. Switzerland (no. 31827/96, ECHR 2001-III), Heaney and McGuinness (cited above), and Shannon v. the United Kingdom, (no. 6563/03, 4 October 2005), in each of which the applicant was fined for not providing information, and in each of which the Court considered the fine independently of the existence or outcome of underlying proceedings.

44

The central issue in each case, however, is whether the coercion of a person who is the subject of a charge of speeding under section 172 of the Road Traffic Act 1988 (‘the 1998 Act’) to make statements which incriminate him or might lead to his incrimination is compatible with Article 6 of the Convention. To the extent possible, the Court will therefore consider the two cases together.

(b) The Court's case-law

45

In the case of Funke, the applicant was convicted for his failure to produce ‘papers and documents … relating to operations of interest to [the customs] department’ which they believed must exist (Article 65 of the Customs Code). The Court found that the attempt to compel the applicant himself to provide the evidence of the offences he had allegedly committed infringed his right to remain silent and not to contribute to incriminating himself (Funke, cited above, § 44). The Court elaborated no further on the nature of the right to remain silent and not to contribute to incriminating oneself.

46

The John Murray (judgment of 8 February 1996, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996-I) case concerned, amongst other things, the drawing of inferences from a person's silence during questioning and trial. The Court found that there was no doubt that ‘the right to remain silent under police questioning and the privilege against self-incrimination are generally recognised international standards which lie at the heart of the notion of a fair trial … By providing the accused with protection against improper compulsion by the authorities these immunities contribute to avoiding miscarriages of justice and to securing the aims of Article 6’ (John Murray, cited above, § 45). The Court saw two extremes. On the one hand, it was self-evident that it was incompatible with the immunities to base a conviction solely or mainly on the accused's silence or on a refusal to answer questions or to give evidence himself. On the other hand, the immunities could

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and should not prevent the accused's silence from being taken into account in situations which clearly called for an explanation. The conclusion was that the ‘right to remain silent’ was not absolute (ibid., § 47). In discussing the degree of compulsion in the case, the Court noted that the applicant's silence did not amount to a criminal offence or contempt of court, and that silence could not, in itself, be regarded as an indication of guilt (ibid., § 48). The Court thus distinguished the case from Funke, where the degree of compulsion had, in effect, ‘destroyed the very essence of the privilege against self-incrimination’ (ibid., § 49).

47

The case of Saunders concerned the use at the applicant's criminal trial of statements which had been obtained under legal compulsion under the Companies Act 1985. The domestic provisions required company officers to produce books and documents, to attend before inspectors and to assist inspectors in their investigation on pain of a fine or committal to prison for two years. The Court referred to the cases of John Murray and Funke, and found that the right not to incriminate oneself was primarily concerned with respecting the will of an accused person to remain silent. It did not extend to the use in criminal proceedings of material which may be obtained from the accused through the use of compulsory powers but which had an existence independent of the will of the suspect, such as breath, blood and urine samples. The Court held that the question whether the use made by the prosecution of the statements obtained from the applicant by the inspectors under compulsion amounted to an unjustifiable infringement of the right ‘had to be examined in the light of all the circumstances of the case’: in particular, it had to be determined whether the applicant had been subjected to compulsion to give evidence and whether the use made of the resulting testimony offended the basic principles of a fair procedure under Article 6 § 1 (Saunders, cited above §§ 67 and 69).

48

The applicant in the case of Serves (cited above) was called as a witness in proceedings in which he had initially been charged as an accused, although at the date of the witness summons and the subsequent proceedings the relevant steps of the investigation had been declared void. He declined to take the oath as a witness under the Code of Criminal Procedure on the ground that evidence he might be called to give before the investigating judge would have been self-incriminating. The Court accepted that it would have been admissible for the applicant to refuse to answer questions from the judge that were likely to steer him in the direction of self-incriminating evidence, but found on the facts that the fine in the case was imposed in order to ensure that statements were truthful, rather than to force the witness to give evidence. Accordingly, the fines were imposed before a risk of self-incrimination ever arose (Serves, cited above, §§ 43–47).

49

In the case of Heaney and McGuinness, the applicants, who had been arrested in connection with a bombing, declined to answer questions under special legislation requiring an individual to provide a full account of his movements and actions during a specified period. They were acquitted of the substantive offence, and imprisoned for failing to give an account of their movements. After reviewing the case-law and finding Article 6 §§ 1 and 2 to be applicable, the Court accepted that the right to remain silent and the right not to incriminate oneself were not absolute rights. It then found, after

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considering the various procedural protections available, that the ‘degree of compulsion’ imposed on the applicants, namely, a conviction and imprisonment for failing to give ‘a full account of [their] movements and actions during any specified period and all information in [their] possession in relation to the commission or intended commission …[of specified offences]’, ‘in effect destroyed the very essence of their privilege against self-incrimination and their right to remain silent’. Thereafter, the Court considered that the security and public order concerns relied on by the Government could not justify the provision (Heaney and McGuinness, cited above, §§ 47–58, with reference back to § 24).

50

The applicant in the case of Weh v. Austria (no. 38544/97, 8 April 2004) was fined for giving inaccurate information in reply to a request from the District Authority under the Motor Vehicles Act to disclose the name and address of the driver of his car on a particular date. Proceedings had already been opened against unknown offenders. The Court declined to rely on the earlier cases of P., R. and H. v. Austria (nos. 15135/89, 15136/89 and 15137/89, Commission's decision of 5 September 1989, Decisions and Reports 62, p. 319), and it noted that the applicant had been required to do no more than state a simple fact — who had been the driver of his car — which was not in itself incriminating. The Court found that in the case before it, there was no link between the criminal proceedings which had been initiated against persons unknown and the proceedings in which the applicant was fined for giving inaccurate information (Weh, referred to above, §§ 32–56).

51

In the case of Shannon (cited above) the applicant was required to give information to an investigator into theft and false accounting under the Proceeds of Crime (Northern Ireland) Order 1996. He did not attend an interview to give the information, and was fined. Although the applicant was acquitted in the underlying proceedings against him for false accounting and conspiracy to defraud arising from the same set of facts, the Court concluded that it was open to the applicant to complain of an interference with his right not to incriminate himself. As to a justification for the coercive measures, the Court recalled that not all coercive measures gave rise to a conclusion of an unjustified interference with the right not to incriminate oneself. The Court found that neither the security context nor the available procedural protection could justify the measures in the case (Shannon, cited above, §§ 26–40).

52

The case of Jalloh v. Germany ([GC], no. 54810/00, ECHR 2006-…) concerned the use of evidence in the form of drugs swallowed by the applicant, which had been obtained by the forcible administration of emetics. The Court considered the right to remain silent and the privilege against self-incrimination in the following terms:

‘94

…While Article 6 guarantees the right to a fair hearing, it does not lay down any rules on the admissibility of evidence as such, which is primarily a matter for regulation under national law (see Schenk v. Switzerland, judgment of 12 July 1988, Series A no. 140, p. 29, §§ 45–46; Teixeira de Castro v. Portugal, judgment of 9 June 1998, Reports 1998-IV, p. 1462, § 34). …

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100

As regards the use of evidence obtained in breach of the right to silence and the privilege against self-incrimination, the Court recalls that these are generally recognised international standards which lie at the heart of the notion of a fair procedure under Article 6. Their rationale lies, inter alia, in the protection of the accused against improper compulsion by the authorities, thereby contributing to the avoidance of miscarriages of justice and to the fulfilment of the aims of Article 6. The right not to incriminate oneself, in particular, presupposes that the prosecution in a criminal case seek to prove their case against the accused without resort to evidence obtained through methods of coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused (see, inter alia, Saunders v. the United Kingdom, […]§ 68; Heaney and McGuinness, cited above, § 40; J.B. v. Switzerland, no. 31827/96, § 64, ECHR 2001-III; and Allan[Allan v. the United Kingdom, no. 48539/99, ECHR 2002-IX], § 44).

101

In examining whether a procedure has extinguished the very essence of the privilege against self-incrimination, the Court will have regard, in particular, to the following elements: the nature and degree of the compulsion, the existence of any relevant safeguards in the procedures and the use to which any material so obtained is put (see, for example, Tirado Ortiz and Lozano Martin v. Spain (dec.), no. 43486/98, ECHR 1999-V; Heaney and McGuinness, cited above, §§ 51–55; and Allan, cited above, § 44).

102

The Court has consistently held, however, that the right not to incriminate oneself is primarily concerned with respecting the will of an accused person to remain silent. As commonly understood in the legal systems of the Contracting Parties to the Convention and elsewhere, it does not extend to the use in criminal proceedings of material which may be obtained from the accused through the use of compulsory powers but which has an existence independent of the will of the suspect…

113

In the Court's view, the evidence at issue in the present case, namely, drugs hidden in the applicant's body which were obtained by the forcible administration of emetics, could be considered to fall into the category of material having an existence independent of the will of the suspect, the use of which is generally not prohibited in criminal proceedings. However, there are several elements which distinguish the present case from the examples listed in Saunders. Firstly, as with the impugned measures in the Funke and J.B. v. Switzerland cases, the administration of emetics was used to retrieve real evidence in defiance of the applicant's will. Conversely, the bodily material listed in the Saunders case concerned material obtained by coercion for forensic examination with a view to detecting, for example, the presence of alcohol or drugs.

114

Secondly, the degree of force used in the present case differs significantly from the degree of compulsion normally required to obtain the types of material referred to in the Saunders case. To obtain such material, a defendant is requested to endure passively a minor interference with his physical integrity (for example when blood or hair samples or

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bodily tissue are taken). Even if the defendant's active participation is required, it can be seen from Saunders that this concerns material produced by the normal functioning of the body (such as, for example, breath, urine or voice samples). In contrast, compelling the applicant in the instant case to regurgitate the evidence sought required the forcible introduction of a tube through his nose and the administration of a substance so as to provoke a pathological reaction in his body. As noted earlier, this procedure was not without risk to the applicant's health.

115

Thirdly, the evidence in the present case was obtained by means of a procedure which violated Article 3. The procedure used in the applicant's case is in striking contrast to procedures for obtaining, for example, a breath test or a blood sample. Procedures of the latter kind do not, unless in exceptional circumstances, attain the minimum level of severity so as to contravene Article 3. Moreover, though constituting an interference with the suspect's right to respect for private life, these procedures are, in general, justified under Article 8 § 2 as being necessary for the prevention of criminal offences (see, inter alia, Tirado Ortiz and Lozano Martin, [(dec.), no. 43486/98, ECHR 1999-V]).

116

…[T]he principle against self-incrimination is applicable to the present proceedings.

117

In order to determine whether the applicant's right not to incriminate himself has been violated, the Court will have regard, in turn, to the following factors: the nature and degree of compulsion used to obtain the evidence; the weight of the public interest in the investigation and punishment of the offence at issue; the existence of any relevant safeguards in the procedure; and the use to which any material so obtained is put.’

(c) The Court's assessment

53

The applicants contended that the right to remain silent and the right not to incriminate oneself are absolute rights and that to apply any form of direct compulsion to require an accused person to make incriminatory statements against his will of itself destroys the very essence of that right. The Court is unable to accept this. It is true, as pointed out by the applicants, that in all the cases to date in which ‘direct compulsion’ was applied to require an actual or potential suspect to provide information which contributed, or might have contributed, to his conviction, the Court has found a violation of the applicant's privilege against self-incrimination. It does not, however, follow that any direct compulsion will automatically result in a violation. While the right to a fair trial under Article 6 is an unqualified right, what constitutes a fair trial cannot be the subject of a single unvarying rule but must depend on the circumstances of the particular case. This was confirmed in the specific context of the right to remain silent in the case of Heaney and McGuinness and, more recently, in the Court's Jalloh judgment, in which the Court identified the factors to which it would have regard in determining whether the applicant's privilege against self-incrimination had been violated.

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54

The applicants maintained that the Jalloh case was distinguishable from the present in that it concerned not the obtaining by compulsion of incriminatory statements but rather the use of ‘real’ evidence of the kind indicated in the Saunders judgment such as breath, blood and urine samples and thus was an exception to the general rule laid down in that judgment. The Court accepts that the factual circumstances of Jalloh were very different from the present case. It is nevertheless unpersuaded by the applicants' argument. Even if a clear distinction could be drawn in every case between the use of compulsion to obtain incriminatory statements on the one hand and ‘real’ evidence of an incriminatory nature on the other, the Court observes that the Jalloh case was not treated as one falling within the ‘real’ evidence exception in the Saunders judgment; on the contrary, the Court held that the case was to be treated as one of self-incrimination according to the broader meaning given to that term in the cases of Funke and J.B. v. Switzerland to encompass cases in which coercion to hand over incriminatory evidence was in issue (Jalloh, cited above, §§ 113–116).

55

In the light of the principles contained in its Jalloh judgment, and in order to determine whether the essence of the applicants' right to remain silent and privilege against self-incrimination was infringed, the Court will focus on the nature and degree of compulsion used to obtain the evidence, the existence of any relevant safeguards in the procedure, and the use to which any material so obtained was put.

56

The nature and degree of the compulsion used to obtain the evidence in the case of Mr O'Halloran, or to attempt to obtain the evidence in the case of Mr Francis, were set out in the Notice of Intended Prosecution each applicant received. They were informed that, as registered keepers of their vehicles, they were required to provide the full name and address of the driver at the time and on the occasion specified. They were each informed that failure to provide the information was a criminal offence under section 172 of the Road Traffic Act 1988. The penalty for failure by the applicants to give information was a fine of up to GBP 1,000, and disqualification from driving or an endorsement of three penalty points on their driving licence.

57

The Court accepts that the compulsion was of a direct nature, as was the compulsion in other cases in which fines were threatened or imposed for failure to provide information. In the present case, the compulsion was imposed in the context of section 172 of the Road Traffic Act, which imposes a specific duty on the registered keeper of a vehicle to give information about the driver of the vehicle in certain circumstances. The Court notes that although both the compulsion and the underlying offences were ‘criminal’ in nature, the compulsion flowed from the fact, as Lord Bingham expressed it in the Privy Council in the case of Brown v. Stott (see paragraph 31 above), that ‘All who own or drive motor cars know that by doing so they subject themselves to a regulatory regime. This regime is imposed not because owning or driving cars is a privilege or indulgence granted by the State but because the possession and use of cars (like, for example, shotguns …) are recognised to have the potential to cause grave injury’. Those who choose to keep and drive motor cars can be taken to have accepted certain responsibilities and obligations as

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part of the regulatory regime relating to motor vehicles, and in the legal framework of the United Kingdom, these responsibilities include the obligation, in the event of suspected commission of road traffic offences, to inform the authorities of the identity of the driver on that occasion.

58

A further aspect of the compulsion applied in the present cases is the limited nature of the inquiry which the police were authorised to undertake. Section 172 (2)(a) applies only where the driver of the vehicle is alleged to have committed a relevant offence, and authorises the police to require information only ‘as to the identity of the driver’. The information is thus markedly more restricted than in previous cases, in which applicants have been subjected to statutory powers requiring production of ‘papers and documents of any kind relating to operations of interest to [the] department’ (Funke, referred to above, § 30), or of ‘documents etc. which might be relevant for the assessment of taxes’ (J.B v. Switzerland, cited above, § 39). In the case of Heaney and McGuinness the applicants were required to give a ‘full account of [their] movements and actions during any specified period …’ (referred to above, § 24), and in that of Shannon, information could be sought (with only a limited legal professional privilege restriction) on any matter which appeared to the investigator to relate to the investigation (see reference at § 23 of the Shannon judgment referred to above). The information requested of the applicant in the case of Weh was limited, as in the present case, to ‘information as to who had driven a certain motor vehicle … at a certain time …’ (Weh judgment cited above, § 24). The Court found no violation of Article 6 in that case on the ground that no proceedings were pending or anticipated against him. It noted that the requirement to state a simple fact — who had been the driver of the car — was not in itself incriminating (ibid., §§ 53–54). Further, as Lord Bingham noted in Brown v. Stott (paragraph 31 above), section 172 does not sanction prolonged questioning about facts alleged to give rise to criminal offences, and the penalty for declining to answer is ‘moderate and non-custodial’.

59

The Court in the case of Jalloh referred to the existence of relevant safeguards in the procedure. In cases where the coercive measures of section 172 of the 1988 Act are applied, the Court notes that by section 172(4), no offence is committed under section 172(2)(a) if the keeper of the vehicle shows that he did not know and could not with reasonable diligence have known who the driver of the vehicle was. The offence is thus not one of strict liability, and the risk of unreliable admissions is negligible.

60

As to the use to which the statements were put, Mr O'Halloran's statement that he was the driver of his car was admissible as evidence of that fact by virtue of section 12(1) of the Road Traffic Offenders Act 1988 (see paragraph 27 above), and he was duly convicted of speeding. At his trial, he attempted to challenge the admission of the statement under sections 76 and 78 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, although the challenge was unsuccessful. It remained for the prosecution to prove the offence beyond reasonable doubt in ordinary proceedings, including protection against the use of unreliable evidence and evidence obtained by oppression or other improper means (but not including a challenge to the admissibility of the statement under section

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172), and the defendant could give evidence and call witnesses if he wished. Again as noted in the case of Brown v. Stott, the identity of the driver is only one element in the offence of speeding, and there is no question of a conviction arising in the underlying proceedings in respect solely of the information obtained as a result of section 172(2)(a).

61

As Mr Francis refused to make a statement, it could not be used in the underlying proceedings, and indeed the underlying proceedings were never pursued. The question of the use of the statements in criminal proceedings did not arise, as his refusal to make a statement was not used as evidence: it constituted the offence itself (see Allen v. the United Kingdom (dec.), no. 76574/01, ECHR 2002-VIII).

62

Having regard to all the circumstances of the case, including the special nature of the regulatory regime at issue and the limited nature of the information sought by a notice under section 172 of the Road Traffic Act 1988, the Court considers that the essence of the applicants' right to remain silent and their privilege against self-incrimination has not been destroyed.

63

Accordingly, there has been no violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention.

C. Article 6 § 2 of the Convention

64

The applicants referred to Article 6 § 2 of the Convention and the presumption of innocence in the course of their submissions, but made no separate complaint in respect of the provision.

65

The Court finds that no separate issue arises to be considered under Article 6 § 2 of the Convention.

(…)

Dissenting opinion of judge Myjer

1

I disagree with the opinion of the majority that there has been no violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention.

2

The dissenting opinion of Judge Pavlovschi contains many elements to which I fully subscribe. Even so, I have chosen to write my own dissenting opinion. This enables me

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to elaborate on points which are not mentioned in the dissenting opinion of Judge Pavlovschi. Besides, it saves me from indicating where I dissent from his dissent.

3

I take the Government's point that the definition in criminal law of driving offences is intended to deter dangerous conduct that may well cause serious harm and even injury to members of the public, that deterrence depends on effective enforcement, and that the authorities should have the power to investigate and prosecute traffic offences effectively. And it is clear that this is the case in all Contracting States. But I also agree with the applicants that the serious problem caused by the misuse of motor vehicles is not sufficient to justify a system of compulsion which extinguishes the essence of the rights under Article 6.

4

Practice shows that in order to be able to investigate and prosecute traffic offences effectively without unduly limiting the rights of the defence, a number of Contracting States have used various legislative techniques avoiding the pitfalls at issue in the present case. They have, for example, chosen to draw adverse inferences from a failure to answer questions, or established a statutory but rebuttable presumption of fact that the registered owner of the motor vehicle was the driver in question (see, for instance, Falk v. the Netherlands (dec.), no. 66273/01, 19 October 2004). The Government's argument that ‘the very fact that other legislative techniques could bring substantially about the same result indicates that questions of proportionality — rather than the absolute nature of the rights suggested by the applicants in cases of direct compulsion — were at issue’ (paragraph 39) is unconvincing. To put it plainly, if the desired result can be achieved by proceeding in a way that is both effective and right, then one should not choose a wrong way, however effective it may be. In my opinion the applicants were right in submitting that the United Kingdom has just chosen the wrong legal solution to deal with the problems caused by the misuse of motor vehicles.

5

Although this has not been expressly mentioned in the judgment, the majority find no violation because this case is about ‘implied consent’. In paragraph 57 of the judgment the majority — having quoted and endorsed the views of Lord Bingham in the case of Brown v. Stott — accept that ‘[t]hose who choose to keep and drive motor cars can be taken to have accepted certain responsibilities and obligations as part of the regulatory regime relating to motor violations, and in the legal framework of the United Kingdom, these responsibilities include the obligation, in the event of suspected commission of road traffic offences, to inform the authorities of the identity of the driver on that occasion.’ I do not agree with that view. Our own case-law makes it very clear that some rights under Article 6 can indeed be waived, provided that this is done unambiguously and in an unequivocal manner. But I sincerely doubt whether the majority accept the corollary which is unavoidable if the judgment in the present case is to be consistent with that case-law: under the British system, when it comes to the identity of the driver of a car, all those who own or drive cars are automatically presumed to have given up unambiguously and unequivocally the right to remain silent. Just to make this point clear: I accept that the driver of a car may be obliged to carry his driving licence with him and to surrender it to a police officer immediately when so requested, and also that

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the failure to do so may in itself be an offence. But, to use another phrase from the Court's case-law (Saunders v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 17 December 1996), a driving licence has ‘an existence independent of the will’ of the driver concerned. The licence may be read but the lips of the owner may remain sealed. In the criminal context the use of the right to remain silent should not be an offence in itself.

6

In quoting and endorsing the views of Lord Bingham, the majority in fact also seem to play the ‘public interest’ card in the form of a rather tricky new criterion which was first stated in § 117 (but not in § 101) of the Jalloh judgment in order to determine whether the right not to incriminate oneself has been violated: ‘the weight of the public interest in the investigation and punishment of the offence at issue’. This is, moreover, a new criterion which is incompatible with the established case-law that the use of incriminating statements obtained from the accused under compulsion in such a way as to extinguish the very essence of the right to remain silent, cannot in principle be justified by reference to the public interest served. Surprisingly, however, paragraph 55, which sets out the criteria on which the Court bases its examination ‘[i]n the light of the principles contained in its Jalloh judgment and in order to determine whether the essence of the applicant's right to remain silent and privilege against self-incrimination was infringed’, makes no mention of the public interest criterion: it only mentions the other Jalloh criteria (the nature and degree of compulsion used to obtain the evidence; the existence of any relevant safeguards in the procedure; and the use to which any material so obtained was put).

7

I accept that, having regard especially to this new Jalloh criterion, the present judgment might be considered as a legal continuum to that judgment. However, in my opinion, today's judgment also shows what may happen if ‘the weight of the public interest’ is allowed to play a role in deciding whether or not the right to remain silent should be upheld.

It is clear that I do not agree with the majority in this respect. Since, in paragraphs 35 and 36, the majority rightly accepted that (the criminal limb of) Article 6 is applicable in the present case (which is consistent with the reasoning in the Öztürk v. Germany judgment, 21 February 1984, Series A no. 73) it should, in my opinion, also have accepted that the right to remain silent ought to have been respected. That is not the case under the system in the United Kingdom, where Section 172 of the Road Traffic Act provides that where the driver of a vehicle is alleged to be guilty of an offence, the registered owner of that vehicle (or any other person) must give information as to the identity of the driver, even when he himself was the driver, and the registered owner who fails to give such information is guilty of an offence.

8

It is well known that the Court is faced with an enormous backlog. This has prompted, among other things, the new admissibility criterion that is due to be introduced by Protocol No. 14 to the Convention (the new Article 35 § 2 (b) of the Convention) which, if one will, the present judgment appears to anticipate for a particular category of cases. If in fact the majority had decided unequivocally that, in order to be able to deal with the real core human rights issues, a de minimis non curat praetor rule for this ‘Treaty of

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Rome’ was inevitable, which would mean reversing Öztürk and accepting that from now on the handling of traffic offences would no longer fall within the ambit of Article 6, then I might have agreed with such an approach. But my consent to such an approach would have had to be conditional on the provision of safeguards against abuse — and express, not implied.

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FIRST SECTION

CASE OF LÜCKHOF and SPANNER v. AUSTRIA

(Applications nos. 58452/00 and 61920/00)

JUDGMENT

STRASBOURG

10 January 2008

FINAL

10/04/2008

This judgment will become final in the circumstances set out in Article 44 § 2 of the Convention. It may be subject to editorial revision.

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In the case of Lückhof and Spanner v. Austria,

The European Court of Human Rights (First Section), sitting as a Chamber composed of:

Christos Rozakis, President,

Loukis Loucaides,

Nina Vajić,

Anatoli Kovler,

Elisabeth Steiner,

Khanlar Hajiyev,

Dean Spielmann, judges,

and André Wampach, Deputy Section Registrar,

Having deliberated in private on 6 December 2007,

Delivers the following judgment, which was adopted on that date:

PROCEDURE

1. The case originated in applications (nos. 58452/00 and 61920/00) against the Republic of Austria lodged with the Court under Article 34 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (“the Convention”) by two German nationals, Mr Burkhard Lückhof and Mr Helmut Spanner (“the applicants”), on 18 February and 30 August 2000 respectively.

2. The applicants were represented by Mr M. Freund, a lawyer practising in Vienna. The Austrian Government (“the Government”) were represented by their Agent, Ambassador F. Trauttmansdorff, Head of the International Law Department at the Federal Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The German Government did not make use of their right to intervene under Article 36 § 1 of the Convention.

3. The applicants complained that being compelled, as registered car keepers, to provide information on the identity of the driver on the occasion of the commission of a traffic offence violated their right to remain silent and not to incriminate themselves.

4. On 18 March 2004 the Court declared the applications admissible. By a decision of 1 June 2006 the Court decided to adjourn the proceedings pending the outcome of the Grand Chamber proceedings in O’Halloran and Francis v. the United Kingdom (nos. 15809/02 and 25624/02). Following the adoption of the judgment in that case the proceedings were resumed.

5. Neither of the parties made further observations on the merits (Rule 59 § 1).

THE FACTS

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I. THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE CASE

6. The first applicant was born in 1955 and lives in Dillenburg, a town situated in the Federal Republic of Germany. The second applicant lives in Weissenburg, also situated in the Federal Republic of Germany.

A. Mr Lückhof (application no. 58452/00)

7. On 7 August 1998 at 10.30 a.m. the car of which the applicant is the registered keeper was recorded by a radar speed detector as exceeding the speed limit by 17 k.p.h.

8. On 12 October 1998 the Deutschlandsberg District Administrative Authority (Bezirkshauptmannschaft) ordered the applicant to disclose within two weeks the full name and address of the person who had been driving his car at the material time and place on 7 August 1998. It noted that an administrative offence had been committed by the driver of the car. The order referred to section 103(2) of the Motor Vehicles Act (Kraftfahrzeuggesetz) as its legal basis.

9. On 25 October 1998 the applicant replied that, on the date at issue, he had been on holiday with some friends and could not remember who had been driving the car at the material time.

10. On 9 November 1998 the District Administrative Authority issued a provisional penal order (Strafverfügung) in which it sentenced the applicant under sections 103(2) and 134(1) of the Motor Vehicles Act to pay a fine of 1,500 Austrian schillings (ATS) with two days’ imprisonment in default. It found that the applicant had failed to give the requested information.

11. The applicant filed an objection against this decision.

12. On 29 December 1998 the District Administrative Authority dismissed the applicant’s objection and issued a penal order (Straferkenntnis) confirming its previous decision.

13. The applicant appealed on 20 January 1999, submitting in particular that he had not given any false information but had replied as best as he could. In any case, the obligation under section 103(2) of the Motor Vehicles Act to disclose the identity of the driver of his car violated his right not to incriminate himself as guaranteed by Article 6 of the Convention.

14. On 1 March 1999 the Styria Independent Administrative Panel (Unabhängiger Verwaltungssenat) dismissed the applicant’s appeal. It noted in particular that the registered car keeper did not only act contrary to section 103(2) of the Road Traffic Act if he gave false information, but also if he provided incomplete information or no information at all. If need be he was obliged to keep records of the names and addresses of persons who had been driving his car. The applicant had failed to give the information requested by the District Administrative Authority’s order of 12 October 1998. As to the applicant’s complaint that the obligation to disclose the identity of the driver of his car at

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a given time violated his right not to incriminate himself, the Panel observed that the relevant sentence in section 103(2) had constitutional rank. In this connection it referred to the Constitutional Court’s judgment of 29 September 1988 (see paragraph 32 below).

15. On 8 June 1999 the Constitutional Court (Verfassungsgerichtshof) refused to deal with the applicant’s complaint. Referring to its judgment of 29 September 1988, it considered that the applicant’s complaint about an alleged violation of his right not to incriminate himself did not offer sufficient prospects of success.

16. On 5 August 1999 the Administrative Court (Verwaltungs-gerichtshof) refused to deal with the applicant’s complaint pursuant to section 33a of the Administrative Court Act since the amount of the penalty did not exceed ATS 10,000 and no important legal problem was at stake. This decision was served on the applicant on 26 August 1999.

17. No proceedings for speeding were brought against the applicant.

B. Mr Spanner (application no. 61920/00)

18. On 25 August 1998 at 3 p.m. the car of which the applicant is the registered keeper was parked illegally in a street in the seventh district of Vienna.

19. On 3 November 1998 the Vienna Municipal Authority (Magistratsabteilung der Stadt Wien) issued a provisional penal order against the applicant for parking contrary to the provisions of the Vienna Parking Meter Act (Wiener Parkometergesetz) and sentenced him to pay a fine of ATS 500 Austrian schillings with twelve hours’ imprisonment in default.

20. The applicant filed an objection against this decision. Consequently, the provisional penal order became invalid in accordance with section 49(2) of the Act on Administrative Offences (Verwaltungsstrafgesetz). However, the criminal proceedings against the applicant relating to the offence of illicit parking remained pending.

21. On 28 December 1998, the Vienna Municipal Authority ordered the applicant pursuant to section 1a of the Vienna Parking Meter Act to disclose within two weeks the full name and address of the person who had parked his car on 25 August 1998 at the above-mentioned place. It noted that an offence under the said Act, namely illicit parking in a short-term parking area, had been committed. The order informed the applicant that failure to provide the information or any incomplete or belated giving of information constituted an offence by virtue of section 1a taken in conjunction with section 4(2) of the Vienna Parking Meter Act. The applicant did not reply.

22. On 3 March 1999 the Vienna Municipal Authority issued a provisional penal order sentencing the applicant under section 1a taken together with Section 4 § 2 of the Vienna Parking Meter Act to pay a fine of ATS 500 with twelve hours’ imprisonment in default for failure to disclose the identity of the driver of his car.

23. The applicant lodged an objection against this decision.

24. On 10 June 1999 the Vienna Municipal Authority dismissed the applicant’s objection and issued a penal order confirming its previous decision.

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25. The applicant appealed on 6 July 1999 submitting, in particular, that the imposition of a fine for failure to disclose the identity of the driver of his car violated his right not to incriminate himself as guaranteed by Article 6 of the Convention.

26. On 6 September 1999 the Vienna Independent Administrative Panel dismissed the applicant’s appeal. It noted in particular that the registered car keeper’s obligation to disclose the identity of the driver of his car pursuant to section 1a of the Vienna Parking Meter Act had to be read in conjunction with Article II of Federal Law no. 384/1986, which provided that the authority’s right to require information shall take precedence over the right to refuse to give information. This provision had constitutional rank and was comparable to the last sentence of section 103(2) of the Motor Vehicles Act.

27. On 1 February 2000 the Vienna Municipal Authority informed the applicant that the criminal proceedings against him for illicit parking had been discontinued.

28. On 6 March 2000 the Constitutional Court refused to deal with the applicant’s complaint. Having regard to its case-law relating to section 103(2) of the Motor Vehicles Act, it found that the applicant’s complaint did not offer sufficient prospects of success.

29. On 15 May 2000 the Administrative Court refused to deal with the applicant’s complaint pursuant to section 33a of the Administrative Court Act since the amount of the penalty did not exceed ATS 10,000 and no important legal problem was at stake.

II. RELEVANT DOMESTIC LAW AND PRACTICE

A. The Motor Vehicles Act

30. Section 103(2) of the Motor Vehicles Act, as amended in 1986, (Kraftfahrgesetz) provides as follows:

“The authority may request information as to who had driven a certain motor vehicle identified by the number plate .... at a certain time or had last parked such a motor vehicle ... at a certain place before a certain date. The registered car keeper ... must provide such information, which must include the name and address of the person concerned; if he or she is unable to give such information, he/she must name a person who can do so and who will then be under an obligation to inform the authority; the statements made by the person required to give information do not release the authority from its duty to verify such statements where this seems appropriate in the circumstances of the case. The requested information is to be provided immediately or, in case of a written request, within two weeks after the request has been served; where such information cannot be provided without keeping pertinent records, such records shall be kept. The authority’s right to require such information shall take precedence over the right to refuse to give information.”

31. The last sentence of this provision was enacted as a provision of constitutional rank after the Constitutional Court had, in its judgments of 3 March 1984 and 8 March 1985, quashed previous similar provisions on the ground that they were contrary to Article 90 §

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2 of the Federal Constitution which prohibits, inter alia, that a suspect be obliged on pain of a fine to incriminate himself.

32. In its judgment of 29 September 1988 (VfSlg. 11.829) the Constitutional Court found that the first to third sentences of section 103(2) of the Motor Vehicles Act, as amended in 1986, were, like the previous provisions, contrary to the right not to incriminate oneself which flowed from Article 90 § 2 of the Federal Constitution and from Article 6 of the European Convention of Human Rights but were saved by the last sentence of that provision, which had constitutional rank. In reaching that conclusion the Constitutional Court had examined whether the last sentence of section 103(2) was contrary to the guiding principles of the constitution, but had found that this was not the case.

33. Section 134(1) of the Motor Vehicles Act, in the version in force at the material time, provided that a fine of up to ATS 30,000, or up to six weeks’ imprisonment in default, could be imposed on a person who violates the regulations of that Act.

B. The Vienna Parking Meter Act

34. The Vienna Parking Meter Act regulates the levying of parking fees in specified “short-term parking areas”.

35. The relevant part of section 1a of the Vienna Parking Meter Act reads as follows:

“(1) The registered keeper of a motor vehicle ... has, if the motor vehicle has been parking in a short-term parking area liable to a fee, to inform the Municipal Authority to whom he has left the motor vehicle ... at a certain time.

(2) The information, which must include the name and address of the person concerned, is to be provided immediately or, in case of a written request, within two weeks after the request has been served; where such information cannot be provided without keeping pertinent records, such records shall be kept.”

36. According to section 4(2) of the Vienna Parking Meter Act, in the version in force at the material time, a fine of up to ATS 3,000 could be imposed for a failure to comply with the obligation laid down in Section 1a.

37. The relevant part of Article II of Federal Law no. 384/1986 reads as follows:

“Where the Länder, in regulating the levying of fees for the parking of motor vehicles ... oblige the registered keeper ... to inform the authority upon its request to whom he has left the motor vehicle ... at a certain time, the authority’s right to require such information shall take precedence over the right to refuse to give information.”

This provision was enacted as a provision of constitutional rank.

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C. The Act on Administrative Offences

38. Pursuant to section 5 of the Act on Administrative Offences (Verwaltungsstrafgesetz) any administrative criminal offence may be committed by negligence, unless provided otherwise.

39. Pursuant to section 16 of that Act an administrative fine is to be accompanied by a default prison term of up to fourteen days’ imprisonment, unless provided otherwise. The enforcement of a default prison term is regulated by section 54b of the Act on Administrative Offences. It is only admissible if it is established that the fine is not recoverable. The competent authority has to conduct enforcement proceedings, in which the person concerned has the possibility to request a stay of the payment or payment by instalments. Only if the enforcement of the fine proves to be unsuccessful can an order for the enforcement of the default prison term be made. The order must inform the person concerned that payment of the fine can be made at any time in order to avert the execution of the default prison term.

THE LAW

I. ALLEGED VIOLATION OF ARTICLE 6 § 1 OF THE CONVENTION

40. The applicants complained of a violation of their right to remain silent and the privilege against self-incrimination. They relied on Article 6 § 1 of the Convention which, in its relevant part, reads as follows:

“In the determination of ... any criminal charge against him, everyone is entitled to a fair ... hearing ... by [a] ... tribunal...”

A. The parties’ submissions

41. The applicants argued that, in cases in which the registered car keeper happened to have been the driver at the time when the traffic offence has been committed, section 103(2) of the Motor Vehicles Act obliged him on pain of a fine to incriminate himself, since an admission of having driven the car amounted in practical terms to a confession of having committed the offence. However, obtaining a confession by means of coercion was incompatible with the right to silence and the privilege against self-incrimination.

42. The applicants contested the Government’s public policy argument, asserting that the interests in an effective prosecution of traffic offences could not justify curtailing the right to silence and the privilege against self-incrimination, which were core contents of the notion of a fair trial. Moreover, the example of other member States showed that it was possible to secure the prosecution of traffic offences without resorting to a provision which was contrary to Article 6 of the Convention.

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43. Finally, the applicants, being German nationals, submitted that the Ministries for the Interior of a number of German Länder refused to execute penal orders under section 103(2) of the Motor Vehicles Act on the ground that it violated the right to remain silent and the right not to incriminate oneself.

44. The Government, referring to the Court’s case-law, contended that the right to silence and the privilege against self-incrimination were not absolute (see John Murray v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 8 February 1996, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996-I, p. 49, § 45).

45. The Government distinguished the present case from cases in which the Court found a violation of the right to remain silent and the privilege against self-incrimination (in particular, Funke v. France, judgment of 25 February 1993, Series A no. 256-A, and J.B. v. Switzerland, no. 31827/96, ECHR 2001-III) in that the applicants’ choice was not limited to either remaining silent and having a fine imposed on them or incriminating themselves. They remained free to disclose the name and address of a third person as the driver of the car or to show that the car had been used without their consent by a person unknown to them.

46. Given the public interest in the prosecution of traffic offences and the minor nature of the fine imposed, section 103(2) of the Motor Vehicles Act struck a fair balance between the public interest and the individual car keeper’s interest to remain silent and therefore appeared proportionate.

B. The Court’s assessment

47. The Court observes that it has recently examined the case of O’Halloran and Francis v. the United Kingdom ([GC], nos. 15809/02 and 25624/02, ECHR 2007-...), raising similar issues.

48. That case concerned two applicants. Both were registered keepers of a car which was caught on a speed camera. They were both served with a notice of the intention to prosecute the driver of the vehicle and they were asked to furnish the name and address of the driver of the vehicle pursuant to section 172 of the Road Traffic Act 1988. Furthermore they were informed that failure to provide that information was a criminal offence under section 172 of the said Act. Mr O’Halloran admitted that he had been the driver on the occasion at issue and attempted, unsuccessfully, to have that evidence excluded from his trial. He was then convicted of speeding. Mr Francis refused to give the requested information and was convicted for the refusal.

49. The Court notes at the outset that the applicability of Article 6 under its criminal head is not in dispute. Mr Spanner was clearly “charged” with a criminal offence, since criminal proceedings for the parking offence were pending against him when he was requested to disclose the identity of the driver (see paragraphs 19-21 above). Regarding Mr Lückhof, the Court notes that the order of 12 October 1998 informed him that an administrative offence had been committed with his car at a specified time and place and in that context he was ordered to disclose the identity of the driver (see paragraph 8 above). The Court sees little difference between his situation and the situation of the applicants in O’Halloran and Francis who received a notice of the intention to prosecute the driver when being asked to disclose the driver’s identity. Consequently, Mr Lückhof was

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“substantially affected” by the order to disclose the driver in the context of the underlying speeding offence and, thus, has been “charged” within the autonomous meaning of that term in Article 6 (see O’Halloran and Francis, cited above, § 35, with further references).

50. For the remainder, the present case resembles that of Mr Francis, in that both applicants did not provide the name and address of the driver as requested and were convicted of failure to comply with their obligation to give that information.

51. In O’Halloran and Francis (cited above) the Court, having given a detailed summary of its case-law (namely, Funke, cited above; John Murray, cited above; Saunders v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 17 December 1996, Reports 1996‑VI; Serves v. France, judgment of 20 October 1997, Reports 1997‑VI; Heaney and McGuinness v. Ireland, no. 34720/97, ECHR 2000‑XII; Weh v. Austria, no. 38544/97, 8 April 2004; Shannon v. the United Kingdom, no. 6563/03, 4 October 2005; and Jalloh v. Germany [GC], no. 54810/00, ECHR 2006‑...) found as follows:

“55. In the light of the principles contained in its Jalloh judgment, and in order to determine whether the essence of the applicants’ right to remain silent and privilege against self-incrimination was infringed, the Court will focus on the nature and degree of compulsion used to obtain the evidence, the existence of any relevant safeguards in the procedure, and the use to which any material so obtained was put.

56. The nature and degree of the compulsion used to obtain the evidence in the case of Mr O’Halloran, or to attempt to obtain the evidence in the case of Mr Francis, were set out in the Notice of Intended Prosecution each applicant received. They were informed that, as registered keepers of their vehicles, they were required to provide the full name and address of the driver at the time and on the occasion specified. They were each informed that failure to provide the information was a criminal offence under section 172 of the Road Traffic Act 1988. The penalty for failure by the applicants to give information was a fine of up to GBP 1,000, and disqualification from driving or an endorsement of three penalty points on their driving licence.

57. The Court accepts that the compulsion was of a direct nature, as was the compulsion in other cases in which fines were threatened or imposed for failure to provide information. In the present case, the compulsion was imposed in the context of section 172 of the Road Traffic Act, which imposes a specific duty on the registered keeper of a vehicle to give information about the driver of the vehicle in certain circumstances. The Court notes that although both the compulsion and the underlying offences were “criminal” in nature, the compulsion flowed from the fact, as Lord Bingham expressed it in the Privy Council in the case of Brown v. Stott (see paragraph 31 above), that “All who own or drive motor cars know that by doing so they subject themselves to a regulatory regime. This regime is imposed not because owning or driving cars is a privilege or indulgence granted by the State but because the possession and use of cars (like, for example, shotguns ...) are recognised to have the potential to cause grave injury”. Those who choose to keep and drive motor cars can be taken to have accepted certain responsibilities and obligations as part of the regulatory regime relating to motor

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vehicles, and in the legal framework of the United Kingdom, these responsibilities include the obligation, in the event of suspected commission of road traffic offences, to inform the authorities of the identity of the driver on that occasion.

58. A further aspect of the compulsion applied in the present cases is the limited nature of the inquiry which the police were authorised to undertake. Section 172 (2)(a) applies only where the driver of the vehicle is alleged to have committed a relevant offence, and authorises the police to require information only “as to the identity of the driver”. The information is thus markedly more restricted than in previous cases, in which applicants have been subjected to statutory powers requiring production of “papers and documents of any kind relating to operations of interest to [the] department” (Funke, referred to above, § 30), or of “documents etc. which might be relevant for the assessment of taxes” (J.B v. Switzerland, cited above, § 39). In the case of Heaney and McGuinness the applicants were required to give a “full account of [their] movements and actions during any specified period ...” (referred to above, § 24), and in that of Shannon, information could be sought (with only a limited legal professional privilege restriction) on any matter which appeared to the investigator to relate to the investigation (see reference at § 23 of the Shannon judgment referred to above). The information requested of the applicant in the case of Weh was limited, as in the present case, to “information as to who had driven a certain motor vehicle ... at a certain time ...” (Weh judgment cited above, § 24). The Court found no violation of Article 6 in that case on the ground that no proceedings were pending or anticipated against him. It noted that the requirement to state a simple fact – who had been the driver of the car – was not in itself incriminating (ibid., §§ 53-54). Further, as Lord Bingham noted in Brown v. Stott (paragraph 31 above), section 172 does not sanction prolonged questioning about facts alleged to give rise to criminal offences, and the penalty for declining to answer is “moderate and non-custodial”.

59. The Court in the case of Jalloh referred to the existence of relevant safeguards in the procedure. In cases where the coercive measures of section 172 of the 1988 Act are applied, the Court notes that by section 172(4), no offence is committed under section 172(2)(a) if the keeper of the vehicle shows that he did not know and could not with reasonable diligence have known who the driver of the vehicle was. The offence is thus not one of strict liability, and the risk of unreliable admissions is negligible.

60. As to the use to which the statements were put, Mr O’Halloran’s statement that he was the driver of his car was admissible as evidence of that fact by virtue of section 12(1) of the Road Traffic Offenders Act 1988 (see paragraph 27 above), and he was duly convicted of speeding. At his trial, he attempted to challenge the admission of the statement under sections 76 and 78 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, although the challenge was unsuccessful. It remained for the prosecution to prove the offence beyond reasonable doubt in ordinary proceedings, including protection against the use of unreliable evidence and evidence obtained by oppression or other improper means (but not including a challenge to the admissibility of the statement under section 172), and the defendant could give evidence and call witnesses if he wished. Again as noted in the case of Brown v. Stott, the identity of the driver is only one element in the

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offence of speeding, and there is no question of a conviction arising in the underlying proceedings in respect solely of the information obtained as a result of section 172(2)(a).

61. As Mr Francis refused to make a statement, it could not be used in the underlying proceedings, and indeed the underlying proceedings were never pursued. The question of the use of the statements in criminal proceedings did not arise, as his refusal to make a statement was not used as evidence: it constituted the offence itself (see Allen v. the United Kingdom (dec.), no. 76574/01, ECHR 2002-VIII).

62. Having regard to all the circumstances of the case, including the special nature of the regulatory regime at issue and the limited nature of the information sought by a notice under section 172 of the Road Traffic Act 1988, the Court considers that the essence of the applicants’ right to remain silent and their privilege against self-incrimination has not been destroyed.

63. Accordingly, there has been no violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention.”

52. The Court will examine whether or not the same considerations apply in the present cases. It will apply the criteria established in O’Halloran and Francis (cited above, § 55) in the light of the circumstances of the present cases and with regard to the provisions of Austrian law here at issue. The relevant criteria are the nature and degree of the compulsion used to obtain the evidence, the existence of any relevant safeguards in the procedure and the use to which any material so obtained was put.

53. As to the nature of the compulsion used in order to seek information, the Court observes that in Mr Lückhof’s case the order to disclose the identity of the driver limited itself to drawing his attention to section 103(2) of the Motor Vehicles Act, that is, to the legal provision that makes it an obligation for the registered car keeper to provide such information. No mention was made of the penalties applicable in the event of failure to comply with the order. Nevertheless, the Court considers that, in the circumstances, it must have been clear to the first applicant that failure to comply with the obligation would entail consequences, for instance the imposition of a fine. In Mr Spanner’s case the order to disclose the identity of the driver referred to section 1a taken in conjunction with section 4(2) of the Vienna Parking Meter Act, which makes the failure to provide information an offence punishable with a fine. Although the first applicant’s case is less clear-cut than the second applicant’s, the Court accepts that in both cases the compulsion was of a direct nature. The applicants were obliged on pain of a fine to provide the name and address of the person who had driven the car on the occasion of the commission of the underlying traffic offence. Like in O’Halloran and Francis (cited above, § 57) it can be said that the compulsion flowed from the fact that owners or drivers of motor vehicles subject themselves to a regulatory regime involving certain responsibilities and obligations. In Austria, like in the United Kingdom, those obligations include the obligation, in the event of suspected commission of road traffic offences, to inform the authorities of the identity of the driver on that occasion.

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54. Regarding the degree of compulsion, the Court notes that the maximum fines the applicants risked incurring amounted to ATS 30,000 (2,180 euros (EUR)) in Mr Lückhof’s case and to ATS 3,000 (EUR 210) in Mr Spanner’s case. The fines actually imposed amounted to ATS 1,500 (EUR 105) in the first applicant’s case and to ATS 500 (EUR 36) in the second applicant’s case. In comparison, the Court notes that the applicants in O’Halloran and Francis were liable to pay a fine of up to 1000 pounds sterling (GBP) (EUR 1,446) and disqualification from driving or an endorsement of up to three penalty points on their driving licence (ibid., § 56). Mr Francis, who refused to give evidence, was actually ordered to pay a fine of GBP 750 (EUR 1,218) plus procedural costs and three penalty points. The Court considers that the difference as regards the penalties at stake is not decisive. The fact that, in Austrian administrative criminal law, fines are accompanied by default prison terms does not change that assessment. The default prison terms which amounted to two days’ imprisonment in Mr Lückhof’s case and to twelve hours’ imprisonment in Mr Spanner’s case may only be enforced after the conduct of a separate set of proceedings and if a number of conditions are met (see paragraph 39 above). Therefore it cannot be said that they brought direct pressure to bear on the applicants.

55. Another similarity with the case of O’Halloran and Francis (cited above, § 58) is the limited nature of the inquiry permitted by section 103(2) of the Motor Vehicles Act and section 1a of the Vienna Parking Meter Act. By virtue of both provisions the authorities are only entitled to seek information as regards the name and address of the person who was the driver of a particular motor vehicle at a given time and place. In this context the Court reiterates that in the case of Weh (referred to above, § 24) it has already found that the requirement to state a simple fact, namely who the driver of the car was, was not in itself incriminating. Indeed, this distinguishes cases concerning the registered car keeper’s obligation to disclose the identity of the driver from other cases, in which the authorities were entitled to seek comprehensive information or to subject the applicants to extensive questioning (see Funke, § 30; J.B. v. Switzerland, § 39; Heaney and McGuinness, § 24; and Shannon, § 23, all cited above).

56. Again, similarly as in O’Halloran and Francis (cited above, § 59) there are certain safeguards in the procedure. Firstly, section 103(2) of the Motor Vehicles Act states that the authorities are obliged to verify the information if the circumstances so require. Secondly, it follows from the general principles of administrative criminal law (see paragraph 38 above) that the registered car keeper is not liable to punishment for failure to give information in cases in which such failure is not at least due to his negligence, for instance where he is not in a position to provide the information because the car had been used without his knowledge and consent.

57. Finally, it has already been noted that neither applicant furnished the information the authorities sought to obtain. Consequently, no issue arises as regards the use of their statements in the underlying criminal proceedings. Indeed, the proceedings for speeding in Mr Lückhof’s case and those for illicit parking in Mr Spanner’s case were not pursued.

58. In sum, the Court sees no reason in the present case to come to another conclusion than in the case of O’Halloran and Francis (cited above, § 62), namely that the essence of the applicants’ right to remain silent and their privilege against self-incrimination has not been destroyed.

59. Accordingly, there has been no violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention.

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FOR THESE REASONS, THE COURT UNANIMOUSLY

Holds that there has been no violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention.

Done in English, and notified in writing on 10 January 2008, pursuant to Rule 77 §§ 2 and 3 of the Rules of Court.

André Wampach Christos Rozakis

Deputy Registrar President

GRAND CHAMBER

CASE OF BYKOV v. RUSSIA

(Application no. 4378/02)

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JUDGMENT

STRASBOURG

10 March 2009

This judgment is final but may be subject to editorial revision.

In the case of Bykov v. Russia,

The European Court of Human Rights, sitting as a Grand Chamber composed of:

Jean-Paul Costa, President,

Christos Rozakis,

Nicolas Bratza,

Peer Lorenzen,

Françoise Tulkens,

Josep Casadevall,

Ireneu Cabral Barreto,

Nina Vajić,

Anatoly Kovler,

Elisabeth Steiner,

Khanlar Hajiyev,

Ljiljana Mijović,

Dean Spielmann,

David Thór Björgvinsson,

George Nicolaou,

Mirjana Lazarova Trajkovska,

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Nona Tsotsoria, judges,

and Michael O'Boyle, Deputy Registrar,

Having deliberated in private on 18 June 2008 and on 21 January 2009,

Delivers the following judgment, which was adopted on the last‑mentioned date:

PROCEDURE

1. The case originated in an application (no. 4378/02) against the Russian Federation lodged with the Court under Article 34 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (“the Convention”) by a Russian national, Mr Anatoliy Petrovich Bykov (“the applicant”), on 21 December 2001.

2. The applicant was represented by Mr D. Krauss, Professor of Law at Humboldt University, Berlin, and by Mr J.-C. Pastille and Mr G. Padva, lawyers practising in Riga and Moscow respectively. The Russian Government (“the Government”) were initially represented by Mr P. Laptev and Ms V. Milinchuk, former Representatives of the Russian Federation at the European Court of Human Rights, and subsequently by their Representative, Mr G. Matyushkin.

3. The applicant complained under Article 6 § 1 and Article 8 of the Convention about the covert recording made at his home and its use as evidence in the ensuing criminal proceedings against him. He also alleged that his pre-trial detention was excessively long and not justified for the purposes of Article 5 § 3 of the Convention.

4. The application was allocated to the First Section of the Court (Rule 52 § 1 of the Rules of Court). On 7 September 2006 it was declared partly admissible by a Chamber of that Section composed of the following judges: Christos Rozakis, Loukis Loucaides, Françoise Tulkens, Nina Vajić, Anatoly Kovler, Elisabeth Steiner, Khanlar Hajiyev, and also of Søren Nielsen, Section Registrar. On 22 November 2007 a Chamber of that Section, composed of the following judges: Christos Rozakis, Loukis Loucaides, Nina Vajić, Anatoly Kovler, Elisabeth Steiner, Khanlar Hajiyev, Dean Spielmann, and also of Søren Nielsen, Section Registrar, relinquished jurisdiction in favour of the Grand Chamber, none of the parties having objected to relinquishment (Article 30 of the Convention and Rule 72).

5. The composition of the Grand Chamber was determined according to the provisions of Article 27 §§ 2 and 3 of the Convention and Rule 24 of the Rules of Court.

6. The applicant and the Government each filed written observations on the merits.

7. A hearing took place in public in the Human Rights Building, Strasbourg, on 18 June 2008 (Rule 59 § 3).

There appeared before the Court:

(a) for the Government

Ms V. Milinchuk, Agent,

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Ms I. Mayke,

Ms Y. Tsimbalova,

Mr A. Zazulskiy, Advisers;

(b) for the applicant

Mr D. Krauss,

Mr J.-C. Pastille, Counsel,

Mr G. Padva,

Ms J. Kvjatkovska, Advisers.

The applicant was also present.

The Court heard addresses by Mr Krauss and Ms Milinchuk, as well as the answers by Mr Pastille and Ms Milinchuk to questions put to the parties.

THE FACTS

I. THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE CASE

8. The applicant was born in 1960 and lives in Krasnoyarsk.

9. From 1997 to 1999 the applicant was chairman of the board of the Krasnoyarsk Aluminium Plant. At the time of his arrest in October 2000 he was a major shareholder and an executive of a corporation called OAO Krasenergomash-Holding and a founder of a number of affiliated firms. He was also a deputy of the Krasnoyarsk Regional Parliamentary Assembly.

A. Covert operation

10. In September 2000 the applicant allegedly ordered V., a member of his entourage, to kill S., the applicant's former business associate. V. did not comply with the order, but on 18 September 2000 he reported the applicant to the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation (“the FSB”). On the following day V. handed in the gun which he had allegedly received from the applicant.

11. On 21 September 2000 the Prosecutor of the Severo-Zapadnyy District of Moscow opened a criminal investigation in respect of the applicant on suspicion of conspiracy to murder.

12. On 26 and 27 September 2000 the FSB and the police decided to conduct a covert operation to obtain evidence of the applicant's intention to murder S.

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13. On 29 September 2000 the police staged the discovery of two dead men at S.'s home. They officially announced in the media that one of those killed had been identified as S. The other man was his business partner, I.

14. On 3 October 2000 V., acting on the police's instructions, came to see the applicant at his estate. He carried a hidden radio-transmitting device while a police officer outside received and recorded the transmission. He was received by the applicant in a “guest house”, a part of the estate connected to his personal residence. In accordance with the instructions, V. engaged the applicant in conversation by telling him that he had carried out the assassination. As proof of his accomplishment he handed the applicant several objects taken from S. and I.: a certified copy of a mining project feasibility study marked with a special chemical agent, two watches belonging to S. and I. and 20,000 United States dollars (USD) in cash. At the end of the conversation V. took the cash, as suggested by the applicant. The police obtained a sixteen-minute recording of the dialogue between V. and the applicant.

15. On 4 October 2000 the applicant's estate was searched. Several watches were seized, including those belonging to S. and I. A chemical analysis was conducted and revealed the presence on the applicant's hands of the chemical agent which had been used to mark the feasibility study. The applicant was arrested.

16. On 27 February 2001 the applicant complained to the Prosecutor of the Severo-Zapadnyy District of Moscow that his prosecution had been unlawful because it involved numerous procedural violations of his rights, including the unauthorised intrusion into his home and the use of the radio-transmitting device. On 2 March 2001 the prosecutor dismissed his complaint, having found, in particular, that the applicant had let V. into his house voluntarily and that therefore there had been no intrusion. It was also found that no judicial authorisation had been required for the use of the radio-transmitting device because in accordance with the Operational-Search Activities Act, it was only required for the interception of communications transmitted by means of wire channels or mail services, none of which had been employed in the covert operation at issue.

B. Pre-trial detention

17. Following the applicant's arrest on 4 October 2000, on 6 October 2000 the Deputy Prosecutor of the Severo-Zapadnyy District of Moscow ordered his detention during the investigation, having found that it was “in accordance with the law” and necessary in view of the gravity of the charge and the risk that the applicant might influence witnesses. Further extensions were ordered by the competent prosecutor on 17 November 2000 (until 21 December 2000) and on 15 December 2000 (until 21 March 2001). The reasons for the applicant's continued detention were the gravity of the charge and the risk of his influencing the witnesses and obstructing the investigation. The applicant appealed against each of these decisions to a court.

18. On 26 January 2001 the Lefortovskiy District Court of Moscow examined the applicant's appeal against his continued detention on remand and confirmed the lawfulness of his detention. The court referred to the gravity of the charge and noted that this measure had been applied in accordance with the law. The applicant lodged a further appeal, which was also dismissed by the Moscow City Court.

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19. In view of the forthcoming expiry of the term of the applicant's detention, its further extension was ordered by the competent prosecutor, first on 15 March 2001, until 4 April 2001, and then on 21 March 2001, until 4 June 2001, still on the grounds of the gravity of the charge and the risk of his influencing the witnesses and obstructing the investigation. The applicant challenged the extensions before the court.

20. On 11 April 2001 the Lefortovskiy District Court of Moscow declared that the applicant's detention until 4 June 2001 was lawful and necessary on account of the gravity of the charge. The applicant lodged an appeal with the Moscow City Court, which was dismissed on 15 May 2001. The appeal court considered the applicant's detention lawful and necessary “until the bill of indictment had been submitted or until the applicant's immunity had been confirmed”.

21. On 22 May 2001 the Deputy Prosecutor General extended the applicant's detention on remand until 4 September 2001, still on the grounds of the gravity of the charge and the risk of his influencing the witnesses and obstructing the investigation.

22. On 27 August 2001 the case was referred to the Tushinskiy District Court of Moscow. On 7 September 2001 the court scheduled the hearing for 26 September 2001 and authorised the applicant's further detention without indicating any reasons or the length of the extension. On 3 October 2001 the Moscow City Court examined and dismissed an appeal by the applicant, upholding his continued detention without elaborating on the reasons.

23. On 21 December 2001 the Meshchanskiy District Court of Moscow scheduled the hearing for 4 January 2002 and authorised the applicant's further detention, citing no reasons. The court did not indicate the length of the prospective detention. It again reviewed the lawfulness of the applicant's detention on 4 January 2002 but found that it was still necessary owing to the gravity of the charges and the “circumstances of the case”. An appeal by the applicant to the Moscow City Court was dismissed on 15 January 2002.

24. Further applications by the applicant for release were examined on 23 January, 6 March, 11 March and 23 April 2002. As before, the Meshchanskiy District Court of Moscow refused his release, citing the gravity of the charge and the risk of his evading trial and influencing the witnesses. The applicant was released on 19 June 2002 following his conviction (see paragraph 45 below).

C. Criminal investigation and trial

25. On 3 October 2000, immediately after visiting the applicant in the “guest house”, V. was questioned by the investigators. He reported on the contents of his conversation with the applicant and submitted that he had handed him the gun, the watches and the feasibility study. He was subsequently questioned on 12 October, 9 November, 8 December and 18 December 2000.

26. The applicant was questioned as a suspect for the first time on 4 October 2000. From October to December 2000 he was questioned at least seven times.

27. On 10 October 2000 the applicant and V. were questioned in a confrontation with each other. The applicant's legal counsel were present at the confrontation. The

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statements made by the applicant on that occasion were subsequently summarised in the indictment, of which the relevant part reads as follows:

“At the confrontation between A.P. Bykov and [V.] on 10 October 2000 Bykov altered, in part, certain substantive details of his previous statements, as follows. [He] claims that he has been acquainted with [V.] for a long time, about 7 years; they have normal relations; the last time he saw him was on 3 October 2000, and before that they had been in contact about two years previously. He has never given any orders or instructions to [V.], including any concerning [S.]. When [V.] came to see him on 3 October 2000 he began to tell him off for coming to him. When he asked [V.] who had told him to kill [S.] he replied that nobody had, he had just wanted to prove to himself that he could do it. He began to comfort [V.], saying that he could help with his father; [he] did not suggest that [V.] flee the town [or] the country, and did not promise to help him financially. He did not instruct [V.] on what to do if [V.] was arrested; he asked him what was going to happen if he was arrested; [V.] said that he would tell how it all happened and would confess to having committed the crime, [and the applicant] approved of that. Concerning K., Bykov stated that this was his partner who lived and worked in Switzerland; he admitted de facto that he had spoken to him on the phone at the beginning of August ... but had given him no directions about [V.]”

28. On 13 October 2000 the applicant was charged with conspiracy to murder. Subsequently the charges were extended to include conspiracy to acquire, possess and handle firearms.

29. On 8 December 2000 two appointed linguistic experts examined the recording of the applicant's conversation with V. of 3 October 2000 and answered the following questions put to them:

“1. Is it possible to establish, on the basis of the text of the conversation submitted for examination, the nature of relations between Bykov and [V.], the extent of their closeness, sympathy for each other, subordination; how is it expressed?

2. Was Bykov's verbal reaction to [V.]'s statement about the 'murder' of [S.] natural assuming he had ordered the murder of [S.]?

3. Are there any verbal signs indicating that Bykov expressed mistrust about [V.]'s information?

4. Is it possible to assess Bykov's verbal style as unequivocally aiming at closing the topic, ending the conversation?

5. Are there any identifiable stylistic, verbal signs of fear (caution) on Bykov's part in relation to [V.]?”

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30. In respect of the above questions the experts found:

– on question 1, that the applicant and V. had known each other for a long time and had rather close and generally sympathetic relations; that V. had shown subordination to the applicant; that the applicant had played an instructive role in the conversation;

– on question 2, that the applicant's reaction to V.'s information about the accomplished murder was natural and that he had insistently questioned V. on the technical details of its execution;

– on question 3, that the applicant had shown no sign of mistrusting V.'s confession to the murder;

– on question 4, that the applicant had not shown any clear signs of wishing to end or to avoid the conversation;

– on question 5, that the applicant had not shown any fear of V.; on the contrary, V. appeared to be afraid of the applicant.

31. On 11 January 2001 the investigation was completed and the applicant was allowed access to the case file.

32. On 27 August 2001 the case was referred to the Tushinskiy District Court of Moscow.

33. On 22 October 2001 the Tushinskiy District Court declined jurisdiction in favour of the Meshchanskiy District Court of Moscow, having established that the venue of the attempted murder lay within that court's territorial jurisdiction.

34. On 16 December 2001 V. made a written statement certified by the Russian consulate in the Republic of Cyprus repudiating his statements against the applicant. He submitted that he had made those statements under pressure from S. Two deputies of the State Duma, D. and Y.S., were present at the consulate to witness the repudiation. On the same day they recorded an interview with V. in which he explained that S. had persuaded him to make false statements against the applicant.

35. On 4 February 2002 the Meshchanskiy District Court of Moscow began examining the charges against the applicant. The applicant pleaded not guilty. At the trial he challenged the admissibility of the recording of his conversation with V. and of all other evidence obtained through the covert operation. He alleged that the police interference had been unlawful and that he had been induced into self-incrimination. Furthermore, he claimed that the recording had involved unauthorised intrusion into his home. He contested the interpretation of the recording by the experts and alleged that nothing in his dialogue with V. disclosed prior knowledge of a murder conspiracy.

36. During the trial the court dismissed the applicant's objection to the covert operation and admitted as lawfully obtained evidence the recording with its transcript, the linguistic expert report, V.'s statements, and the evidence showing that the applicant had accepted the feasibility study and the watches from V. It dismissed the argument that there had been an unauthorised intrusion into the applicant's premises, having found, firstly, that the applicant had expressed no objection to V.'s visit and, secondly, that their meeting had taken place in the “guest house”, which was intended for business meetings and

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therefore did not encroach on the applicant's privacy. The court refused to admit as evidence the official records of the search at the applicant's estate because the officers who had conducted the search on 4 October 2000 had not been covered by the authorisation.

37. The following persons were examined in the oral proceedings before the court:

S. explained his relations with the applicant and their conflict of interests in the aluminium industry. He confirmed that he had participated in the covert operation; he also confirmed that in 2001 V. had told him that he had been paid off to withdraw his statements against the applicant.

Twenty-five witnesses answered questions concerning the business links of the applicant, V. and S. with the aluminium plant and other businesses in Krasnoyarsk; the relations and connections between them; the existence of the conflict of interests between the applicant and S.; the events of 3 October 2000, namely the arrival of V. at the “guest house”, his conversation with the applicant and the handing of the documents and the watches to the applicant; and the circumstances surrounding V.'s attempted withdrawal of his statements against the applicant.

Seven experts were examined: a technical expert gave explanations about the recording of data received by way of a radio-transmitting device; a sound expert explained how a transcript of the recording of the applicant's conversation with V. had been produced; two expert linguists submitted that they had used both the tape and the recording transcript in their examination; an expert psychologist answered questions concerning his findings (evidence subsequently excluded as obtained unlawfully – see paragraph 43 below); and two corroborative experts upheld the conclusions of the expert linguists and the sound experts.

Seven attesting witnesses answered questions concerning their participation in various investigative measures: the receipt of the gun handed in by V., the copying of the video and audio tapes, the treatment of the material exhibits with a chemical agent, the “discovery of the corpses” in the operative experiment, and the house search.

Four investigation officers were examined: an FSB officer submitted that on 18 September 2000 V. had written a statement in his presence that the applicant had ordered him to kill S., and had handed in the gun; he also explained how the operative experiment had been carried out; two officers of the prosecutor's office and one officer of the Interior Ministry also described the operative experiment and explained how the copies of the recording of the applicant's conversation with V. had been made.

38. On 15 May 2002 during the court hearing the prosecutor requested to read out the records of the questioning of five witnesses not present at the hearing. The statements made by V. during the pre-trial investigation were among them.

39. The applicant's counsel said that he had no objections. The court decided to grant the request, having noted that “the court took exhaustive measures to call these witnesses to the court hearing and found that ... V.'s whereabouts could not be established and he could not be called to the courtroom even though a number of operational search measures were taken by the FSB and an enquiry was made to the National Central Bureau of Interpol by the Ministry of the Interior ...”. These statements were admitted as evidence.

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40. The court also examined evidence relating to V.'s attempted withdrawal of his statements against the applicant. It established that during the investigation V. had already complained that pressure had been exerted on him to repudiate his statements against the applicant. It also established that the witness D., who was present at the consulate when V. had repudiated his statements, was a close friend of the applicant. The other witness, Y.S., had arrived at the consulate late and did not see the document before it was certified.

41. It was also noted that both the applicant and V. had undergone a psychiatric examination during the investigation and both had been found fit to participate in the criminal proceedings.

42. Other evidence examined by the court included: expert reports produced by chemical, ballistics, linguistic, sound and technical experts; written reports on the operative experiment; V.'s written statement of 18 September 2000; a certified description of the gun handed in by V.; and records of the applicant's confrontation with V. on 20 October 2000.

43. The applicant challenged a number of items of evidence, claiming that they had been obtained unlawfully. The court excluded some of them, in particular the expert report by a psychologist who had examined the recording of the applicant's conversation with V. and the police report on the search carried out on 4 October 2000. The attempt to challenge the audio tape containing the recording of the applicant's conversation with V., and the copies of the tape, was not successful and they were admitted as lawfully obtained evidence.

44. On 19 June 2002 the Meshchanskiy District Court of Moscow gave judgment, finding the applicant guilty of conspiracy to murder and conspiracy to acquire, possess and handle firearms. The finding of guilt was based on the following evidence: the initial statement by V. that the applicant had ordered him to kill S.; the gun V. had handed in; the statements V. had made in front of the applicant when they had been confronted during the questioning on 10 October 2000; numerous witness statements confirming the existence of a conflict between the applicant and S.; and the physical evidence obtained through the covert operation, namely the watches and the feasibility study. Although the recording of the applicant's conversation with V. was played at the hearing, its contents did not feature among the evidence or as part of the court's reasoning. In so far as the record was mentioned in the judgment, the court relied solely on the conclusions of the linguistic experts (see paragraph 30 above) and on several reports confirming that the tape had not been tampered with.

45. The court sentenced the applicant to six and a half years' imprisonment and, having deducted the time already spent in pre-trial detention, conditionally released him on five years' probation.

46. The applicant appealed against the judgment, challenging, inter alia, the admissibility of the evidence obtained through the covert operation and the court's interpretation of the physical evidence and the witnesses' testimonies.

47. On 1 October 2002 the Moscow City Court upheld the applicant's conviction and dismissed his appeal, including the arguments relating to the admissibility of evidence.

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48. On 22 June 2004 the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation examined the applicant's case in supervisory proceedings. It modified the judgment of 19 June 2002 and the appeal decision of 1 October 2002, redefining the legal classification of one of the offences committed by the applicant. It found the applicant guilty of “incitement to commit a crime involving a murder”, and not “conspiracy to murder”. The rest of the judgment, including the sentence, remained unchanged.

II. RELEVANT DOMESTIC LAW

A. Pre-trial detention

49. Until 1 July 2002 criminal-law matters were governed by the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (CCrP).

50. “Preventive measures” or “measures of restraint” included an undertaking not to leave a town or region, personal security, bail and detention on remand (Article 89). A decision to detain someone on remand could be taken by a prosecutor or a court (Articles 11, 89 and 96).

1. Grounds for detention on remand

51. When deciding whether to remand an accused in custody, the competent authority was required to consider whether there were “sufficient grounds to believe” that he or she would abscond during the investigation or trial or obstruct the establishment of the truth or reoffend (Article 89). It also had to take into account the gravity of the charge, information on the accused's character, his or her profession, age, state of health, family status and other circumstances (Article 91).

52. Before 14 March 2001, detention on remand was authorised if the accused was charged with a criminal offence carrying a sentence of at least one year's imprisonment or if there were “exceptional circumstances” in the case (Article 96). On 14 March 2001 the CCrP was amended to permit defendants to be remanded in custody if the charge carried a sentence of at least two years' imprisonment or if they had previously defaulted or had no permanent residence in Russia or if their identity could not be ascertained. The amendments of 14 March 2001 also repealed the provision that permitted defendants to be remanded in custody on the sole ground of the dangerous nature of the criminal offence committed.

2. Time-limits for detention on remand

53. The CCrP provided for a distinction between two types of detention on remand: the first being “during the investigation”, that is, while a competent agency – the police or a prosecutor's office – was investigating the case, and the second being “before the court” (or “during the judicial proceedings”), at the judicial stage. Although there was no

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difference in practice between them (the detainee was held in the same detention facility), the calculation of the time-limits was different.

54. From the date the prosecutor referred the case to the trial court, the defendant's detention was classified as “before the court” (or “during the judicial proceedings”).

55. Before 14 March 2001 the CCrP did not set any time-limit for detention “during the judicial proceedings”. On 14 March 2001 a new Article 239-1 was inserted which established that the period of detention “during the judicial proceedings” could not generally exceed six months from the date the court received the file. However, if there was evidence to show that the defendant's release might impede a thorough, complete and objective examination of the case, a court could – of its own motion or on a request by a prosecutor – extend the detention by no longer than three months. These provisions did not apply to defendants charged with particularly serious criminal offences.

B. Operative experiments

56. The Operational-Search Activities Act of 12 August 1995 (no. 144‑FZ) provides, in so far as relevant, as follows:

Section 6: Operational-search activities

“In carrying out investigations the following measures may be taken:

...

9. supervision of postal, telegraphic and other communications;

10. telephone interception;

11. collection of data from technical channels of communication;

...

14. operative experiments.

...

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Operational-search activities involving supervision of postal, telegraphic and other communications, telephone interception through [telecommunication companies], and the collection of data from technical channels of communication are to be carried out by technical means by the Federal Security Service and the agencies of the Interior Ministry in accordance with decisions and agreements signed between the agencies involved.

...”

Section 8: Conditions governing the performance of operational-search activities

“Operational-search activities involving interference with the constitutional right to privacy of postal, telegraphic and other communications transmitted by means of wire or mail services, or with the privacy of the home, may be conducted, subject to a judicial decision, following the receipt of information concerning:

1. the appearance that an offence has been committed or is ongoing, or a conspiracy to commit an offence whose investigation is mandatory;

2. persons conspiring to commit, or committing, or having committed an offence whose investigation is mandatory;

...

Operative experiments may only be conducted for the detection, prevention, interruption and investigation of a serious crime, or for the identification of persons preparing, committing or having committed it.

...”

Section 9: Grounds and procedure for judicial authorisation of operational-search activities involving interference with the constitutional rights of individuals

“The examination of requests for the taking of measures involving interference with the constitutional right to privacy of correspondence and telephone, postal, telegraphic and

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other communications transmitted by means of wire or mail services, or with the right to privacy of the home, shall fall within the competence of a court at the place where the requested measure is to be carried out or at the place where the requesting body is located. The request must be examined immediately by a single judge; the examination of the request may not be refused.

...

The judge examining the request shall decide whether to authorise measures involving interference with the above-mentioned constitutional right, or to refuse authorisation, indicating reasons.

...”

Section 11: Use of information obtained through operational-search activities

“Information gathered as a result of operational-search activities may be used for the preparation and conduct of the investigation and court proceedings ... and used as evidence in criminal proceedings in accordance with legal provisions regulating the collection, evaluation and assessment of evidence. ...”

C. Evidence in criminal proceedings

57. Article 69 of the CCrP provided as follows:

“...

Evidence obtained in breach of the law shall be considered to have no legal force and cannot be relied on as grounds for criminal charges.”

The 2001 Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation, which replaced the CCrP of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1 July 2002, provides as follows, in so far as relevant:

Article 75: Inadmissible evidence

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“1. Evidence obtained in breach of this Code shall be inadmissible. Inadmissible evidence shall have no legal force and cannot be relied on as grounds for criminal charges or for proving any of the [circumstances for which evidence is required in criminal proceedings].

...”

Article 235

“...

5. If a court decides to exclude evidence, that evidence shall have no legal force and cannot be relied on in a judgment or other judicial decision, or be examined or used during the trial.

...”

THE LAW

I. ALLEGED VIOLATION OF ARTICLE 5 § 3 OF THE CONVENTION

58. The applicant complained that his pre-trial detention had been excessively long and that it had been successively extended without any indication of relevant and sufficient reasons. He relied on Article 5 § 3 of the Convention, which provides as follows:

“Everyone arrested or detained in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 1 (c) of this Article shall be ... entitled to trial within a reasonable time or to release pending trial. Release may be conditioned by guarantees to appear for trial.”

59. The Government submitted that the applicant's detention had not been excessively long and argued that the investigation of his case had taken time because of its complexity and scale. They also claimed that, given his personality, there had been an obvious risk that the applicant might evade prosecution, influence witnesses and obstruct the course of justice, which justified his continued detention.

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60. The applicant maintained his complaint, claiming that the grounds given for his detention and its repeated extension had been unsupported by any reasoning or factual information.

61. According to the Court's settled case-law, the presumption under Article 5 is in favour of release. As established in Neumeister v. Austria (27 June 1968, § 4, Series A no. 8), the second limb of Article 5 § 3 does not give judicial authorities a choice between either bringing an accused to trial within a reasonable time or granting him provisional release pending trial. Until conviction, he must be presumed innocent, and the purpose of the provision under consideration is essentially to require his provisional release once his continuing detention ceases to be reasonable.

62. Continued detention therefore can be justified in a given case only if there are specific indications of a genuine requirement of public interest which, notwithstanding the presumption of innocence, outweighs the rule of respect for individual liberty laid down in Article 5 of the Convention (see, among other authorities, Kudła v. Poland [GC], no. 30210/96, §§ 110 et seq., ECHR 2000-XI).

63. The responsibility falls in the first place to the national judicial authorities to ensure that, in a given case, the pre-trial detention of an accused person does not exceed a reasonable time. To this end they must, paying due regard to the principle of the presumption of innocence, examine all the facts arguing for or against the existence of the above-mentioned demand of public interest justifying a departure from the rule in Article 5 and must set them out in their decisions on the applications for release. It is essentially on the basis of the reasons given in these decisions and of the established facts stated by the applicant in his appeals that the Court is called upon to decide whether or not there has been a violation of Article 5 § 3 (see, for example, Weinsztal v. Poland, no. 43748/98, § 50, 30 May 2006, and McKay v. the United Kingdom [GC], no. 543/03, § 43, ECHR 2006‑X).

64. The persistence of reasonable suspicion that the person arrested has committed an offence is a condition sine qua non for the lawfulness of the continued detention, but with the lapse of time this no longer suffices and the Court must then establish whether the other grounds given by the judicial authorities continued to justify the deprivation of liberty. Where such grounds were “relevant” and “sufficient”, the Court must also be satisfied that the national authorities displayed “special diligence” in the conduct of the proceedings (see, among other authorities, Letellier v. France, 26 June 1991, § 35, Series A no. 207, and Yağcı and Sargın v. Turkey, 8 June 1995, § 50, Series A no. 319-A). In this connection, the Court reiterates that the burden of proof in these matters should not be reversed by making it incumbent on the detained person to demonstrate the existence of reasons warranting his release (see Ilijkov v. Bulgaria, no. 33977/96, § 85, 26 July 2001).

65. Turning to the instant case, the Court observes that the applicant spent one year, eight months and 15 days in detention before and during his trial. In this period the courts examined the applicant's application for release at least ten times, each time refusing it on the grounds of the gravity of the charges and the likelihood of his fleeing, obstructing the course of justice and exerting pressure on witnesses. However, the judicial decisions did not go any further than listing these grounds, omitting to substantiate them with relevant and sufficient reasons. The Court also notes that with the passing of time the courts' reasoning did not evolve to reflect the developing

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situation and to verify whether these grounds remained valid at the advanced stage of the proceedings. Moreover, from 7 September 2001 the decisions extending the applicant's detention no longer indicated any time-limits, thus implying that he would remain in detention until the end of the trial.

66. As regards the Government's argument that the circumstances of the case and the applicant's personality were self-evident for the purpose of justifying his pre-trial detention, the Court does not consider that this in itself absolved the courts from the obligation to set out reasons for coming to this conclusion, in particular in the decisions taken at later stages. It reiterates that where circumstances that could have warranted a person's detention may have existed but were not mentioned in the domestic decisions it is not the Court's task to establish them and to take the place of the national authorities which ruled on the applicant's detention (see Panchenko v. Russia, no. 45100/98, §§ 99 and 105, 8 February 2005, and Ilijkov, cited above, § 86).

67. The Court therefore finds that the authorities failed to adduce relevant and sufficient reasons to justify extending the applicant's detention pending trial to one year, eight months and 15 days.

68. There has therefore been a violation of Article 5 § 3 of the Convention.

II. ALLEGED VIOLATION OF ARTICLE 8 OF THE CONVENTION

69. The applicant complained that the covert operation had involved an unlawful intrusion into his home and that the interception and recording of his conversation with V. had interfered with his private life. He alleged a violation of Article 8 of the Convention, which reads as follows:

“1. Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence.

2. There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.”

70. The Government maintained that the covert operation, and in particular the interception and recording of the applicant's conversation with V., had been conducted in accordance with the Operational-Search Activities Act. They claimed that it constituted an “operative experiment” within the meaning of the Act. They further argued that no judicial authorisation had been required for the purposes of the present case because pursuant to section 8 of the Act, it was only required for the interception of communications transmitted by means of wire channels or mail services, none of which had been employed in the covert operation at issue. They also denied that there had been an intrusion into the applicant's home since the “guest house” could not be considered his home, and in any case he had let V. in voluntarily. They further claimed

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that in the circumstances of the case the covert operation had been indispensable because without the interception of the applicant's conversation with V. it would have been impossible to verify the suspicion that he had committed a serious crime. They contended that the measures taken to investigate the crime had been proportionate to the seriousness of the offence in question.

71. The applicant maintained, on the contrary, that the covert operation had involved an unlawful and unjustified interference with his right to respect for his private life and home. He claimed that there had been an unlawful intrusion into his home and contested the Government's argument that he had not objected to V.'s entry because his consent had not extended to accepting a police agent on his premises. He also claimed that the recording of his conversation with V. had interfered with his privacy and had therefore required prior judicial authorisation.

72. The Court notes that it is not in dispute that the measures carried out by the police in the conduct of the covert operation amounted to an interference with the applicant's right to respect for his private life under Article 8 § 1 of the Convention (see Wood v. the United Kingdom, no. 23414/02, § 29, 16 November 2004; M.M. v. the Netherlands, no. 39339/98, §§ 36-42, 8 April 2003; and A. v. France, 23 November 1993, Series A no. 277‑B). The principal issue is whether this interference was justified under Article 8 § 2, notably whether it was “in accordance with the law” and “necessary in a democratic society”, for one of the purposes enumerated in that paragraph.

73. In this connection, the Court notes that the domestic authorities put forward two arguments in support of the view that the covert operation had been lawful. The first-instance court found that there had been no “intrusion” or breach of the applicant's privacy because of the absence of objections to V.'s entry into the premises and because of the “non-private” purpose of these premises. The prosecutor's office, in addition to that, maintained that the covert operation had been lawful because it had not involved any activity subject to special legal requirements and the police had thus remained within the domain of their own discretion.

74. The Court observes that the Operational-Search Activities Act is expressly intended to protect individual privacy by requiring judicial authorisation for any operational-search activities that could interfere with it. The Act specifies two types of protected privacy: firstly, privacy of communications by wire or mail services and, secondly, privacy of the home. As regards the latter, the domestic authorities, notably the Meshchanskiy District Court of Moscow, argued that V.'s entering the “guest house” with the applicant's consent did not constitute an intrusion amounting to interference with the privacy of the applicant's home. As to the question of privacy of communications, it was only addressed as a separate issue in the prosecutor's decision dismissing the applicant's complaint. In his opinion, the applicant's conversation with V. remained outside the scope of protection offered by the Act because it did not involve the use of “wire or mail services”. The same argument was put forward by the Government, who considered that the requirement of judicial authorisation did not extend to the use of the radio‑transmitting device and that the covert operation could not therefore be said to have breached domestic law.

75. Having regard to the above, it is clear that the domestic authorities did not interpret the Operational-Search Activities Act as requiring prior judicial authorisation in the circumstances of the case at hand, since the case was found not to involve the applicant's “home” or the use of wire or mail services within the meaning of section 8 of

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the Act. The measure was considered to be an investigative step within the domain of the investigating authorities' own discretion.

76. The Court reiterates that the phrase “in accordance with the law” not only requires compliance with domestic law but also relates to the quality of that law, requiring it to be compatible with the rule of law. In the context of covert surveillance by public authorities, in this instance the police, domestic law must provide protection against arbitrary interference with an individual's right under Article 8. Moreover, the law must be sufficiently clear in its terms to give individuals an adequate indication as to the circumstances in which and the conditions on which public authorities are entitled to resort to such covert measures (see Khan v. the United Kingdom, no. 35394/97, § 26, ECHR 2000-V).

77. The Court further observes that the Operational-Search Activities Act permitted so-called “operative experiments” to be conducted for the investigation of serious crime. While the law itself did not define what measures such “experiments” could involve, the national authorities took the view that there existed no statutory system in Russian law regulating the interception or recording of private communications through a radio‑transmitting device. The Government argued that the existing regulations on telephone tapping were not applicable to radio‑transmitting devices and could not be extended to them by analogy. On the contrary, they emphasised the difference between the two by indicating that no judicial authorisation for the use of a radio‑transmitting device was required, for the reason that this technology fell outside the scope of any existing regulations. Thus, the Government considered that the use of technology not listed in section 8 of the Operational-Search Activities Act for the interception was not subject to the formal requirements imposed by the Act.

78. The Court has consistently held that when it comes to the interception of communications for the purpose of a police investigation, “the law must be sufficiently clear in its terms to give citizens an adequate indication as to the circumstances in which and the conditions on which public authorities are empowered to resort to this secret and potentially dangerous interference with the right to respect for private life and correspondence” (see Malone v. the United Kingdom, 2 August 1984, § 67, Series A no. 82). In particular, in order to comply with the requirement of the “quality of the law”, a law which confers discretion must indicate the scope of that discretion, although the detailed procedures and conditions to be observed do not necessarily have to be incorporated in rules of substantive law. The degree of precision required of the “law” in this connection will depend upon the particular subject-matter. Since the implementation in practice of measures of secret surveillance of communications is not open to scrutiny by the individuals concerned or the public at large, it would be contrary to the rule of law for the legal discretion granted to the executive – or to a judge – to be expressed in terms of an unfettered power. Consequently, the law must indicate the scope of any such discretion conferred on the competent authorities and the manner of its exercise with sufficient clarity to give the individual adequate protection against arbitrary interference (see, among other authorities, Huvig v. France, 24 April 1990, §§ 29 and 32, Series A no. 176‑B; Amann v. Switzerland [GC], no. 27798/95, § 56, ECHR 2000‑II; and Valenzuela Contreras v. Spain, 30 July 1998, § 46, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1998‑V).

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79. In the Court's opinion, these principles apply equally to the use of a radio‑transmitting device, which, in terms of the nature and degree of the intrusion involved, is virtually identical to telephone tapping.

80. In the instant case, the applicant enjoyed very few, if any, safeguards in the procedure by which the interception of his conversation with V. was ordered and implemented. In particular, the legal discretion of the authorities to order the interception was not subject to any conditions, and the scope and the manner of its exercise were not defined; no other specific safeguards were provided for. Given the absence of specific regulations providing safeguards, the Court is not satisfied that, as claimed by the Government, the possibility for the applicant to bring court proceedings seeking to declare the “operative experiment” unlawful and to request the exclusion of its results as unlawfully obtained evidence met the above requirements.

81. It follows that in the absence of specific and detailed regulations, the use of this surveillance technique as part of an “operative experiment” was not accompanied by adequate safeguards against various possible abuses. Accordingly, its use was open to arbitrariness and was inconsistent with the requirement of lawfulness.

82. The Court concludes that the interference with the applicant's right to respect for private life was not “in accordance with the law”, as required by Article 8 § 2 of the Convention. In the light of this conclusion, the Court is not required to determine whether the interference was “necessary in a democratic society” for one of the aims enumerated in paragraph 2 of Article 8. Nor is it necessary to consider whether the covert operation also constituted an interference with the applicant's right to respect for his home.

83. Accordingly, there has been a violation of Article 8.

III. ALLEGED VIOLATION OF ARTICLE 6 OF THE CONVENTION

84. The applicant complained that he had been tricked by the police into making self-incriminating statements in his conversation with V. and that the court had admitted the record of this conversation as evidence at the trial. He alleged a violation of Article 6 § 1, which provides, in so far as relevant:

“In the determination of ... any criminal charge against him, everyone is entitled to a fair ... hearing ... by [a] ... tribunal ...”

85. The Government submitted that the criminal proceedings against the applicant had been conducted lawfully and with due respect for the rights of the accused. They pointed out that the applicant's conviction had been based on an ample body of evidence of which only part had been obtained through the covert operation. The evidence relied on by the courts had included statements by more than 40 witnesses, expert opinions, and various items of physical and documentary evidence which provided a broad and consistent basis for the finding of guilt. The Government pointed out that it had been open to the applicant to challenge in adversarial proceedings the evidence obtained through the covert operation and that he had availed himself of this possibility.

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86. The Government further maintained that the collection and the use of evidence against the applicant had involved no breach of his right to silence, or oppression, or defiance of his will. They pointed out that at the time when the recording was made the applicant had not been in detention and had not known about the investigation. In his conversation with V. he had acted freely and had been on an equal footing with his interlocutor, who had not been in a position to put any pressure on him. The Government contended that the evidence obtained through the covert operation had been perfectly reliable and that there had been no grounds to exclude the recording or other related evidence. In this connection, they argued that the present case should be distinguished from the case of Allan v. the United Kingdom (no. 48539/99, ECHR 2002‑IX), where the covert operation had taken place in a detention facility at a time when the applicant had been particularly vulnerable, and the Court had described this as “oppressive”.

87. The applicant, on the contrary, maintained that his conviction had been based on illegally obtained evidence, in breach of his right to remain silent and the privilege against self-incrimination. He alleged that his conversation with V. had in fact constituted a concealed interrogation, unaccompanied by any procedural guarantees. Finally, he denied that the record of this conversation had any probative value and claimed that it should not have been admitted as evidence at trial.

A. General principles established in the Court's case-law

88. The Court reiterates that, in accordance with Article 19 of the Convention, its only task is to ensure the observance of the obligations undertaken by the Parties in the Convention. In particular, it is not competent to deal with an application alleging that errors of law or fact have been committed by domestic courts, except where it considers that such errors might have involved a possible violation of any of the rights and freedoms set out in the Convention. While Article 6 guarantees the right to a fair hearing, it does not lay down any rules on the admissibility of evidence as such, which is primarily a matter for regulation under national law (see Schenk v. Switzerland, 12 July 1988, § 45, Series A no. 140; Teixeira de Castro v. Portugal, 9 June 1998, § 34, Reports 1998‑IV; and Jalloh v. Germany [GC], no. 54810/00, §§ 94-96, ECHR 2006‑IX).

89. It is therefore not the role of the Court to determine, as a matter of principle, whether particular types of evidence – for example, evidence obtained unlawfully in terms of domestic law – may be admissible or, indeed, whether the applicant was guilty or not. The question which must be answered is whether the proceedings as a whole, including the way in which the evidence was obtained, were fair. This involves an examination of the “unlawfulness” in question and, where a violation of another Convention right is concerned, the nature of the violation found (see, among other authorities, Khan, cited above, § 34; P.G. and J.H. v. the United Kingdom, no. 44787/98, § 76, ECHR 2001‑IX; Heglas v. the Czech Republic, no. 5935/02, §§ 89-92, 1 March 2007; and Allan, cited above, § 42).

90. In determining whether the proceedings as a whole were fair, regard must also be had to whether the rights of the defence were respected. It must be examined in particular whether the applicant was given the opportunity of challenging the authenticity of the evidence and of opposing its use. In addition, the quality of the evidence must be taken into consideration, including whether the circumstances in which it was obtained

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cast doubt on its reliability or accuracy. While no problem of fairness necessarily arises where the evidence obtained was unsupported by other material, it may be noted that where the evidence is very strong and there is no risk of its being unreliable, the need for supporting evidence is correspondingly weaker (see, among other authorities, Khan, cited above, §§ 35 and 37, and Allan, cited above, § 43).

91. As regards, in particular, the examination of the nature of the Convention violation found, the Court observes that notably in the cases of Khan (cited above, §§ 25-28) and P.G. and J.H. v. the United Kingdom (cited above, §§ 37-38) it found the use of covert listening devices to be in breach of Article 8 since recourse to such devices lacked a legal basis in domestic law and the interferences with those applicants' right to respect for their private life were not “in accordance with the law”. Nonetheless, the admission in evidence of information obtained thereby did not in the circumstances of the cases conflict with the requirements of fairness guaranteed by Article 6 § 1.

92. As regards the privilege against self-incrimination or the right to remain silent, the Court reiterates that these are generally recognised international standards which lie at the heart of a fair procedure. Their aim is to provide an accused person with protection against improper compulsion by the authorities and thus to avoid miscarriages of justice and secure the aims of Article 6 (see John Murray v. the United Kingdom, 8 February 1996, § 45, Reports 1996-I). The right not to incriminate oneself is primarily concerned with respecting the will of an accused person to remain silent and presupposes that the prosecution in a criminal case seeks to prove the case against the accused without resorting to evidence obtained through methods of coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused (see Saunders v. the United Kingdom, 17 December 1996, §§ 68‑69, Reports 1996-VI; Allan, cited above, § 44; Jalloh, cited above, §§ 94-117; and O'Halloran and Francis v. the United Kingdom [GC], nos. 15809/02 and 25624/02, §§ 53-63, ECHR 2007-...). In examining whether a procedure has extinguished the very essence of the privilege against self-incrimination, the Court must examine the nature and degree of the compulsion, the existence of any relevant safeguards in the procedures and the use to which any material so obtained is put (see, for example, Heaney and McGuinness v. Ireland, no. 34720/97, §§ 54-55, ECHR 2000‑XII, and J.B. v. Switzerland, no. 31827/96, ECHR 2001-III).

93. The general requirements of fairness contained in Article 6 apply to all criminal proceedings, irrespective of the type of offence at issue. Public-interest concerns cannot justify measures which extinguish the very essence of an applicant's defence rights, including the privilege against self-incrimination guaranteed by Article 6 of the Convention (see, mutatis mutandis, Heaney and McGuinness, cited above, §§ 57-58).

B. Application of those principles to the present case

94. The Court observes that in contesting at his trial the use of the material obtained through the “operative experiment”, the applicant put forward two arguments. Firstly, he argued that the evidence obtained from the covert operation, in particular the recording of his conversation with V., was unreliable and open to a different interpretation from that given by the domestic courts. Secondly, he alleged that the use of such evidence ran counter to the privilege against self-incrimination and his right to remain silent.

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95. As regards the first point, the Court reiterates that where the reliability of evidence is in dispute the existence of fair procedures to examine the admissibility of the evidence takes on an even greater importance (see Allan, cited above, § 47). In the present case, the applicant was able to challenge the covert operation, and every piece of evidence obtained thereby, in the adversarial procedure before the first-instance court and in his grounds of appeal. The grounds for the challenge were the alleged unlawfulness and trickery in obtaining evidence and the alleged misinterpretation of the conversation recorded on the tape. Each of these points was addressed by the courts and dismissed in reasoned decisions. The Court notes that the applicant made no complaints in relation to the procedure by which the courts reached their decision concerning the admissibility of the evidence.

96. The Court further observes that the impugned recording, together with the physical evidence obtained through the covert operation, was not the only evidence relied on by the domestic court as the basis for the applicant's conviction. In fact, the key evidence for the prosecution was the initial statement by V., who had reported to the FSB that the applicant had ordered him to kill S., and had handed in the gun (see paragraph 10 above). This statement, which gave rise to the investigation, was made by V. before, and independently from, the covert operation, in his capacity as a private individual and not as a police informant. Furthermore, he reiterated his incriminating statements during his subsequent questioning on several occasions and during the confrontation between him and the applicant at the pre-trial stage.

97. While it is true that V. was not cross-examined at the trial, the failure to do so was not imputable to the authorities, who took all necessary steps to establish his whereabouts and have him attend the trial, including by seeking the assistance of Interpol. The trial court thoroughly examined the circumstances of V.'s withdrawal of his incriminating statements and came to a reasoned conclusion that the repudiation was not trustworthy. Moreover, the applicant was given an opportunity to question V. on the substance of his incriminating statements when they were confronted during the questioning on 10 October 2000. Some importance is also to be attached to the fact that the applicant's counsel expressly agreed to having V.'s pre-trial testimonies read out in open court. Finally, V.'s incriminating statements were corroborated by circumstantial evidence, in particular numerous witness testimonies confirming the existence of a conflict of interests between the applicant and S.

98. In view of the above, the Court accepts that the evidence obtained from the covert operation was not the sole basis for the applicant's conviction, corroborated as it was by other conclusive evidence. Nothing has been shown to support the conclusion that the applicant's defence rights were not properly complied with in respect of the evidence adduced or that its evaluation by the domestic courts was arbitrary.

99. It remains for the Court to examine whether the covert operation, and the use of evidence obtained thereby, involved a breach of the applicant's right not to incriminate himself and to remain silent. The applicant argued that the police had overstepped the limits of permissible behaviour by secretly recording his conversation with V., who was acting on their instructions. He claimed that his conviction had resulted from trickery and subterfuge incompatible with the notion of a fair trial.

100. The Court recently examined similar allegations in the case of Heglas (cited above). In that case the applicant had admitted his participation in a robbery in the course of a

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conversation with a person who had been fitted by the police with a listening device hidden under her clothes. The Court dismissed the applicant's complaint under Article 6 of the Convention concerning the use of the recording, finding that he had had the benefit of adversarial proceedings, that his conviction had also been based on evidence other than the impugned recording, and that the measure had been aimed at detecting a serious offence and had thus served an important public interest. The applicant, before the recording was made, had not been officially questioned about, or charged with, the criminal offence.

101. The circumstances of the covert operation conducted in the Heglas case were essentially different from those of the Allan case (cited above), where a violation of Article 6 was found. In the latter case the applicant was in pre-trial detention and expressed his wish to remain silent when questioned by the investigators. However, the police primed the applicant's cellmate to take advantage of the applicant's vulnerable and susceptible state following lengthy periods of interrogation. The Court, relying on a combination of these factors, considered that the authorities' conduct amounted to coercion and oppression and found that the information had been obtained in defiance of the applicant's will.

102. The Court notes that in the present case the applicant had not been under any pressure to receive V. at his “guest house”, to speak to him, or to make any specific comments on the matter raised by V. Unlike the applicant in the Allan case (cited above), the applicant was not detained on remand but was at liberty on his own premises attended by security and other personnel. The nature of his relations with V. – subordination of the latter to the applicant – did not impose any particular form of behaviour on him. In other words, the applicant was free to see V. and to talk to him, or to refuse to do so. It appears that he was willing to continue the conversation started by V. because its subject matter was of personal interest to him. Thus, the Court is not convinced that the obtaining of evidence was tainted with the element of coercion or oppression which in the Allan case the Court found to amount to a breach of the applicant's right to remain silent.

103. The Court also attaches weight to the fact that in making their assessment the domestic courts did not directly rely on the recording of the applicant's conversation with V., or its transcript, and did not seek to interpret specific statements made by the applicant during the conversation. Instead they examined the expert report drawn up on the conversation in order to assess his relations with V. and the manner in which he involved himself in the dialogue. Moreover, at the trial the recording was not treated as a plain confession or an admission of knowledge capable of lying at the core of a finding of guilt; it played a limited role in a complex body of evidence assessed by the court.

104. Having examined the safeguards which surrounded the evaluation of the admissibility and reliability of the evidence concerned, the nature and degree of the alleged compulsion, and the use to which the material obtained through the covert operation was put, the Court finds that the proceedings in the applicant's case, considered as a whole, were not contrary to the requirements of a fair trial.

105. It follows that there has been no violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention.

IV. APPLICATION OF ARTICLE 41 OF THE CONVENTION

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106. Article 41 of the Convention provides:

“If the Court finds that there has been a violation of the Convention or the Protocols thereto, and if the internal law of the High Contracting Party concerned allows only partial reparation to be made, the Court shall, if necessary, afford just satisfaction to the injured party.”

107. The applicant claimed compensation for the pecuniary and non‑pecuniary damage sustained as a result of the alleged violations of the Convention.

108. As regards pecuniary damage, the applicant claimed 4,059,061.80 Russian roubles (119,089.25 euros (EUR)), which represented his loss of earnings during his pre‑trial detention. As regards non-pecuniary damage, the applicant claimed that he had suffered emotional distress and a diminished quality of life and requested compensation for this in an amount to be determined by the Court.

109. The Government contested these claims as manifestly ill-founded. They considered that any finding by the Court of a violation would constitute sufficient just satisfaction in the present case.

110. The Court notes that the applicant's claim for pecuniary damage relates to the complaint about his pre-trial detention, in respect of which a violation of Article 5 § 3 has been found (see paragraph 68 above). It reiterates that there must be a clear causal connection between the damage claimed by the applicant and the violation of the Convention (see Barberà, Messegué and Jabardo v. Spain (Article 50), 13 June 1994, §§ 16-20, Series A no. 285-C; see also Berktay v. Turkey, no. 22493/93, § 215, 1 March 2001). The Court does not discern any causal link between the authorities' failure to adduce relevant and sufficient reasons for the applicant's continued detention and the loss of income he alleged (see Dzelili v. Germany, no. 65745/01, §§ 107-13, 10 November 2005).

111. On the other hand, it considers that the applicant has suffered non-pecuniary damage which is not sufficiently compensated by the finding of a violation of the Convention. Considering the circumstances of the case and making its assessment on an equitable basis, the Court awards the applicant EUR 1,000 under this head.

B. Costs and expenses

112. In the proceedings before the Chamber the applicant claimed EUR 93,246.25 in respect of costs and expenses. For his legal representation before the domestic courts the applicant paid the equivalent of EUR 60,691.61 to Mr G. Padva, his defence counsel in the criminal proceedings. He submitted a full set of receipts confirming the payment of this sum to Mr Padva's office. In the proceedings before the Court, the applicant was also represented by Mr Krauss and Mr J. Pastille, to whom he paid an aggregate amount of EUR 69,839.64 (EUR 32,554.64 in the proceedings before the Chamber and EUR 37,285 before the Grand Chamber). In respect of their services he provided an invoice for 25,583.70 United States dollars, indicating the number of hours and the hourly rates used as a basis, plus various expenses. Two further invoices – by Mr Pastille for EUR

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5,000 and by a law firm, “Rusanovs, Rode, Buss”, for EUR 7,500 – did not contain any particulars. Following the public hearing before the Grand Chamber the applicant supplemented the claims and provided an invoice for EUR 37,285 which comprised EUR 30,600 in respect of lawyers' fees, indicating the number of hours spent by each counsel and adviser, and EUR 6,685 for travel expenses.

113. The Government claimed that these expenditures had not been incurred necessarily and were unreasonable as to quantum. They considered that the number of legal counsel engaged in the case was not justified by the circumstances or the complexity of the case. Commenting on specific sums, they pointed out that Mr Padva's invoice contained no itemised list of services rendered to the applicant under the legal services agreement. They also disputed the hourly rates charged by Mr Krauss, Mr Pastille and their associates, claiming that they were unreasonable and in excess of the average legal rates. They also challenged the invoices for EUR 5,000 and for EUR 7,500, claiming that in the absence of any itemised list of services or financial receipts there was no proof that these expenses had actually been incurred. The Government considered that a sum of EUR 3,000 would be sufficient under this head.

114. According to the Court's case-law, an applicant is entitled to reimbursement of his costs and expenses only in so far as it has been shown that these have been actually and necessarily incurred and are reasonable as to quantum. Furthermore, legal costs are recoverable only in so far as they relate to the violation found (see, for example, I.J.L. and Others v. the United Kingdom (just satisfaction), nos. 29522/95, 30056/96 and 30574/96, § 18, 25 September 2001). In the instant case, the Court considers the amount claimed excessive, given that a number of the applicant's complaints were either declared inadmissible or did not result in a finding of a violation of the Convention (see Bykov v. Russia (dec.), no. 4378/02, 7 September 2006, and paragraph 105 above). Moreover, the applicant's submissions contain no information on the specific services covered by the invoices. Thus, the Court considers that a significant reduction is necessary on both accounts. Having regard to all relevant factors, the Court considers it reasonable to award the sum of EUR 25,000 in respect of costs and expenses, plus any tax that may be chargeable on that amount.

C. Default interest

115. The Court considers it appropriate that the default interest should be based on the marginal lending rate of the European Central Bank, to which should be added three percentage points.

FOR THESE REASONS, THE COURT

1. Holds unanimously that there has been a violation of Article 5 § 3 of the Convention;

2. Holds unanimously that there has been a violation of Article 8 of the Convention;

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3. Holds by eleven votes to six that there has been no violation of Article 6 of the Convention;

4. Holds

(a) (i) by twelve votes to five that the respondent State is to pay the applicant, within three months, EUR 1,000 (one thousand euros) in respect of non-pecuniary damage, to be converted into the national currency of the respondent State at the rate applicable at the date of settlement, plus any tax that may be chargeable on that amount;

(ii) unanimously that the respondent State is to pay the applicant, within three months, EUR 25,000 (twenty-five thousand euros) in respect of costs and expenses, to be converted into the national currency of the respondent State at the rate applicable at the date of settlement plus any tax that may be chargeable to the applicant on that amount;

(b) unanimously that from the expiry of the above-mentioned three months until settlement simple interest shall be payable on the above amounts at a rate equal to the marginal lending rate of the European Central Bank during the default period plus three percentage points;

5. Dismisses unanimously the remainder of the applicant's claim for just satisfaction.

Done in English and in French, and delivered at a public hearing in the Human Rights Building, Strasbourg, on 10 March 2009.

Michael O'Boyle Jean-Paul Costa

Deputy Registrar President

In accordance with Article 45 § 2 of the Convention and Rule 74 § 2 of the Rules of Court, the following opinions are annexed to this judgment:

(a) concurring opinion of Judge Cabral Barreto;

(b) concurring opinion of Judge Kovler;

(c) partially dissenting opinion of Judge Costa;

(d) partially dissenting opinion of Judge Spielmann, joined by Judges Rozakis, Tulkens, Casadevall and Mijović.

J.-P.C.

M.O'B.

CONCURRING OPINION OF JUDGE CABRAL BARRETO

(Translation)

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I agree with the majority's finding that there was no violation of Article 6 of the Convention in the present case.

However, to my mind it is not enough to say, as the majority do, that the proceedings, considered as a whole, were not contrary to the requirements of a fair trial.

I find it regrettable that the Grand Chamber missed the opportunity to clarify once and for all an issue on which the Court has long been divided: whether the use in criminal proceedings of evidence obtained in breach of Article 8 of the Convention undermines the fairness of a trial as protected by Article 6.

1. The Court's case-law on this subject dates back to Schenk v. Switzerland (12 July 1988, Series A no. 140).

In concluding by a majority that the use of the disputed recording in evidence had not deprived the applicant of a fair trial, the Court mainly relied on the fact that the rights of the defence had not been disregarded.

This finding shaped the development of our case-law; even where the manner in which evidence has been obtained has breached Article 8, a violation of Article 6 has been ruled out if the trial as a whole has been fair, and in particular if the rights of the defence have been respected.

Moreover, in principle, whether the evidence was the sole or a subsidiary basis for the conviction is not in itself decisive (see Khan v. the United Kingdom, no. 35394/97, § 26, ECHR 2000-V).

Similarly, it is immaterial whether the violation of Article 8 results from failure to comply with “domestic law” or with the Convention.

More recently, the Court applied these principles in Heglas v. the Czech Republic (no. 5935/02, 1 March 2007).

2. The case-law on this subject was last refined in Jalloh v. Germany ([GC], no. 54810/00, ECHR 2006-IX).

In that judgment the Court ruled that the use in criminal proceedings of evidence obtained through torture raised serious issues as to the fairness of such proceedings, even if the admission of the evidence in question had not been decisive in securing the suspect's conviction.

Consequently, the use of evidence obtained through torture will always breach Article 6 of the Convention, regardless of whether or not the evidence was a decisive factor in the conviction.

However, the Court has never really stated a position on the question of evidence obtained by means of inhuman or degrading treatment.

In certain circumstances, for example if an applicant is in detention, improper compulsion by the authorities to obtain a confession will contravene the principles of the right not to incriminate oneself and the right to remain silent (see Allan v. the United Kingdom, no. 48539/99, ECHR 2000-IX).

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As regards the question of direct concern to us – and the Heglas judgment is a very recent example of this – where Article 8 is breached as a result of the way in which evidence was gathered, the decisive factor for a finding of a violation or no violation of Article 6 is whether the proceedings as a whole were fair, whether the rights of the defence were respected.

3. I personally would have liked the Grand Chamber to have adopted a new approach revising and clarifying its case-law.

3.1. Firstly, the Grand Chamber should have reaffirmed the position taken in Jalloh regarding evidence obtained through torture.

The mere recourse to torture is sufficient in itself to render the trial unfair, even if the evidence thereby obtained is not decisive in securing the accused's conviction; Article 15 of the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, adopted by the United Nations, lends sufficient force to this argument.

However, we should also go a step further by stating unequivocally that the use of evidence obtained by means of an act classified as inhuman or degrading treatment automatically undermines the fairness of a trial, since the difference between torture and inhuman treatment is often difficult to establish and the nuances are sometimes tiny; furthermore, as a rule, both situations – torture and inhuman and degrading treatment – involve blunders by the authorities against an individual in a position of inferiority.

The Grand Chamber should in my opinion state firmly that any evidence obtained in breach of Article 3 in the course of a trial – through torture or ill-treatment – will always infringe Article 6 of the Convention, even if such evidence did not play a decisive part in the conviction, and even if the accused was able to challenge the evidence thus obtained, without leaving open the possibility of relying on the weight of public interest and the seriousness of the offence.

We must banish conduct that offends against civilised values and ensure that there is some form of severe punishment for acts which undermine our society's most deeply held values as protected by Article 3 of the Convention.

3.2. The four dissenting judges in the Schenk case (cited above), whose opinion was more or less followed by Judges Loucaides (in Khan, cited above) and Tulkens (in P.G. and J.H. v. the United Kingdom, no. 44787/98, ECHR 2001‑IX), considered that a trial could not be described as “fair” where evidence obtained in breach of a fundamental right guaranteed by the Convention had been admitted.

The “dissenters” could not accept that a trial could be “fair”, as required by Article 6, if a person's guilt for any offence was established through evidence obtained in breach of the human rights guaranteed by the Convention.

The fairness required by Article 6 of the Convention also entails a requirement of lawfulness; a trial which has been conducted in breach of domestic law or the Convention can never be regarded as “fair”.

The exclusion of evidence obtained in breach of, for example, the right to respect for private life guaranteed by the Convention should be considered an essential corollary of that right.

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In the “dissenters'” view, evidence amounting to interference with the right to privacy can be admitted in court proceedings and can lead to a conviction for a crime only if the securing of such evidence satisfies the requirements of the second paragraph of Article 8, including the one at issue in the present case, that of being “in accordance with the law”.

However, what is prohibited under one provision (Article 8) cannot be accepted under another (Article 6).

Lastly, there is a real danger to be averted, as Judge Loucaides stressed in the Khan case (cited above), and I quote: “If violating Article 8 can be accepted as 'fair' then I cannot see how the police can be effectively deterred from repeating their impermissible conduct.”

3.3. I must say that I have a good deal of sympathy with this approach, which has the merit of clarity since the violation of Article 6 will be “automatic” once the violation of Article 8 has been found.

Nevertheless, I believe that if such an approach is adopted, certain considerations will arise as regards the consequences of the finding of a violation of Article 6.

Following this approach, once a violation has been found in cases where the accused's conviction was not solely or mainly based on the evidence in dispute, inferences will have to be drawn regarding the execution of the judgment if the evidence in question played only a subsidiary role in the conviction.

Furthermore, as regards the execution of judgments, not all violations of Article 6 will carry the same weight.

I am thinking of violations arising from a failure to comply with provisions concerning substantive rights as opposed to procedural rules.

Here, with regard to unlawful evidence, I wish to emphasise the distinction made by some legal experts between prohibited evidence – which relates to substantive law – and improper evidence – which relates to procedural rules.

We must distinguish between what strikes at the heart of a fair trial, what shocks the sensibilities of a democratic society, what runs counter to the fundamental values embodied in a State based on the rule of law, and a breach of procedural rules in the gathering of evidence.

For example, a breach of the right to confer freely with one's lawyer seems to me to be completely different from a breach resulting from the lack of judicial authorisation for telephone tapping of a suspect, where this flaw is subsequently redressed.

If a recording of the accused's conversation with his lawyer is used as a basis for convicting him, a more serious violation will result, calling for a more forceful attitude on the part of the Court, which may, for example, demand a new trial at which the use of the evidence in issue will be prohibited, and also award an appropriate sum for the damage sustained.

In the other scenario mentioned above, however, the finding of a violation should in itself be sufficient.

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3.4. These considerations lead me to a more detailed examination of other aspects of the procedure, moving away from an “automatic” finding of a violation of Article 6 once a violation of Article 8 has been found: a violation of the latter provision does not automatically entail a violation of Article 6, but simply the presumption of a violation.

A finding of a violation or no violation will depend on the particular circumstances of the case at hand and the weighing up of the values protected by domestic law and the Convention and those in issue in the criminal proceedings.

It is true that such an approach would weaken the notion of a fair trial, which would become a variable-geometry concept.

However, this approach would have the advantage of not treating all situations on the same footing, since, as I have already observed, some violations of Article 8 are worse than others.

I will readily admit that there are risks in such an approach; the choice of the right criteria for finding a violation, and their subsequent application to the particular case, especially where the factual circumstances are difficult to establish, will be a hazardous exercise.

Situations will thus arise when the presumption could be rebutted where the rights of the defence have been respected and where the weight of public interest in the applicant's conviction or other relevant grounds so require.

However, limits will always have to be set.

I would again refer to everything that strikes at the heart of a fair trial, shocks the sensitivities of a democratic society or runs counter to the fundamental values embodied in a State based on the rule of law. Once these values have been undermined, the presumption must be confirmed and a violation of Article 6 found; the public interest at stake or the question whether the rights of the defence have been respected will be immaterial.

The case-law of the Supreme Court of the United States refers in this connection to the falsehoods crucial to the facts of the case that can always result from interrogation techniques “so offensive to a civilized system of justice” that “they must be condemned” in the name of due process.

The Supreme Court of Canada makes a distinction between “dirty tricks” (which the community finds shocking) and mere “ruses”, concluding that “What should be repressed vigorously is conduct on [the authorities'] part that shocks the community. That a police officer pretend to be a lock-up chaplain and hear a suspect's confession is conduct that shocks the community; so is pretending to be the duty legal-aid lawyer eliciting in that way incriminating statements from suspects or accused; injecting Pentothal into a diabetic suspect pretending it is his daily shot of insulin and using his statement in evidence would also shock the community; but generally speaking, pretending to be a hard drug addict to break a drug ring would not shock the community; nor would ... pretending to be a truck driver to secure the conviction of a trafficker” (Judge Lamer, individual opinion, in R. v. Rothman, [1981] 1 SCR 640; approved by the majority of the Supreme Court in R. v. Collins, [1987] 1 SCR 265, § 52, and R. v. Oickle, [2000] 2 SCR 3, § 66).

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I must acknowledge, nevertheless, that all this involves a somewhat empiricist approach and a perhaps excessively discretionary power; however, I wonder how we can draw a firm, clear and distinct line between what might be acceptable and what cannot.

Here, I would return to the distinction between substantive and procedural.

I would say, generally speaking, that the use of any evidence that is not admissible under the member States' domestic law and the Convention will “automatically” entail a violation of the right to a fair trial.

The question whether or not the rights of the defence have been respected, the public interest at stake and all other circumstances are immaterial: a trial in which evidence thus obtained has served as a basis for a conviction will always be an unfair trial.

In that connection I would cite the example of the recording of the accused's conversation with his lawyer.

The gathering of evidence by this means must be discouraged at all costs, even where the evidence in question was merely additional or subsidiary and where a new trial is perhaps not warranted.

On the other hand, where procedural rules have not been complied with in respect of evidence that is normally admissible in member States and under international law – either because domestic law does not provide for such evidence or because, notwithstanding the fact that such evidence is admissible at domestic level, the conditions governing its use in the case at hand were not observed – in certain circumstances, particularly where the rights of the defence have been respected, and where the public interest must prevail over the interests of the individual, in view of the nature and seriousness of the offence, I would tend to conclude that there has been no breach of the rules of a fair trial.

In the present case, I consider that there was no violation because there was only a formal breach (“in accordance with the law”) in obtaining evidence that, in principle, was admissible in a democratic society and the rights of the defence were, moreover, respected.

CONCURRING OPINION OF JUDGE KOVLER

(Translation)

I agree with the conclusions reached by the majority. I should nevertheless like to clarify my position on the complaints under Article 8 of the Convention as submitted by the applicant.

Before relinquishing jurisdiction on 22 November 2007 in favour of the Grand Chamber, the Chamber of seven judges, of which I was a member, summarised the complaints under Article 8 as follows in its admissibility decision of 7 September 2006: “The applicant complained that the police conducting the covert operation unlawfully intruded

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into his home and interfered with his private life and correspondence by intercepting and recording his conversation with V. in violation of Article 8 of the Convention ...” This complaint was declared admissible in its entirety.

According to the text of the Grand Chamber's judgment, “the applicant complained ... about the covert recording made at his home” (see paragraph 3). The statements of the facts (see paragraphs 35-36) and, above all, of the applicant's allegations thus portray the intrusion into his home as an unlawful and unjustified interference with his right to respect for his private life and home (see paragraphs 70-71). However, to my regret the Grand Chamber confines its conclusions to the finding that an “operative experiment” was not accompanied by adequate legal safeguards (see paragraph 81), before stating quite simply: “Nor is it necessary to consider whether the covert operation also constituted an interference with the applicant's right to respect for his home”(see paragraph 82). This was a missed opportunity to undertake a more nuanced assessment of all the applicant's complaints under Article 8, on the basis of the Court's substantial body of case-law in this area.

PARTLY DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE COSTA

(Translation)

1. I consider that there was a breach of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention in this case. The applicant's complaint that the criminal proceedings resulting in his conviction were unfair was mainly based on two arguments:

– that police trickery had caused him to incriminate himself; and

– that the instrument of such trickery – the recording of his conversation with V. – had been admitted in evidence.

2. Both these points may give rise to some uncertainty.

3. The police and the Federal Security Service (FSB) conducted a covert operation in which the central agent was V., who had allegedly been ordered by the applicant to kill the latter's former business associate, S., but had not carried out the murder, instead reporting the applicant to the FSB. The covert operation, aimed at obtaining evidence against the applicant, consisted in sending V. to the applicant's home and instructing V. to say that he had carried out the order to kill; at the same time, their conversation would be secretly recorded by a police officer stationed outside the house.

V.'s visit was itself preceded by the macabre staging several days earlier of the discovery of two dead bodies at S.'s home, spuriously identified as S. and his business partner, I. This was widely publicised.

4. This ploy, despite its specific characteristics, is not in itself far removed from the ruses, traps and stratagems used by the police to obtain confessions from persons suspected of criminal offences or to establish their guilt, and it would be naïve, indeed

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unreasonable, to seek to disarm the security forces, faced as they are with the rise in delinquency and crime.

5. Even so, not all methods used by the police are necessarily compatible with the rights guaranteed by the Convention. Thus, in a different context, the Court did not accept that a police ruse (nevertheless described by the Government as a “little ruse”) was compatible with the right to liberty within the meaning of Article 5 (see Čonka v. Belgium, no. 51564/99, §§ 41-46, ECHR 2002‑I). And in the present case the Court found that the unlawful interception of Mr Bykov's conversation with V. breached Article 8 of the Convention.

6. With regard to Article 6 § 1, I would not go so far as to take the view that the use of any evidence breaching the Convention as a basis for establishing the accused's guilt renders the trial unfair (as was argued by Judge Loucaides in his separate opinion in Khan v. the United Kingdom, no. 35394/97, ECHR 2000‑V). However, I do believe that the Court should undertake a careful examination of whether a trial based on such evidence complies with Article 6 § 1, a point to which I shall return later.

7. As regards the right not to incriminate oneself, an inherent aspect of the rights of the defence as affirmed in John Murray v. the United Kingdom (8 February 1996, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996‑I), it normally entails the right for a person suspected of an offence to remain silent, including during police questioning. Although the Court accepts that the right not to contribute to incriminating oneself is not absolute, it attaches considerable importance to it and has sometimes pointed out that it originates in Article 14 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (see Funke v. France, 25 February 1993, § 42, Series A no. 256‑A).

8. The right to remain silent would be truly “theoretical and illusory” if it were accepted that the police had the right to “make a suspect talk” by using a covert recording of a conversation with an informer assigned the task of entrapping the suspect.

9. Yet that was exactly the case here. V. was in practice an “agent” of the security forces, and I can see similarities between the Bykov case and that of Ramanauskas v. Lithuania ([GC], no. 74420/01, ECHR 2008‑...), in which the Grand Chamber unanimously found a violation of Article 6 § 1. The facts were different, but both cases involved simulation and provocation instigated by the security forces. By telling the applicant that he had carried out the killing, V. sought to induce the applicant, who was unaware that his conversation could be heard, to confirm that he had entered into a “contract” with him, in the criminal sense of the term.

10. The Court is obviously not, and should not become, a fourth-instance court. It does not have to decide (that is the task of the national courts) whether Mr Bykov was guilty of incitement to commit murder. Nor does it have to speculate on what the outcome of the trial would have been had it been fair. But it is precisely its task to rule on the fairness issue; and the use of this elaborately staged ploy (including the “fake” corpses) causes me to harbour strong doubts as to whether the presumption of innocence, the rights of the defence and, ultimately, the fairness of the trial were secured.

11. My doubts are entirely dispelled when I note that the evidence obtained in breach of Article 8 of the Convention played a decisive role in this context. I shall not expand on

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this point, which I consider is addressed very eloquently in the partly dissenting opinion of Judge Spielmann joined by Judges Rozakis, Tulkens, Casadevall and Mijović.

12. In my view, this decisive aspect is very important in law. If, besides the recording in issue (and the initial complaint against Mr Bykov by V., but that could have been one man's word against another), the Russian judges had based their findings on other evidence, there would still have been cause for uncertainty. A criminal trial is often complex, and the large number of items of evidence on which the judges' verdict is based may sometimes decontaminate the dubious evidence by absorbing it. That was not the case in this instance.

13. All in all, while I fully understand the reasons why the Court did not find a violation of Article 6, I was unable to make the leap that would have allowed me to share the majority's view.

PARTLY DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE SPIELMANN JOINED BY JUDGES ROZAKIS, TULKENS, CASADEVALL AND MIJOVIĆ

(Translation)

1. I do not agree with the Court's conclusion that there was no violation of Article 6 of the Convention.

2. The question of respect for the right to a fair hearing arises in my opinion under two headings: the admission in criminal proceedings of evidence obtained in breach of Article 8, and the right to remain silent and not to incriminate oneself.

I. Admission in criminal proceedings of evidence obtained in breach of Article 8

3. I would observe that, having regard to the general principles set out in paragraphs 88-93 of the judgment, the Court reached a unanimous finding that the covert operation was conducted in breach of Article 8 of the Convention.

4. The simulation staged by the authorities, described in more detail in the part of the judgment concerning the circumstances of the case under the heading “Covert operation”, was unlawful. As the Court observed in paragraph 80, the applicant enjoyed very few, if any, safeguards in the procedure by which the interception of his conversation with V. was ordered and implemented. It accordingly found a violation of Article 8 of the Convention.

(a) The question of principle and the missed opportunity to strengthen practical and effective rights

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5. After the Chamber had relinquished jurisdiction, the present case was sent to the Grand Chamber, which was afforded the opportunity to clarify and spell out its case-law on the use of unlawful evidence at a trial. The question of the admission in criminal proceedings of evidence obtained in breach of Article 8 is a question of principle that deserved an answer of principle, particularly as regards the need to ensure consistency between the Court's findings under the two Articles of the Convention (what is prohibited under Article 8 cannot be permitted under Article 6) and the need to stress the importance of the Article 8 rights at stake (bearing in mind the growing need to resort to unlawful investigative methods, especially in fighting crime and terrorism). As far as this question of principle is concerned, I would reiterate the arguments which my colleague Françoise Tulkens put forward in her partly dissenting opinion in P.G. and J.H. v. the United Kingdom.[1]

6. In the present case the violation of Article 8 was a particularly serious one, representing a manifest infringement of the fundamental rights protected by that provision. The use during a trial of evidence obtained in breach of Article 8 should have called for an extremely rigorous examination by the Court of the fairness of the proceedings. As the Court has already had occasion to emphasise, the Convention is to be read as a coherent whole.[2] I agree with the partly concurring, partly dissenting opinion expressed by Judge Loucaides in Khan v. the United Kingdom[3] and reiterated by Judge Tulkens in her above-mentioned partly dissenting opinion in P.G. and J.H. v. the United Kingdom:[4]

“It is my opinion that the term 'fairness', when examined in the context of the European Convention on Human Rights, implies observance of the rule of law and for that matter it presupposes respect of the human rights set out in the Convention. I do not think one can speak of a 'fair' trial if it is conducted in breach of the law.”

7. In the present case the violation of Article 8 of the Convention found by the Court results, and indeed results exclusively, from the unlawfulness of the evidence in issue (see paragraph 82 of the judgment). Yet the fairness required by Article 6 of the Convention also entails a requirement of lawfulness.[5] Fairness presupposes respect for lawfulness and thus also, a fortiori, respect for the rights guaranteed by the Convention, which it is precisely the Court's task to supervise.

8. As regards the nature and scope of the Court's supervision, the Court rightly notes in the judgment that “in accordance with Article 19 of the Convention, its only task is to ensure the observance of the obligations undertaken by the Parties in the Convention” (see paragraph 88). It follows, and I strongly agree with this observation, that

“it is not competent to deal with an application alleging that errors of law or fact have been committed by domestic courts, except where it considers that such errors might have involved a possible violation of any of the rights and freedoms set out in the Convention”.

9. Similarly, while it is not the role of the Court

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“to determine, as a matter of principle, whether particular types of evidence – for example, evidence obtained unlawfully in terms of domestic law – may be admissible” (see paragraph 89 of the judgment),

the position is, however, different where, as in the present case, the evidence was obtained in breach of a right guaranteed by the Convention, seeing precisely that, where the taking of evidence is concerned, the Court must ensure observance by the Contracting States of their obligations under the Convention.

10. The judgment in the present case could have dispelled the uncertainties resulting from the Court's case-law on the subject by making clear that what is prohibited by one provision (Article 8) cannot be accepted under another (Article 6).

11. In finding that there was no violation of Article 6, the Court has undermined the effectiveness of Article 8. Yet the rights enshrined in the Convention cannot remain purely theoretical or virtual, since

“the Convention must be interpreted and applied in such a way as to guarantee rights that are practical and effective”.[6]

12. The majority's view seems to me, moreover, to entail a real danger, one which has already been noted in the above-mentioned separate opinion in Khan[7] and reiterated in the above-mentioned separate opinion in P.G. and J.H. v. the United Kingdom:[8]

“If violating Article 8 can be accepted as 'fair' then I cannot see how the police can be effectively deterred from repeating their impermissible conduct.”

13. However, the Court has itself emphasised

“the need to ensure that the police exercise their powers to control and prevent crime in a manner which fully respects the due process and other guarantees which legitimately place restraints on the scope of their action ..., including the guarantees contained in Articles 5 and 8 of the Convention”.[9]

14. The judgment fails to provide a response to the questions raised in the partly dissenting opinion cited above:

“Will there come a point at which the majority's reasoning will be applied where the evidence has been obtained in breach of other provisions of the Convention, such as Article 3, for example? Where and how should the line be drawn? According to which hierarchy in the guaranteed rights? Ultimately, the very notion of fairness in a trial might have a tendency to decline or become subject to shifting goalposts.”[10]

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15. So much, then, for the principles and for the (missed) opportunity afforded to the Grand Chamber to strengthen practical and effective rights.

(b) The decisive influence of the evidence obtained in breach of Article 8 of the Convention

16. Beyond the question of principle addressed above, I consider that the evidence obtained in breach of Article 8 caused the proceedings to be fatally flawed, since it decisively influenced the guilty verdict against the applicant.

17. Admittedly, it appears that the court in the present case based its decision on other items of evidence. Besides the evidence obtained by means of the covert operation, the following items unconnected with the operation seem to have been taken into account: the initial statement by V. that the applicant had ordered him to kill S.; the gun V. handed in to the FSB; and the records of the questioning of V. on subsequent occasions during the investigation. These items of evidence – all produced by V. – were challenged during the trial by the applicant, who for his part relied on V.'s subsequent withdrawal of his statements. However, the doubts as to the reliability of V.'s statements could not be dispelled since V. was absent and the authorities were unable to trace him and call him to appear in court, with the result that he could not be cross-examined during the trial (see paragraphs 38-40 of the judgment). The court eventually admitted the statements by V. as written evidence and, after examining the contradictory remarks he had made, concluded that the withdrawal appeared to have resulted from a subsequent arrangement between V. and the applicant. Accordingly – leaving aside the evidence obtained in breach of Article 8 of the Convention – the court reached its finding solely on the basis of V.'s initial statements incriminating the applicant.

18. Admittedly, the applicant had the opportunity to examine V. when they were brought face to face during the investigation, but I must emphasise that this meeting took place before V. withdrew his statements. Consequently, the applicant's lawyer was unable to cross-examine V. in the light of his withdrawal of the statements, either during the investigation or during the court hearings. However, as the Court emphasised in Lucà v. Italy, where a conviction is based solely or to a decisive degree on depositions that have been made by a person whom the accused has had no opportunity to examine or to have examined, whether during the investigation or at the trial, the rights of the defence are restricted to an extent that is incompatible with the guarantees provided by Article 6.[11]

(c) The need for the subsequent use of anonymous sources to be accompanied by adequate and sufficient guarantees

19. The fact that it was impossible to cross-examine V. in court also raises an issue in terms of the procedural right to challenge the evidence obtained as a result of the covert operation.

20. As the Court pointed out in the Ramanauskas judgment,[12] admittedly in an entirely different context, involving police incitement,

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“the Convention does not preclude reliance, at the preliminary investigation stage and where the nature of the offence may warrant it, on sources such as anonymous informants. However, the subsequent use of such sources by the trial court to found a conviction is a different matter and is acceptable only if adequate and sufficient safeguards against abuse are in place, in particular a clear and foreseeable procedure for authorising, implementing and supervising the investigative measures in question (see Khudobin v. Russia, no. 59696/00, § 135, 26 October 2006, and, mutatis mutandis, Klass and Others v. Germany, 6 September 1978, §§ 52-56, Series A no. 28). While the rise in organised crime requires that appropriate measures be taken, the right to a fair trial, from which the requirement of the proper administration of justice is to be inferred, nevertheless applies to all types of criminal offence, from the most straightforward to the most complex. The right to the fair administration of justice holds so prominent a place in a democratic society that it cannot be sacrificed for the sake of expedience (see Delcourt v. Belgium, 17 January 1970, § 25, Series A no. 11).”[13]

21. Admittedly, the other evidence used during the trial included numerous witness statements referring to the existence of a conflict of interests between the applicant and S., and other items confirming the accuracy of the description of the covert operation set out in the reports on the investigation. However, the probative value of such evidence was relatively minor. The fact that it was impossible to cross-examine V. in court therefore prevented the applicant from having full enjoyment of his procedural right to challenge the evidence obtained through the covert operation.

22. In short, I consider that the use of the evidence in issue irreparably impaired the applicant's defence rights. Such a conclusion would in itself have justified the finding of a violation of Article 6 of the Convention.

II. Respect for the right to remain silent and not to incriminate oneself

23. Lastly, the covert operation in my opinion infringed the applicant's right to remain silent and not to incriminate himself. None of the Court's case-law corresponds exactly to the facts of the present case. Once again, I regret that the Grand Chamber did not seize the opportunity to clarify the principles emerging, in particular, from its judgments in the cases of Jalloh,[14] Allan[15] and, to a lesser extent, Ramanauskas.[16]

24. In its Jalloh judgment of 11 July 2006 the Court reiterated the principle that

“... the right not to incriminate oneself is primarily concerned with respecting the will of an accused person to remain silent”.[17]

25. In the case of Jalloh the authorities obtained real evidence against the applicant's will. The Court declared that the privilege against self-incrimination was applicable, stating the following:

“... the principle against self-incrimination is applicable to the present proceedings.

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In order to determine whether the applicant's right not to incriminate himself has been violated, the Court will have regard, in turn, to the following factors: the nature and degree of compulsion used to obtain the evidence; the weight of the public interest in the investigation and punishment of the offence at issue; the existence of any relevant safeguards in the procedure; and the use to which any material so obtained is put.”[18]

26. These criteria are applicable in the present case, given that the substance of the matter concerns the recording of evidence obtained in breach of the privilege against self-incrimination. Concerning more specifically the public interest in securing the applicant's conviction, I do not consider that this can in any circumstances justify the use in evidence of recordings found to have been unlawful for the purposes of Article 8 of the Convention.[19]

27. The present case is similar to the case of Allan, in which the Court found a violation of Article 6.[20] Admittedly, unlike in Allan, the applicant in the present case was not in pre-trial detention but at liberty in his own property. It is also true that in Allan the applicant chose to remain silent.

28. However, those particular aspects are in my opinion not decisive, seeing that the informer V. was de facto an agent working for the authorities at the time when he recorded the conversation in issue.

29. In paragraph 51 of the Allan judgment the Court stated the following, referring to the case-law of the Supreme Court of Canada:[21]

“Whether the right to silence is undermined to such an extent as to give rise to a violation of Article 6 of the Convention depends on all the circumstances of the individual case. In this regard, however, some guidance may be found in the decisions of the Supreme Court of Canada, ... in which the right to silence, in circumstances which bore some similarity to those in the present case, was examined in the context of section 7 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. There, the Canadian Supreme Court expressed the view that, where the informer who allegedly acted to subvert the right to silence of the accused was not obviously a State agent, the analysis should focus on both the relationship between the informer and the State and the relationship between the informer and the accused: the right to silence would only be infringed where the informer was acting as an agent of the State at the time the accused made the statement and where it was the informer who caused the accused to make the statement. Whether an informer was to be regarded as a State agent depended on whether the exchange between the accused and the informer would have taken place, and in the form and manner in which it did, but for the intervention of the authorities. Whether the evidence in question was to be regarded as having been elicited by the informer depended on whether the conversation between him and the accused was the functional equivalent of an interrogation, as well as on the nature of the relationship between the informer and the accused.”

30. In the present case the informer who acted on State instructions, subverting the applicant's right to remain silent, was obviously a State agent. The question arises whether the conversation between him and the accused would have taken place, and in

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the form and manner in which it did, but for the intervention of the authorities. The answer is no, and the recorded conversation was thus was the functional equivalent of an interrogation. The purpose of this ruse was, in particular, to reveal the existence of a particular offence, namely “conspiracy to murder”. Among the constituent elements of this offence, the mens rea or element of intent plays a crucial, if not predominant, role. The grossly unlawful ruse staged by the authorities was aimed precisely at “uncovering” this essential element of the offence.

31. The fact that the applicant had not been charged is not decisive in my opinion either. In the R. v. Hebert decision (cited above) the Supreme Court of Canada stated the following:

“The protection conferred by a legal system which grants the accused immunity from incriminating himself at trial but offers no protection with respect to pre-trial statements would be illusory. As Ratushny writes (Self-Incrimination in the Canadian Criminal Process (1979), at p. 253):

'Furthermore, our system meticulously provides for a public trial only after a specific accusation and where the accused is protected by detailed procedures and strict evidentiary rules. Ordinarily he is represented by a lawyer to ensure that he in fact received all of the protections to which he is entitled. The accused is under no legal or practical obligation to respond to the accusation until there is an evidentiary case to meet. There is a hypocrisy to a system which provides such protections but allows them all to be ignored at the pre-trial stage where interrogation frequently occurs in secret, after counsel has been denied, with no rules at all and often where the suspect or accused is deliberately misled about the evidence against him.'

...

The guarantee of the right to consult counsel confirms that the essence of the right is the accused's freedom to choose whether to make a statement or not. The state is not obliged to protect the suspect against making a statement; indeed it is open to the state to use legitimate means of persuasion to encourage the suspect to do so. The state is, however, obliged to allow the suspect to make an informed choice about whether or not he will speak to the authorities.”[22]

32. However, in the present case, the applicant spoke without having given his free and informed consent.

33. I would add that to deny the right to remain silent and the right not to incriminate oneself simply because the applicant had not been charged or had not undergone initial questioning would leave the way open for abuses of procedure. The person concerned would be deprived of the opportunity to choose to speak or to remain silent at a later stage, for example during such questioning, and the principle would thus become devoid of all substance.

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34. It is true that in the R. v. Hebert decision the Supreme Court of Canada also based its ruling on the fact that the person concerned was in detention:

“[The rule] applies only after detention. Undercover operations prior to detention do not raise the same considerations. The jurisprudence relating to the right to silence has never extended protection against police tricks to the pre-detention period. Nor does the Charter extend the right to counsel to pre-detention investigations. The two circumstances are quite different. In an undercover operation prior to detention, the individual from whom information is sought is not in the control of the state. There is no need to protect him from the greater power of the state. After detention, the situation is quite different; the state takes control and assumes the responsibility of ensuring that the detainee's rights are respected.”

35. However, I consider that the criterion applied by the Supreme Court in the context of detention is applicable mutatis mutandis to a situation where the person concerned is de facto under the authorities' control. This was so in the present case; the applicant was an unwitting protagonist in a set-up entirely orchestrated by the authorities. I would draw attention here to the very particular circumstances of the covert operation, which began with the staged discovery of two bodies and the announcement in the media that S. and I. had been shot dead. By the time V. arrived at the applicant's “guest house”, the applicant was already under the influence of the erroneous information that a serious crime had been committed, and his belief was reinforced by V.'s admission that he had been the perpetrator. The applicant's conduct was therefore not solely, or mainly, guided by events which would have taken place under normal circumstances, but above all by the appearances created by the investigating authorities. To that extent, seeing that he was the victim of a ruse, his statements and reaction cannot reasonably be said to have been voluntary or spontaneous.

36. In the case of Ramanauskas, concerning police incitement, the Court reached the conclusion in its judgment of 5 February 2008 that

“the actions ... had the effect of inciting the applicant to commit the offence of which he was convicted[,] that there is no indication that the offence would have been committed without their intervention [and that i]n view of such intervention and its use in the impugned criminal proceedings, the applicant's trial was deprived of the fairness required by Article 6 of the Convention”.[23] (my italics)

37. In the present case the purpose of the staged events was to make the applicant talk. The covert operation undermined the voluntary nature of the disclosures to such an extent that the right to remain silent and not to incriminate oneself was rendered devoid of all substance. As in the Ramanauskas case, the applicant was entrapped by a person controlled from a distance by the authorities, who staged a set-up using a private individual as an undercover agent. I thus consider that the information thereby obtained was disclosed through entrapment, against the applicant's will.[24]

III. Article 41 of the Convention

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38. Lastly, I voted against point 4 (a) of the operative provisions. I consider that the award of 1,000 euros for non-pecuniary damage is insufficient, given the Court's finding of two violations.

[1]1. P.G. and J.H. v. the United Kingdom, no. 44787/98, ECHR 2001‑IX.

[2]2. Klass and Others v. Germany, 6 September 1978, §§ 68-69, Series A no. 28.

[3]3. Khan v. the United Kingdom, no. 35394/97, ECHR 2000‑V.

[4]4. Cited above.

[5]5. Coëme and Others v. Belgium, nos. 32492/96, 32547/96, 32548/96, 33209/96 and 33210/96, § 102, ECHR 2000-VII.

[6]1. See Comingersoll S.A. v. Portugal [GC], no. 35382/97, § 35, ECHR 2000-IV; Beer and Regan v. Germany [GC], no. 28934/95, § 57, 18 February 1999; García Manibardo v. Spain, no. 38695/97, § 43, ECHR 2000-II; and Salduz v. Turkey [GC], no. 36391/02, § 51, ECHR 2008-....

[7]2. Partly concurring, partly dissenting opinion of Judge Loucaides in Khan, cited above.

[8]3. Partly dissenting opinion of Judge Tulkens in P.G. and J.H., cited above.

[9]4. See Osman v. the United Kingdom, 28 October 1998, § 116, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1998-VIII.

[10]5. Partly dissenting opinion of Judge Tulkens in P.G. and J.H., cited above.

[11]1. See Lucà v. Italy, no. 33354/96, § 40, ECHR 2001‑II, and the references therein to Unterpertinger v. Austria, 24 November 1986, §§ 31-33, Series A no. 110; Saïdi v. France, 20 September 1993, §§ 43-44, Series A no. 261-C; Van Mechelen and Others v. the Netherlands, 23 April 1997, § 55, Reports 1997-III; Dorigo v. Italy, application no. 33286/96, Commission’s report of 9 September 1998, § 43, and, on the same case, Committee of Ministers Resolution DH (99) 258 of 15 April 1999.

[12]1. Ramanauskas v. Lithuania [GC], no. 74420/01, ECHR 2008-....

[13]2. Ibid., § 53.

[14]1. Jalloh v. Germany [GC], no. 54810/00, ECHR 2006‑IX.

[15]2. Allan v. the United Kingdom, no. 48539/99, ECHR 2002‑IX.

[16]3. Cited above.

[17]4. Jalloh, cited above, § 101.

[18]5. Ibid., §§ 116-17.

[19]6. Compare with the concurring opinion of Sir Nicolas Bratza in Jalloh, cited above:

“... the scale of the drug dealing involved seems to me to be immaterial to the Convention issues raised under Article 6. The public interest in securing the applicant’s

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conviction could not in my view in any circumstances have justified the use in evidence of drugs obtained by the treatment to which he was subjected.”

[20]7. Allan, cited above, § 52.

[21]8. R. v. Hebert ([1990] 2 Supreme Court Reports 151).

[22]1. Per McLachlin J.

[23]1. Ramanauskas, cited above, § 73.

[24]2. See, mutatis mutandis, Allan, cited above.

CINQUIÈME SECTION

AFFAIRE CHAMBAZ c. SUISSE

(Requête no 11663/04)

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ARRÊT

STRASBOURG

5 avril 2012

DÉFINITIF

05/07/2012

Cet arrêt est devenu définitif en vertu de l’article 44 § 2 de la Convention. Il peut subir des retouches de forme.

En l’affaire Chambaz c. Suisse,

La Cour européenne des droits de l’homme (cinquième section), siégeant en une chambre composée de :

Dean Spielmann, président,

Elisabet Fura,

Boštjan M. Zupančič,

Ann Power-Forde,

Angelika Nußberger,

Helen Keller,

André Potocki, juges

et de Claudia Westerdiek, greffière de section,

Après en avoir délibéré en chambre du conseil le 6 mars 2012,

Rend l’arrêt que voici, adopté à cette date :

PROCÉDURE

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1. A l’origine de l’affaire se trouve une requête (no 11663/04) dirigée contre la Conféderation suisse et dont un ressortissant de cet Etat, M. Yves Chambaz (« le requérant »), a saisi la Cour le 26 mars 2004 en vertu de l’article 34 de la Convention de sauvegarde des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales (« la Convention »).

2. Le requérant est représenté par Me O. Wehrli, avocat à Genève. Le gouvernement suisse (« le Gouvernement ») est représenté par son agent suppléant, M.A. Scheidegger, de l’Unité Droit européen et protection internationale des droits de l’Homme de l’Office fédéral de la Justice.

3. Le requérant allègue des violations du droit au procès équitable tel que garanti par l’article 6 de la Convention.

4. Le 21 juin 2007, le président de la première section a décidé de communiquer au Gouvernement le grief tiré du droit à ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination et du droit à l’égalité des armes. Comme le permet l’article 29 § 3 de la Convention, il a en outre été décidé que la chambre se prononcerait en même temps sur la recevabilité et le fond.

5. Le 1er février 2011, les sections de la Cour ont été remaniées. La requête a été attribuée à la cinquième section (articles 25 § 1 et 52 § 1 du règlement).

EN FAIT

I. LES CIRCONSTANCES DE L’ESPÈCE

6. Le requérant est né en 1954 et réside actuellement aux Bermudes. Il a fait l’objet de plusieurs procédures pour soustraction d’impôts impliquant également plusieurs sociétés auxquelles il était lié.

A. Procédure administrative concernant l’impôt sur le revenu et la fortune pour les années 1989 et 1990

7. Le 10 janvier 1990, le requérant remit à la commission d’impôt et recette de district d’Aubonne sa déclaration d’impôt pour la période fiscale 1989-1990. Parmi les frais dont il demandait la déduction, figurait une note d’honoraire de la société P. SA pour la gestion de sa fortune.

8. Par décision du 18 juin 1991, la commission d’impôt fixa le revenu imposable du requérant pour l’année fiscale 1989-1990. Elle considéra que le requérant n’avait pas déclaré l’ensemble de ses revenus, car l’évolution de sa fortune était disproportionnée par rapport au revenu annoncé. A titre de redressement, elle estima que les gains réalisés par le requérant sur un ensemble de comptes ouverts auprès de la banque S. pour le compte du requérant, et gérés par P. SA, s’élevaient en réalité à 599 309 francs suisses (CHF) par an (correspondant à 399 539 euros (EUR) environ) et qu’ils devaient être ajoutés au revenu déclaré.

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9. Le 25 juin 1991, le requérant forma deux réclamations contre la décision de la commission d’impôt du 18 juin 1991. Il adressa sa première réclamation dirigée contre l’impôt fédéral direct à la commission d’impôt, alors que la seconde réclamation, portant sur l’impôt cantonal et communal, fut remise à l’administration cantonale des impôts du canton de Vaud.

10. Au cours de la procédure d’instruction des réclamations, la commission d’impôt demanda au requérant de produire l’ensemble des documents concernant ses relations d’affaire avec la société P. SA et les banques qui détenaient des avoirs pour le compte de celle-ci.

11. Par décision du 17 août 1994, la commission d’impôt rejeta la réclamation dirigée contre l’impôt fédéral direct. Elle infligea au requérant une amende de 2 000 CHF (environ 1 440 EUR) au motif qu’il aurait refusé de produire l’ensemble des pièces justificatives qui lui avaient été réclamées.

12. Par décision du 29 août 1994, l’administration cantonale des impôts rejeta la seconde réclamation dirigée contre l’impôt cantonal et communal. Elle infligea une amende au requérant de 3 000 CHF (environ 2 159 EUR) pour les mêmes motifs que la commission d’impôt.

13. Contestant les décisions prises par la commission d’impôt et par l’administration cantonale des impôts, le requérant saisit le tribunal administratif du canton de Vaud.

B. L’enquête pour soustraction d’impôt et la suspension de la procédure devant le tribunal administratif

14. Alors que la procédure devant le tribunal administratif était pendante, une enquête contre le requérant fut ouverte le 25 février 1999 par l’administration fédérale des contributions qui le soupçonnait de s’être soustrait à ses obligations fiscales.

15. Le 3 mars 1999, le directeur de l’administration fédérale des contributions décerna un mandat de perquisition à l’encontre du requérant, invitant les enquêteurs à saisir tous documents concernant « particulièrement les années 1989 à 1998, mais également tout document notable antérieur à 1989 ou postérieur à 1998 ».

16. Le 15 mars 1999, l’administration cantonale des impôts écrivit au requérant pour l’informer que sa « déclaration d’impôt 1999-2000 et celles des années antérieures ne seraient pas exactes ». Il lui était également laissé la possibilité de collaborer avec le fisc en lui indiquant les éléments qui n’auraient pas été déclarés pour les années 1995 à 2000.

17. Le 16 mars 1999, les perquisitions mentionnées dans le mandat du 3 mars 1999 furent effectuées au domicile du requérant et chez des tiers. Le requérant contesta la validité de celles-ci. Par arrêts des 30 avril, 22 septembre 1999 et 26 novembre 1999, la chambre d’accusation du Tribunal fédéral constata que les perquisitions avaient été effectuées avec un mandat valablement rédigé et que les documents séquestrés à titre de preuve auprès des sociétés F.C. SA et Y. SA et au domicile du requérant présentaient un lien suffisant avec les faits faisant objet de l’enquête.

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18. Le 16 février 2000, l’administration cantonale des impôts écrivit au tribunal administratif pour lui demander de suspendre la procédure dans l’attente du résultat de l’enquête pour soustraction d’impôts.

19. Le 18 décembre 2000, le requérant fut interrogé en qualité d’inculpé par les inspecteurs de l’administration fédérale des contributions. Il était accusé d’avoir commis une soustraction d’impôt, une tentative de soustraction, d’instigation et de complicité à la commission de cette infraction et d’usage de faux.

20. Au cours de l’interrogatoire, le requérant fut interrogé sur les comptes bancaires que la société P. SA avait ouverts pour son compte auprès de la banque S. Il prétendit que ceux-ci avaient été déclarés correctement. Il fut également questionné au sujet des ses relations avec deux sociétés de droit panaméen, T.F. et F.H. qui étaient toutes deux clientes de la société Y. SA dont le requérant était l’employé.

21. Par lettre des 22 et 24 janvier 2001, l’avocat du requérant demanda à pouvoir consulter le dossier de la procédure d’enquête, plus particulièrement les pièces qui avaient été séquestrées auprès de tiers. Cette demande fut rejetée le 6 février 2001 par l’administration fédérale des contributions au motif que le requérant devait obtenir l’autorisation des personnes concernées. Celles-ci étaient mentionnées à la fin de la lettre. Il s’agissait de M. F.R. et des sociétés F.C. SA et P. SA, cette dernière étant la société mentionnée aux paragraphes 7, 8 et 10 ci-dessus.

22. Le 14 décembre 2001, l’administration fédérale des contributions adressa un questionnaire au requérant concernant sa situation personnelle et celle de plusieurs sociétés auxquelles il était lié. Parmi les questions posées, figuraient les comptes bancaires ouverts par le requérant auprès de la banque S. Dans sa réponse du 1er mars 2002, le requérant insista sur le fait qu’il avait « toujours déclaré ce compte ».

C. Reprise de la procédure devant le tribunal administratif

23. Par lettre du 7 février 2002, l’administration cantonale des impôts demanda au tribunal administratif de reprendre la procédure concernant les décisions du 18 juin 1991 et 17 août 1994. A cette occasion, elle insista sur le fait que les dettes fiscales du requérant seraient prescrites le 31 décembre 2002. Se fondant sur les résultats déjà connus de l’enquête pour soustraction d’impôt que l’administration fédérale des contributions n’avait pas encore achevée, elle exposa que celle-ci avait « permis de mettre à jour une quantité impressionnante d’opérations financières effectuées pour le compte du » requérant. Concernant l’ensemble de comptes ouverts auprès de la Banque S. par le requérant, elle reconnut que ceux-ci avaient été partiellement déclarés par le requérant qui avait toutefois omis d’annoncer l’intégralité des revenus et de la fortune y afférent. Concernant les sociétés de droit panaméen T.F. et F.H., l’administration considéra que le requérant était actionnaire de celles-ci à hauteur de 50 % et que le revenu et la fortune desdites sociétés devait lui être attribué à raison de ce pourcentage. Invoquant l’article 52 § 2 de la loi vaudoise sur la procédure et la juridiction administrative, l’administration cantonale des impôts décida de modifier la décision du 18 juin 1991 et d’accroître en conséquence le revenu et la fortune imposables du requérant. Elle informa la juridiction qu’elle maintenait les autres parties des décisions litigieuses.

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24. Agissant par l’intermédiaire de la société fiduciaire chargée de ses déclarations fiscales, le requérant fit part de ses observations par lettre du 18 avril 2002. A titre préliminaire, il demanda au tribunal administratif d’attendre les résultats définitifs de l’enquête pour soustraction d’impôt menée par l’administration fédérale des contributions. Sur le fond, il contesta le bien fondé des demandes nouvelles formées par l’administration et proposa à la juridiction d’ordonner à l’administration cantonale des impôts de produire l’ensemble des relevés concernant les comptes bancaires ouverts auprès de la banque S., de la banque S.B.S et de la banque U.B.S. au nom du requérant ou de tiers.

25. Une audience fut tenue devant le tribunal administratif le 13 juin 2002 à laquelle comparurent l’avocat du requérant, un expert comptable, un fonctionnaire de l’administration cantonale des impôts ainsi qu’un représentant de l’administration fédérale des contributions chargé de l’enquête pour soustraction d’impôt menée contre le requérant. Ce dernier était muni de nombreux documents. Il remit au tribunal certains d’entre eux durant l’audience afin qu’ils soient versés dans le dossier de la procédure. L’avocat du requérant n’eut cependant pas accès aux autres documents que le représentant de l’administration avait amenés avec lui et qu’il n’a pas souhaité remettre au tribunal.

26. Le 31 juillet 2002, l’administration fédérale des contributions fit parvenir à l’administration cantonale des impôts une note concernant le requérant et, plus particulièrement, la prescription des créances fiscales. Elle invita l’administration cantonale à se prévaloir de l’effet interruptif de la prescription lié à l’ouverture de l’enquête pour soustraction d’impôts, au motif qu’ « on ne saurait nier toute relation avec la taxation en général » et « qu’un rapport de connexité entre l’activité [l’administration fédérale des contributions] et la taxation ne peut dès lors être nié ». Elle ajouta également que « cette complémentarité [était] par ailleurs corroborée par les récents arrêts de la chambre d’accusation du Tribunal fédéral ».

27. Par jugement du 21 octobre 2002, le tribunal administratif rejeta les recours du requérant et confirma intégralement les décisions administratives des 18 juin 1991 et 17 août 1994, telles que modifiées par la lettre du 7 février 2002 (voir paragraphe 23 ci-dessus). La juridiction estima, tout d’abord, qu’elle n’était pas légalement tenue d’attendre l’issue de l’enquête pour soustraction d’impôt menée par l’administration fédérale des contributions, car la provenance des documents versés au dossier de la procédure n’était pas pertinente. La juridiction considéra, ensuite, que l’article 6 de la Convention n’était pas applicable en l’espèce. Concernant l’impossibilité du requérant d’avoir accès à l’ensemble des documents, la juridiction estima que la pratique des autorités administratives consistant à refuser l’accès à certains documents apportés à l’audience était « très discutable », car « le caractère incomplet du dossier fourni par l’autorité intimée » laissait penser qu’il pouvait se trouver des documents favorables au requérant. Néanmoins, le tribunal administratif considéra que « l’attitude d’obstruction systématique » du requérant, sanctionnée par les amendes litigieuses, permettait de s’en tenir à la version des faits fournis par l’administration.

28. Le requérant attaqua le jugement du tribunal administratif devant le Tribunal fédéral. A l’appui de ses deux recours il se plaignit que les amendes qui lui avaient été infligées pour avoir refusé de produire l’ensemble des pièces justificatives violaient son droit à ne pas s’incriminer lui-même, car les documents pouvaient être utilisés au cours de l’enquête ouverte contre lui. Il soutenait également que le refus de le laisser consulter

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l’ensemble des documents amenés par le représentant de l’administration fédérale des contributions violait son droit à l’égalité des armes. Finalement, invoquant le droit à la présomption d’innocence, il alléguait que la procédure devant le tribunal administratif aurait dû être suspendue jusqu’à la fin de l’enquête menée par l’administration fédérale des contributions.

29. Par arrêt du 2 octobre 2003, le Tribunal fédéral rejeta les deux recours du requérant. Concernant les amendes infligées au requérant, la juridiction considéra que la procédure ne revêtait pas un caractère pénal, car elle avait uniquement pour objet de déterminer les obligations fiscales de ce dernier qui ne pouvait dès lors se prévaloir ni de son droit à ne pas s’incriminer lui-même, ni de son droit à la présomption d’innocence. Quant au refus de laisser le requérant consulter l’ensemble des documents entre les mains de l’administration fédérale des impôts, le Tribunal fédéral observa que le requérant avait eu accès à toutes les pièces qui avaient été produites devant le tribunal administratif et que « les nombreuses pièces amenées par l’administration (...) à l’audience devant le tribunal administratif, (...) n’étaient apparemment pas pertinentes pour la période fiscale 1989-1990 », si bien que « le tribunal administratif n’a[vait] pas demandé leur production. »

D. Poursuite de l’enquête pour soustraction d’impôt

30. Alors que la procédure mentionnée aux paragraphes précédents était pendante devant le tribunal administratif et devant le Tribunal fédéral, l’enquête ouverte le 25 février 1999 contre le requérant pour soustraction d’impôt fut poursuivie.

31. Le 2 novembre 2004, l’administration fédérale des impôts rédigea un rapport au sujet de l’enquête menée contre le requérant. Elle arrivait à la conclusion que le requérant s’était soustrait à ses obligations durant les périodes fiscales 1995-1996, 1997-1998 et 1999-2000. Concernant les périodes fiscales 1988-1989, 1991-1992 et 1993-1994, l’administration considéra qu’elle avait « trouvé des informations relatives aux périodes fiscales précitées » et que « ces informations ont permis de mettre à jour des éléments imposables ne figurant pas dans les déclarations d’impôt des époux Chambaz, éléments qui ont été transmis à l’administration cantonale des impôts ». Dans la suite du rapport, l’administration mentionna les comptes bancaires détenus par le requérant auprès de la banque S. et gérés par la société P. SA depuis 1986. Elle analysa les revenus réalisés durant les périodes fiscales 1995-1996, 1997-1998 et 1999-2000 par des opérations de change, des placements fiduciaires et des opérations sur titres réalisés à l’aide des avoirs placés sur ce compte. Concernant les sociétés de droit panaméen F.H. et T.F., l’administration imputa au requérant le revenu qu’elles avaient réalisé ainsi que leur fortune. A la fin du rapport, l’administration proposa de déclarer le requérant coupable de soustraction d’impôt et de tentative de soustraction.

32. Par lettre du 8 décembre 2004, l’avocat du requérant contesta le bien fondé des conclusions figurant dans le rapport. Il mit en doute le fait que la procédure d’enquête n’ait concerné que les périodes fiscales indiquées. A ce propos, il allégua que l’administration avait adressé plusieurs ordonnances de perquisition à des banques au sujet de comptes bancaires qui était déjà clos à ce moment. Il en déduisit que la procédure visait, en fait, également les périodes fiscales 1985-1986, 1987-1988, 1989-1990, 1991-1992 et 1993‑1994.

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33. Par lettre du 21 décembre 2004, l’administration répondit à l’avocat du requérant qu’elle avait « été amenée à analyser les années précédentes », « afin de connaître la situation au 1er janvier 1993 ».

34. Par décision du 12 janvier 2006, l’administration cantonale des impôts réclama au requérant 2 318 458 CHF (environ 1 545 638 EUR) à titre d’arriéré d’impôt pour les périodes fiscales durant les périodes fiscales 1995-1996, 1997-1998 et 1999-2000 et lui infligea une amende pour soustraction d’impôt d’un montant total de 1 304 000 CHF (environ 869 333 EUR). Après réclamation par le requérant, elle diminua, par décision du 12 janvier 2006, le montant des arriérés d’impôts et maintint intégralement l’amende. Le requérant n’allègue pas avoir contesté cette décision devant les tribunaux.

II. LE DROIT INTERNE PERTINENT

A. L’arrêté du Conseil fédéral sur la perception d’un impôt fédéral direct du 9 décembre 1940 (abrogé le 31 décembre 1994)

Article 89 – Audition du contribuable et invitation à produire des preuves

« 1. L’autorité de taxation peut citer tout contribuable à comparaître devant elle ou devant son représentant pour être entendu. Le contribuable est tenu de fournir des renseignements véridiques.

2. L’autorité de taxation peut exiger, en outre, que le contribuable produise les livres, documents et pièces justificatives se trouvant en sa possession et qu’il remette des attestations et états présentant de l’importance pour sa taxation, qu’il doit se procurer ou établir lui-même (...) »

Article 129 – Soustraction

« 1. Celui qui se soustrait totalement ou partiellement à l’impôt

a. en éludant les obligations qui lui incombent, conformément aux articles 82 à 87, 89, 91 et 97, dans la procédure de taxation, de réclamation, de recours et d’inventaire ; ou

b. en celant des éléments essentiels à la détermination de l’existence ou de l’étendue de l’obligation fiscale ou en donnant, intentionnellement ou par négligence, des indications inexactes,

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est passible d’une amende allant jusqu’à quatre fois le montant soustrait. Ce montant doit être payé en plus de l’amende (...) »

Article 131

« Toute personne astreinte à l’impôt ou tenue de fournir des renseignements qui, sans que soit posé l’état de fait de l’article 129, enfreint, intentionnellement ou par négligence, les ordonnances officielles et les dispositions d’exécution prises en vertu du présent arrêté concernant l’obligation de remettre la déclaration, de remettre ou de produire des livres, d’établir ou de remettre des attestations et d’autres pièces justificatives, de répondre à des convocations ou d’obéir à l’interdiction de disposer de biens, de donner des renseignements ou de faire des paiements et de remettre des sûretés, est frappé d’une amende de 5 à 10 000 francs (...) »

B. La loi fédérale sur l’impôt fédéral direct du 14 décembre 1990 (version en vigueur au moment des faits)

Article 111 – Collaboration entre autorités fiscales

« 1. Les autorités chargées de l’application de la présente loi se prêtent mutuelle assistance dans l’accomplissement de leur tâche ; elles communiquent gratuitement aux autorités fiscales de la Confédération, des cantons, des districts, des cercles et des communes toute information utile et, à leur demande, leur permettent de consulter les dossiers fiscaux. Les faits établis par les autorités ou portés à leur connaissance en application de la présente disposition sont protégés par le secret fiscal (...) »

Article 114 – Consultation du dossier

« 1. Le contribuable a le droit de consulter les pièces du dossier qu’il a produites ou signées. Les époux qui doivent être taxés conjointement ont un droit de consultation réciproque.

2. Le contribuable peut prendre connaissance des autres pièces une fois les faits établis et à condition qu’aucune sauvegarde d’intérêts publics ou privés ne s’y oppose.

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3. Lorsqu’une autorité refuse au contribuable le droit de consulter une pièce du dossier, elle ne peut se baser sur ce document pour trancher au détriment du contribuable que si elle lui a donné connaissance, oralement ou par écrit, du contenu essentiel de la pièce et qu’elle lui a au surplus permis de s’exprimer et d’apporter ses propres moyens de preuve.

4. L’autorité qui refuse au contribuable le droit de consulter son dossier confirme, à la demande de celui-ci, son refus par une décision susceptible de recours. »

Article 126 – Collaboration ultérieure

« 1. Le contribuable doit faire tout ce qui est nécessaire pour assurer une taxation complète et exacte.

2. Sur demande de l’autorité de taxation, il doit notamment fournir des renseignements oraux ou écrits, présenter ses livres comptables, les pièces justificatives et autres attestations ainsi que les pièces concernant ses relations d’affaires (...) »

Article 174

« 1. Sera puni d’une amende celui qui, malgré sommation, enfreint intentionnellement ou par négligence une obligation qui lui incombe en vertu de la présente loi ou d’une mesure prise en application de celle-ci, notamment :

a. en ne déposant pas une déclaration d’impôt ou les annexes qui doivent l’accompagner,

b. en ne fournissant pas les attestations, renseignements ou informations qu’il est tenu de donner (...) »

Article 190

« 1. Lorsqu’il existe un soupçon fondé sur de graves infractions fiscales, d’assistance ou d’incitations à de tels actes, le chef du Département fédéral des finances peut autoriser

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l’Administration fédérale des contributions à mener une enquête en collaboration avec les administrations fiscales cantonales.

2. Par graves infraction fiscale, on entend en particulier la soustraction continue de montants importants d’impôt (art[icle] 175 et 176) et les délits fiscaux (...) »

Article 195

« 1. Les dispositions sur la collaboration entre autorités (art. 111 et 112) demeurent applicables (...) »

C. La loi fédérale sur l’impôt fédéral direct du 14 décembre 1990 (version en vigueur dès le 1er janvier 2008)

Article 183

« 1. L’ouverture d’une procédure pénale pour soustraction d’impôt est communiquée par écrit à la personne concernée. Celle-ci est invitée à s’exprimer sur les griefs retenus à son encontre et informée de son droit de refuser de déposer et de collaborer.

1bis. Les moyens de preuve rassemblés dans le cadre de la procédure en rappel d’impôt ne peuvent être utilisés dans la procédure pénale pour soustraction d’impôt que s’ils n’ont été rassemblés ni sous la menace d’une taxation d’office (art. 130, al. 2) avec inversion du fardeau de la preuve au sens de l’art. 132, al. 3, ni sous la menace d’une amende en cas de violation d’une obligation de procédure (...) »

D. La loi vaudoise sur la procédure et la juridiction administrative du 18 décembre 1989 (en vigueur au moment des faits)

Article 52

« 1. (...)

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2. L’autorité intimée peut, pendant la procédure de recours, rapporter ou modifier sa décision. Le recourant est alors invité à dire s’il retire, maintient ou modifie son recours.

3. (...) »

EN DROIT

I. SUR LA VIOLATION ALLÉGUÉE DE L’ARTICLE 6 § 1 DE LA CONVENTION

35. Le requérant se plaint, sous l’angle de l’article 6 § 1 de la Convention, que la procédure devant le tribunal administratif du canton de Vaud, et achevée par l’arrêt du Tribunal fédéral du 2 octobre 2003, n’a pas été équitable. Il soutient qu’une amende lui a été infligée pour ne pas avoir produit des documents susceptibles de l’incriminer dans une procédure pénale et que l’égalité des armes n’a pas été respectée. L’article 6 § 1 est libellé ainsi en ses passages pertinents :

« Toute personne a droit à ce que sa cause soit entendue équitablement (...) par un tribunal (...) qui décidera, soit des contestations sur ses droits et obligations de caractère civil, soit du bien-fondé de toute accusation en matière pénale dirigée contre elle. (...) »

A. Sur la recevabilité

36. Le Gouvernement soutient que l’article 6 de la Convention n’était pas applicable en l’espèce. Il relève que la procédure faisant objet de la présente requête était indépendante de l’enquête ouverte en 1999 (voir paragraphe 14 et suivants) et qu’elle avait uniquement pour but de déterminer les obligations fiscales du requérant. En particulier, le Gouvernement expose que l’enquête a été ouverte quatre ans après que les amendes pour refus de collaborer aient été infligées au requérant. Il allègue également que l’enquête portait sur les années 1995 à 2000 exclusivement.

37. Le requérant rétorque que les amendes qui lui ont été infligées pour avoir refusé de collaborer constituaient une sanction pénale susceptible d’entraîner l’application de l’article 6 § 1 de la Convention à la procédure. Il observe, ensuite, qu’un fonctionnaire de l’administration fédérale des contributions, chargé de l’enquête contre lui, a été autorisé à prendre part à l’audience devant le tribunal administratif. De plus, le requérant soutient qu’il ressortirait de plusieurs documents versés au dossier que les faits faisant l’objet de l’enquête contre lui étaient liés avec la procédure pendante devant le tribunal administratif. A ce propos, le requérant se réfère à la note du 31 juillet 2002 (voir paragraphe 25 ci-dessus) et au contenu du rapport du 2 novembre 2004 (voir paragraphe 30 ci-dessus), aux termes desquels l’administration elle-même aurait reconnu les liens existant entre l’enquête pour soustraction d’impôt et la procédure à l’origine de la présente requête.

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38. La Cour observe au préalable que l’article 6 de la Convention n’est pas applicable sous son volet civil à la présente procédure qui avait pour objet la détermination des obligations fiscales du requérant à l’égard de l’État (Ferrazzini c. Italie [GC], no 44759/98, § 29, CEDH 2001‑VII). La question qui se pose toutefois consiste à savoir si la procédure litigieuse était de nature « pénale » et est à ce titre susceptible d’entraîner l’application des garanties prévues par le volet pénal de l’article 6 de la Convention (Jussila c. Finlande [GC], no 73053/01, § 29, CEDH 2006‑XIII).

39. La Cour rappelle, à ce propos, qu’elle a déjà eu l’occasion de se pencher à plusieurs reprises sur la question de l’application de l’article 6 de la Convention à des procédures fiscales se déroulant devant les autorités suisses. Ainsi, dans l’affaire A.P., M.P. et T.P. c. Suisse elle a jugé qu’une procédure aboutissant à une amende pour l’infraction de soustraction d’impôt selon le droit fiscal suisse appelle en principe un examen sous l’angle de l’article 6 de la Convention (arrêt du 29 août 1997, §§ 40 ss, Recueil des arrêts et des décisions 1997‑V).

40. L’applicabilité de l’article 6 de la Convention ne se limite, par ailleurs, pas aux cas où une amende pour soustraction d’impôt a effectivement été prononcée au terme de celle-ci. Lorsque la procédure tend à la détermination des montants dus à titre d’impôt, sans complètement exclure qu’une amende soit prononcée, l’article 6 est également applicable, même si, en fin de compte, les autorités renoncent à infliger toute sanction financière au requérant (J.B. c. Suisse, no 31827/96, §§ 47-48, CEDH 2001‑III). La question se pose donc de savoir si l’article 6 de la Convention s’applique à une procédure administrative comme celle qui est ici en cause.

41. A cet égard, la Cour rappelle que la Convention doit être interprétée de manière à garantir le caractère concret et effectif des droits qui y sont garantis (Airey c. Irlande, 9 octobre 1979, § 24, série A no 32). Elle irait à l’encontre de ce but, si elle s’estimait liée par les qualifications contenues dans l’ordre juridique interne, car cela aurait pour conséquence que l’application de l’article 6 de la Convention à certaines catégories de litiges serait subordonnée à la volonté souveraine des Etats membres (Engel et autres c. Pays-Bas, 8 juin 1976, § 81, série A no 22).

42. S’agissant de la situation particulière d’un requérant contre lequel plusieurs procédures distinctes sont menées en parallèle, la Cour ne saurait, ainsi, exclure l’applicabilité de l’article 6 de la Convention lorsque l’examen des griefs allégués par le requérant l’amène inévitablement à se pencher peu ou prou sur des actes, ou des fragments de procédure, auxquels l’article 6 n’est en principe pas applicable (Sträg Datatjänster AB c. Suède (déc.), no 50664/99, 21 juin 2005), notamment lorsque différents éléments se trouvent combinés dans une même procédure de telle manière qu’il est impossible de distinguer les phases de celle-ci portant sur une « accusation en matière pénale » de celles qui ont un autre objet (Jussila c. Finlande, précité, § 45).

43. La Cour peut donc être amenée, dans certaines circonstances, à examiner globalement, sous l’angle de l’article 6 de la Convention, un ensemble de procédures si celles-ci sont suffisamment liées entre elles pour des raisons tenant soit aux faits sur lesquelles elles portent, soit à la manière dont elles sont menées par les autorités nationales. L’article 6 de la Convention sera ainsi applicable lorsqu’une des procédures en cause porte sur une accusation en matière pénale et que les autres lui sont suffisamment liées.

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44. Se tournant vers les circonstances particulières du cas d’espèce, la Cour relève d’emblée qu’il ne fait aucun doute que la procédure d’enquête pour soustraction d’impôt porte sur une accusation de nature pénale. La question se pose de savoir si la procédure à l’origine de la présente requête, ayant pour objet les impôts dus par le requérant pour la période fiscale 1989-1990 (voir paragraphes 7 et 8 ci-dessus), tombe également sous l’empire de l’article 6 de la Convention.

45. La Cour observe, tout d’abord, que l’article 111 de la loi fédérale sur l’impôt fédéral direct fait obligations aux différentes autorités de se fournir mutuellement des renseignements et qu’en vertu de l’article 195 § 1 de cette même loi pareille obligation existe également en ce qui concerne la procédure d’enquête pour soustraction d’impôt. Les deux procédures n’étaient donc pas conçues en droit interne pour être menées de manière indépendante.

46. Par ailleurs, pour ce qui est, ensuite, de l’organisation de l’enquête en matière fiscale, la Cour relève que le mandat de perquisition visant le requérant invitait les fonctionnaires chargés de l’enquête contre lui à saisir des documents concernant la période fiscale 1989-1990 (voir paragraphe 15 ci-dessus) et que l’administration fédérale des impôts a elle-même reconnu que l’enquête pour soustraction d’impôt avait porté sur des années pour lesquelles le requérant n’avait pas formellement été accusé de soustraction d’impôt (voir paragraphe 33 ci-dessus). L’administration cantonale des impôts a, de surcroît, invoqué les résultats de la procédure d’enquête en cours pour former des demandes nouvelles devant le tribunal administratif (voir paragraphe 23 ci-dessus) et un fonctionnaire chargé de l’enquête contre le requérant a assisté à une audience devant la juridiction (voir paragraphe 25 ci-dessus).

47. Concernant, finalement, les faits eux-mêmes faisant l’objet de l’enquête, la Cour note que les comptes bancaires détenus par le requérant auprès de la Banque S., et gérés par la société P. SA, ont été mentionnés tant dans la procédure ayant donné lieu à la présente requête (voir paragraphes 8 et 24 ci-dessus) que dans l’enquête pour soustraction d’impôts (voir paragraphes 21 et 31 ci-dessus). De surcroît, les relations entre le requérant et les sociétés de droit panaméen T.F et F.H. sont à l’origine des demandes nouvelles devant le tribunal administratif (voir paragraphe 23 ci-dessus), alors que le requérant a été interrogé à leur sujet au cours de l’enquête pour soustraction d’impôts (voir paragraphe 20 ci-dessus).

48. A la lumière de ce qui précède, la Cour arrive à la conclusion que l’enquête pour soustraction d’impôts dirigée contre le requérant s’inscrivait dans le prolongement de la procédure qui s’est déroulée devant le tribunal administratif. Elle estime, par conséquent, que les deux procédures étaient étroitement liées de sorte que le caractère manifestement pénal de l’enquête s’est étendu à la procédure ayant donné lieu à la présente requête. Il s’ensuit que l’article 6 de la Convention est applicable dans le cas d’espèce sous son volet pénal. Partant, il convient de rejeter l’exception du Gouvernement.

49. La Cour constate en outre que les griefs ne sont pas manifestement mal fondés au sens de l’article 35 § 3 a) de la Convention et qu’ils ne se heurtent à aucun autre motif d’irrecevabilité. Il convient donc de les déclarer recevables.

B. Sur le fond

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1. Sur la violation alléguée du droit de ne pas être contraint de s’incriminer soi-même

50. Le requérant considère que sa situation est identique à l’affaire Funke c. France (arrêt du 25 février 1993, série A no 256‑A). Il expose que, d’une part, en produisant les documents réclamés par la commission d’impôt, il aurait permis au fisc d’ouvrir sur le champ une procédure en soustraction d’impôt à son encontre. Il se plaint, par ailleurs, que le tribunal administratif et le Tribunal fédéral ont confirmé les amendes qui lui avaient été infligées alors qu’il faisait l’objet d’une enquête pour soustraction d’impôt pour les mêmes périodes fiscales et qu’en produisant les documents réclamés il s’exposait à ce qu’ils soient utilisés contre lui dans cette procédure à coloration pénale.

51. Le Gouvernement affirme, en se référant à l’affaire Allen c. Royaume-Uni, que l’obligation de fournir des informations au cours d’une procédure en rappel d’impôt ne saurait violer l’interdiction de contribuer à sa propre incrimination en l’absence de procédure pénale prévisible (décision du 10 septembre 2002, no 76574/01, CEDH 2002‑VIII). A ce propos, il réitère son point de vue selon lequel les deux procédures menées contre le requérant étaient distinctes et observe, à nouveau, que l’enquête pour soustraction d’impôt n’a débuté que quatre ans après la décision de la commission d’impôt ayant infligé les amendes litigieuses au requérant. Il relève que la situation du requérant se distingue de l’affaire Funke c. France précitée, dans la mesure où la condamnation du requérant n’était pas uniquement destinée à obtenir des informations en vue d’une procédure pénale ultérieure, mais concernait uniquement l’établissement de ses obligations fiscales.

52. La Cour rappelle que même si l’article 6 de la Convention ne les mentionne pas expressément, le droit de garder le silence et le droit de ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination sont des normes internationales généralement reconnues qui sont au cœur de la notion de procès équitable consacrée par l’article 6 § 1. En particulier, le droit de ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination présuppose que les autorités cherchent à fonder leur argumentation sans recourir à des éléments de preuve obtenus par la contrainte ou les pressions, au mépris de la volonté de l’« accusé » (voir Funke précité ; John Murray c. Royaume-Uni, 8 février 1996, § 45, Recueil 1996-I ; Saunders c. Royaume-Uni, 17 décembre 1996, §§ 68-69, Recueil 1996-VI ; Serves c. France, 20 octobre 1997, § 46, Recueil 1997-VI ; J.B. c. Suisse, précité, § 64).

53. En l’espèce, la Cour relève qu’en infligeant des amendes au requérant, les autorités ont fait pression sur lui pour qu’il leur soumette des documents qui auraient fourni des informations sur son revenu et sa fortune en vue de son imposition, plus particulièrement en ce qui concerne ses comptes auprès de la Banque S. (voir paragraphe 8 ci-dessus). S’il n’appartient pas à la Cour de spéculer sur la nature de ces informations, elle constate que celles-ci sont également mentionnées dans le rapport établi à l’issue de l’enquête pour soustraction d’impôt (voir paragraphe 31 ci‑dessus).

54. La Cour observe, par ailleurs, que le requérant ne pouvait exclure que toute information relative à des revenus supplémentaires de sources non imposées l’exposait à être accusé d’avoir commis l’infraction de soustraction d’impôt (J.B. c. Suisse, précité, § 65) et était de nature à compromettre sa position dans l’enquête pour soustraction d’impôts.

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55. Le fait que celle-ci ait été ouverte quatre ans plus tard n’est, aux yeux de la Cour, pas déterminant, car au moment où le tribunal administratif a confirmé les décisions litigieuses, l’enquête était déjà ouverte depuis un peu moins de trois ans. Dès lors, les décisions des juridictions internes, confirmant les amendes infligées précédemment au requérant, ont eu pour résultat d’obliger le requérant à contribuer à sa propre incrimination.

56. De surcroît, la Cour constate que l’article 183 de la loi fédérale sur l’impôt fédéral direct a été modifié au 1er janvier 2008, de manière à donner aux personnes faisant l’objet d’une enquête fiscale des garanties suffisantes, dont la garantie que les informations fournies lors d’une procédure purement fiscale ne seront pas utilisées au cours de l’enquête pour soustraction d’impôts.

57. Finalement, la Cour estime que la situation du requérant se distingue de celle d’un contribuable qui avoue spontanément avoir fraudé le fisc dans l’espoir d’être moins sévèrement puni. A la différence de l’affaire Allen c. Royaume-Uni invoquée, le requérant n’a, en effet, jamais reconnu avoir eu un comportement illégal et s’est prévalu à tous les stades de la procédure de son droit au silence.

58. Ces éléments suffisent à la Cour pour conclure que le droit de ne pas être contraint de s’incriminer soi-même, tel que garanti par l’article 6 § 1 de la Convention, a été violé en l’espèce.

2. Sur la violation alléguée du principe de l’égalité des armes

59. Le requérant allègue qu’il n’a pas été en mesure d’avoir accès à l’ensemble des pièces du dossier le concernant. Se référant à l’affaire Dowsett c. Royaume-Uni (arrêt du 24 juin 2003, no 39482/98, CEDH 2003‑VII), il soutient qu’il aurait dû être en mesure de consulter l’ensemble des pièces apportées par le délégué de l’administration fédérale des contributions à l’audience devant le tribunal administratif. Il affirme que les documents en question présentaient des liens évidents avec la procédure en cours et qu’il n’appartient pas à l’administration de choisir seule les documents qu’elle entend invoquer en justice.

60. Le Gouvernement rétorque que le requérant a eu accès à l’ensemble des documents produits dans la procédure le concernant. Il estime que ce dernier aurait été en mesure de consulter l’ensemble des documents entre les mains de l’administration en obtenant le consentement écrit de tiers. Se référant à l’affaire Dombo Beheer B.V. c. Pays-Bas (arrêt du 27 octobre 1993, § 33, série A no 274), le Gouvernement soutient que le requérant n’aurait pas été placé dans une position de désavantage par rapport à son adversaire.

61. La Cour rappelle que le droit à un procès pénal équitable implique que la défense puisse avoir accès à l’ensemble des preuves entre les mains de l’accusation, qu’elles soient en défaveur, ou en faveur, de l’accusé (McKeown c. Royaume-Uni, no 6684/05, § 43, 11 janvier 2011). Les seules restrictions admissibles au droit d’accès à l’ensemble des preuves disponibles sont celles qui s’avèrent strictement indispensables (Van Mechelen et autres c. Pays-Bas, 23 avril 1997, § 58, Recueil 1997‑III), soit la protection d’intérêts nationaux vitaux ou la sauvegarde des droits fondamentaux d’autrui (Dowsett c. Royaume-Uni, précité, § 42).

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62. Par ailleurs, la procédure doit prévoir des moyens adéquats pour compenser cette restriction et éviter que des abus ne soient commis (Doorson c. Pays-Bas, 26 mars 1996, § 74-75, Recueil 1996‑II). Ainsi, la Cour tient compte, par exemple, du fait que la question de l’opportunité d’une divulgation soit examinée par un magistrat indépendant et impartial ayant eu accès aux moyens de preuve litigieux et ayant, par voie de conséquence, été en mesure d’apprécier pleinement, et tout au long de la procédure, la pertinence pour la défense des informations non communiquées à celle-ci (Jasper c. Royaume-Uni [GC], no 27052/95, § 56, 16 février 2000 ; Fitt c. Royaume-Uni [GC], no 29777/96, § 49, CEDH 2000‑II). Lorsque la communication d’informations tenues secrètes n’a pas été soumise au contrôle détaillé d’une juridiction au cours de la procédure de première instance, le manque d’équité de la procédure ne peut être réparé en degré d’appel que par une communication totale et complète des éléments litigieux (I.J.L. et autres. c. Royaume-Uni, nos 29522/95, 30056/96 et 30574/96, § 149, CEDH 2000‑IX).

63. S’agissant, plus particulièrement, d’une procédure devant les juridictions administratives dans une affaire fiscale à caractère pénal, la Cour a déjà eu l’occasion d’indiquer qu’elle n’excluait pas que la notion de procès équitable puisse quand même comporter l’obligation, pour le fisc, de consentir à fournir au justiciable certaines pièces quand bien même celles-ci n’étaient pas spécifiquement invoquées par l’administration contre le requérant (Bendenoun c. France, 24 février 1994, § 52, série A no 284).

64. Finalement la Cour observe, qu’elle n’a certes pas pour tâche de se substituer aux juridictions internes auxquelles il incombe en premier chef d’apprécier l’utilité d’une offre de preuve et qu’il ne lui appartient pas de spéculer sur le contenu ou la pertinence des documents en question (voir, parmi beaucoup d’autres, Asch c. Autriche, 26 avril 1991, § 25, série A no 203). Il n’en demeure pas moins que le refus d’administrer une preuve doit être dûment motivé (Vidal c. Belgique, 22 avril 1992, § 34, série A no 35‑B).

65. En l’espèce, la Cour constate que le tribunal administratif a refusé au requérant l’accès aux documents en raison de son « attitude adoptée [...] en procédure », plus particulièrement à cause du fait qu’il ne « fourni[ssai]t pas les explications les plus élémentaires qui pourraient conduire à douter de la version des faits adoptée dans la décision attaquée » (voir paragraphe 27 ci‑dessus). En substance, cela revenait à reprocher au requérant de ne pas avoir remis aux autorités fiscales les documents pour lesquelles il faisait valoir son droit au silence. La Cour en déduit que les restrictions en question n’avaient pas pour but de protéger des intérêts vitaux nationaux, ou de veiller à la sauvegarde des droits fondamentaux d’autrui au sens de l’arrêt Dowsett c. Royaume-Uni précité.

66. Finalement, la Cour constate que le Tribunal fédéral a entériné l’approche suivie par le tribunal administratif, sans procéder à son propre examen de la question, et sans autoriser la communication intégrale des documents litigieux au requérant (voir paragraphe 29 ci-dessus). Les défauts ayant entaché la procédure de première instance n’ont ainsi pas pu être régularisés par le biais du recours au Tribunal fédéral.

67. Au vu de ce qui précède, la Cour en déduit que le refus de communiquer au requérant l’intégralité du dossier détenu par l’administration n’était pas justifié par des motifs en adéquation avec les principes se dégageant de la jurisprudence de la Cour en matière d’égalité des armes. Le processus décisionnel n’a en outre pas été assorti de

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garanties aptes à protéger les intérêts de l’accusé. Celui-ci a donc été placé dans une situation de net désavantage (Bendenoun c. France, précité, § 52).

68. Ces éléments suffisent à la Cour pour conclure que le droit à l’égalité des armes, tel que garanti par l’article 6 § 1 de la Convention a été violé en l’espèce.

II. SUR LA VIOLATION ALLÉGUÉE DE L’ARTICLE 6 § 2 DE LA CONVENTION

69. Le requérant se plaint enfin de violation du droit à la présomption d’innocence dans la mesure où l’enquête fiscale pour soustraction d’impôt s’est achevée après la procédure ayant donné lieu à la présente requête. Il invoque à cet égard l’article 6 § 2 de la Convention ainsi libellé :

« Toute personne accusée d’une infraction est présumée innocente jusqu’à ce que sa culpabilité ait été légalement établie. »

70. La Cour rappelle que la présomption d’innocence interdit aux autorités d’accomplir leurs devoirs en partant de l’idée que les personnes faisant l’objet d’une enquête sont coupables des faits qui leurs sont reprochés (Telfner c. Autriche, no 33501/96, § 15, 20 mars 2001).

71. En l’espèce, la Cour constate que les autorités chargées de la procédure fiscale ne se sont jamais prononcées sur l’éventuelle culpabilité du requérant. Le fait que le requérant ait été condamné pour soustraction d’impôt une fois que la procédure fiscale s’était achevée ne saurait être à lui seul déterminant, car l’article 6 § 2 de la Convention ne va pas jusqu’à imposer aux Etats membres de traiter différentes procédures dans un certain ordre (mutatis mutandis Cortina de Alcocer et de Alcocer Torra c. Espagne (déc.), no 33912/08).

72. Compte tenu des éléments en sa possession, la Cour ne relève aucune apparence de violation des droits et libertés garantis par la Convention au titre de l’article 6 § 2 de la Convention.

73. Il s’ensuit que ce grief est manifestement mal fondé et doit être rejeté en application de l’article 35 §§ 3 a) et 4 de la Convention.

III. SUR L’APPLICATION DE L’ARTICLE 41 DE LA CONVENTION

74. Aux termes de l’article 41 de la Convention,

« Si la Cour déclare qu’il y a eu violation de la Convention ou de ses Protocoles, et si le droit interne de la Haute Partie contractante ne permet d’effacer qu’imparfaitement les conséquences de cette violation, la Cour accorde à la partie lésée, s’il y a lieu, une satisfaction équitable. »

A. Dommage

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75. Le requérant réclame le remboursement des amendes qui lui ont été infligées, s’élevant à 5 000 francs suisses (CHF) soit 3 599 euros (EUR), au titre du préjudice matériel qu’il aurait subi. Il ne présente aucune demande en réparation du dommage moral.

76. Le Gouvernement admet que l’octroi de la somme revendiquée au titre du dommage matériel est équitable en cas de constat de violation du droit à ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination garanti par l’article 6 de la Convention.

77. La Cour rappelle qu’un arrêt constatant une violation entraîne pour l’Etat défendeur l’obligation juridique de mettre un terme à la violation et d’en effacer les conséquences de manière à rétablir autant que possible la situation antérieure (voir Iatridis c. Grèce (satisfaction équitable) [GC], no 31107/96, § 32, CEDH 2000‑XI).

78. En l’espèce, la Cour constate que les amendes dont le requérant demande le remboursement lui ont été infligées pour avoir refusé de fournir les renseignements litigieux à l’administration fiscale. Au vu des conclusions ci-dessus (paragraphes 59 et 68), la Cour considère qu’il y a lieu d’octroyer au requérant 3 599 EUR au titre du préjudice matériel plus tous montants pouvant être dus par lui à titre d’impôt.

B. Frais et dépens

79. Le requérant demande également, notes d’honoraires à l’appui, 44 000 CHF, soit 31 672 EUR, pour les frais et dépens engagés devant les juridictions internes et 15 000 CHF, soit EUR 10 797, pour ceux engagés devant la Cour.

80. Le Gouvernement s’oppose à ces demandes. Il allègue que l’activité du défenseur n’est pas mise en rapport avec les montants encaissés, les sommes demandées n’étant dès lors pas établies. Il conclut dès lors à ce que le montant des frais et dépens soit ramené à 10 000 CHF, soit 7 198 EUR, en cas de condamnation.

81. Selon la jurisprudence de la Cour, un requérant ne peut obtenir le remboursement de ses frais et dépens que dans la mesure où se trouvent établis leur réalité, leur nécessité et le caractère raisonnable de leur taux (Iatridis c. Grèce (satisfaction équitable) [GC], précité, § 54).

82. En l’espèce, compte tenu des documents en sa possession et des critères susmentionnés, estime raisonnable la somme de 7 198 EUR tous frais confondus et l’accorde au requérant plus tous montants pouvant être dus par lui à titre d’impôt.

C. Intérêts moratoires

83. La Cour juge approprié de calquer le taux des intérêts moratoires sur le taux d’intérêt de la facilité de prêt marginal de la Banque centrale européenne majoré de trois points de pourcentage.

PAR CES MOTIFS, LA COUR,

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1. Déclare, à la majorité, la requête recevable quant aux griefs tirés de la violation de l’article 6 § 1 de la Convention ;

2. Déclare, à l’unanimité, la requête irrecevable pour le surplus ;

3. Dit, par cinq voix contre deux, qu’il y a eu violation de l’article 6 § 1 de la Convention en ce qu’il garantit le droit à ne pas être contraint de contribuer à sa propre incrimination ;

4. Dit, par cinq voix contre deux, qu’il y a eu violation de l’article 6 § 1 de la Convention en ce qu’il garantit l’égalité des armes dans un procès pénal ;

5. Dit, par cinq voix contre deux,

a) que l’Etat défendeur doit verser au requérant, dans les trois mois à compter du jour où l’arrêt sera devenu définitif conformément à l’article 44 § 2 de la Convention, 3 599 EUR (trois mille cinq cent quatre-vingt-dix-neuf euros), pour dommage matériel et 7 198 EUR (sept mille cent quatre-vingt-dix-huit euros) pour frais et dépens, plus tout montant pouvant être dû à titre d’impôt par le requérant, à convertir en francs suisses au taux applicable à la date du règlement ;

b) qu’à compter de l’expiration dudit délai et jusqu’au versement, ces montants seront à majorer d’un intérêt simple à un taux égal à celui de la facilité de prêt marginal de la Banque centrale européenne applicable pendant cette période, augmenté de trois points de pourcentage ;

6. Rejette, à l’unanimité, la demande de satisfaction équitable pour le surplus.

Fait en français, puis communiqué par écrit le 5 avril 2012, en application de l’article 77 §§ 2 et 3 du règlement.

Claudia Westerdiek Dean Spielmann

Greffière Président

Au présent arrêt se trouve joint, conformément aux articles 45 § 2 de la Convention et 74 § 2 du règlement, l’exposé des opinions séparées des juges Zupančič et Power-Forde.

D.S.

C.W.

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OPINION DISSIDENTE DU JUGE ZUPANČIČ

(Traduction)

Je ne puis me rallier à la majorité dans cette affaire, même si l’arrêt est compatible avec l’affaire J.B. c. Suisse (no 31827/96, CEDH 2001-III). Une seule question se pose en l’espèce : celle de savoir si le droit de ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination s’applique ou non dans les affaires où l’on est en présence d’une procédure administrative ou pénale concernant les obligations fiscales de l’intéressé vis-à-vis de l’Etat. Par ailleurs, à la lumière d’affaires telles que Jalloh c. Allemagne (no 54810/00, CEDH 2006‑IX) et Gäfgen c. Allemagne ([GC], no 22978/05 CEDH 2010), on peut se demander si dans ce type de circonstances, où le suspect ou prévenu doit fournir des pièces écrites relatives à une éventuelle fraude fiscale de sa part, le droit de ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination s’applique en fait sous sa forme originelle. Si l’on suit la théorie selon laquelle le droit de ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination est l’image inversée d’une violence inadmissible qui contamine le processus pénal, on ne peut soutenir l’idée que ledit droit est applicable dans les affaires où la découverte de documents appartenant au suspect ou prévenu touche en fait à la notion d’auto-incrimination. Comme nous l’avons exposé dans un autre cadre, le droit de ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination n’est pas un abstrait « droit de garder le silence » : il s’agit plutôt d’une interdiction – issue du droit romain – de recourir à une force par laquelle l’individu risque de devenir une source de preuves contre lui-même. Autrement dit, l’individu peut toujours être une source de preuves contre lui-même, excepté si l’on recourt à la force pour qu’il le devienne. Il s’ensuit logiquement que la question qui se pose n’est pas celle de l’ « auto-incrimination » en tant que telle. Le problème en soi n’est pas qu’une personne soit une « source de preuves contre elle-même » ; c’est de savoir si elle a été contrainte de le devenir. La raison à cela est que, comme l’avons expliqué dans l’affaire Jalloh c. Allemagne, l’usage de la force, par exemple pour extraire des sachets de cocaïne de l’estomac du suspect, est incompatible avec la légitimité de la procédure pénale, car toute procédure légale consiste à remplacer la logique du pouvoir par le pouvoir légitime de la logique fondé sur l’Etat. D’une certaine façon, c’est ce qui rend le droit si important : en d’autres termes, le droit maintient la société au-dessus du niveau où prévalent le combat et la guerre de tous contre tous, il empêche la société de régresser vers l’anarchie.

Cela s’applique clairement à l’usage de la force, mais pas nécessairement de la ruse, dans les affaires strictement pénales. N’a toutefois pas été tranchée la question de savoir si le droit de ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination s’applique dans les situations où la recherche de la vérité matérielle exige que l’intéressé fournisse des documents – le cas typique étant celui des affaires fiscales – lorsque ceux-ci sont dans un certain sens l’objet même de la procédure. De plus, les questions fiscales sont par définition des questions de propriété ; elles n’ont pas trait à l’intégrité de la personnalité de l’intéressé, mais uniquement à ses biens au sens de l’article 1 § 1 du Protocole no 1. Soulignons encore que la propriété, si l’on consulte les travaux préparatoires de la Convention, n’était pas au départ considérée comme une question relevant des droits de l’homme ; ce droit a été ajouté par la suite, et ce en dépit des objections soulevées par certains pays qui se demandaient si la propriété était du reste un droit de l’homme.

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Quoi qu’il en soit, le droit de ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination ne s’applique pas d’ordinaire aux questions fiscales. Le particulier, par exemple, doit soumettre une déclaration d’impôt une fois par an, ce qui signifie du point de vue de l’auto-incrimination qu’une fois par an au moins il est contraint d’être une source de preuves contre lui-même. Si l’on portait sur cet élément un regard machinal, on considérerait que le fait de fournir à la demande des services fiscaux des justificatifs concernant les points douteux de la déclaration d’impôt est clairement incompatible avec l’idée qu’une personne ne peut devenir une source de preuves contre elle-même. Pourtant cela n’est pas le cas. Et ce parce que la procédure administrative – on voit là la sagesse de la Convention dans ce domaine – ne s’analyse pas en une procédure pénale contre le contribuable. A été préservée l’idée que la procédure administrative fiscale est un simple échange d’informations dans le contexte administratif, sans nulle conséquence quant à une éventuelle auto-incrimination.

Néanmoins, il est parfaitement clair que toute déclaration d’impôt peut engendrer au sein des services fiscaux des doutes quant à la véracité des informations que le contribuable a livrées dans les formulaires relatifs à ses revenus imposables. Cela implique bien entendu que tout doute conçu par les services fiscaux fait immédiatement surgir le spectre de l’infraction appelée « fraude fiscale ». Tout contribuable, dans les affaires de fraude fiscale et vis-à-vis des autorités fiscales de l’Etat, est un suspect potentiel. Dès lors, il est illusoire de soutenir de manière machinale que la procédure administrative fiscale est, pour une raison ou pour une autre, totalement distincte de la procédure pénale engagée sur le fondement d’informations soumises dans la déclaration d’impôt. La fine cloison qui « sépare » la procédure administrative et la procédure pénale est extrêmement perméable ; toute déclaration d’impôt émanant d’un particulier imposable, quel qu’il soit, est susceptible d’engendrer des soupçons quant à l’honnêteté dont l’intéressé a fait preuve en soumettant les informations.

Il apparaît donc fort évident qu’il est absurde d’appliquer indistinctement aux questions fiscales le droit de ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination et de soutenir que l’obligation faite au contribuable de divulguer des documents touche à l’auto-incrimination, lorsque l’on songe à la différence entre l’obligation de s’incriminer soi-même dans un procès pénal ordinaire et la même obligation dans une procédure pénale concernant une fraude fiscale ou d’autres questions relatives à la propriété. Nous en arrivons à une distinction plus subtile entre, d’un côté, la personne même de l’intéressé qui subit un procès dans une affaire pénale et, de l’autre côté, les biens de l’intéressé, lesquels de manière générale intéressent le droit privé et la fiscalité et n’ont pas trait à l’essence même de la vie privée et de l’être intime de l’intéressé, qui sont protégés notamment par le droit de ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination. La personne qui dans une affaire pénale est contrainte de devenir une source de preuves contre elle-même n’est évidemment pas dans la même situation qu’un individu obligé de fournir des preuves touchant à certains aspects de ses biens. Il est donc spécieux de soutenir que les biens en question font en quelque sorte partie intégrante de sa propre personne, telle que protégée dans une procédure pénale classique concernant une infraction. Il n’est guère difficile de le démontrer. Dans une affaire de propriété – qu’il s’agisse de biens meubles ou de biens immeubles –, un individu a avec d’autres sujets ainsi qu’avec l’Etat des relations dans le cadre desquelles il est constamment contraint d’être une source de preuves contre ses « intérêts mêmes », lorsque lesdits intérêts ont trait à une question sans rapport avec sa personne, à une simple question de propriété que l’intéressé doit gérer.

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Au-delà de ces considérations plutôt métaphysiques, il existe une raison pratique de ne pas appliquer le droit de ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination aux questions de propriété en général, et aux questions fiscales tout particulièrement. En outre, si l’on imposait aux Etats contractants cette façon de concevoir l’auto-incrimination, cela ouvrirait immédiatement une boîte de Pandore pleine d’objections de la part des contribuables de chaque pays, qui s’estimeraient victimes d’une obligation de contribuer à leur propre incrimination simplement parce qu’ils doivent fournir aux autorités fiscales des pièces par lesquelles ils s’incriminent eux‑mêmes.

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE LA JUGE POWER-FORDE

(Traduction)

En 1994, des amendes administratives furent infligées au requérant pour ses refus répétés de fournir aux autorités fiscales des documents financiers dans le cadre d’une enquête administrative sur ses obligations fiscales. En 2002-2003, tant le tribunal administratif que le Tribunal fédéral confirmèrent ces décisions des services fiscaux. Ce sont ces amendes qui font l’objet de la requête du requérant devant la Cour (et non l’amende ultérieure pour soustraction d’impôt, qui de toute façon n’a pas donné lieu à une condamnation pénale). Le refus du requérant de fournir certaines pièces et l’imposition consécutive par les autorités fiscales d’amendes administratives se sont produits à un moment où aucune accusation pénale ne pesait sur l’intéressé. La majorité a néanmoins estimé que cette obligation de révéler des informations violait le droit de ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination.

Mon vote contre le constat d’une violation de l’article 6 découle de mon vote contre l’applicabilité de cette disposition en l’espèce. Je sais bien que la majorité a appliqué et, dans une certaine mesure, étendu la conclusion formulée par la Cour dans l’affaire J.B. c. Suisse (no 31827/96, CEDH 2001‑III). J’ai toutefois du mal à admettre que l’obligation de produire des informations fiscales dans le cadre de l’appréciation par l’Etat des obligations fiscales d’une personne s’analyse en une « auto‑incrimination » et dès lors relève du domaine des droits fondamentaux.

La jurisprudence de la Cour comporte à ce jour un certain nombre d’incertitudes quant à i) la portée du droit de ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination et à ii) la nature des preuves qui relèvent de ce droit. A mon sens, cette affaire aurait pu donner à la Grande Chambre l’occasion de dissiper la confusion et de stabiliser les principes.

La portée du droit de ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination

Dans l’affaire Funke c. France (25 février 1993, série A no 256-A), la Cour a établi l’existence d’un « droit de garder le silence » en tant qu’exigence d’un procès équitable, et a constaté une violation de l’article 6 dans des circonstances où l’intéressé avait été tenu de fournir aux agents des douanes françaises des précisions sur ses comptes bancaires. Contrairement au requérant de la présente affaire, l’intéressé dans Funke

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avait été poursuivi pour refus de produire des documents, et cette procédure (pénale en soi) avait été secondaire par rapport aux poursuites que les autorités entendaient entamer pour une accusation pénale distincte.

Le fait que le droit de ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination se rapporte uniquement à l’admission de preuves dans une procédure pénale semble avoir été confirmé dans l’affaire Saunders c. Royaume-Uni (17 décembre 1996, Recueil des arrêts et décisions 1996-VI). L’existence de ce droit n’interdit pas en soi le recours à l’interrogatoire obligatoire au cours d’une enquête purement administrative. Dans l’affaire Saunders, la Cour souligna que le rôle des inspecteurs du ministère du Commerce et de l’Industrie (le « DTI ») était essentiellement réglementaire, et donc distinct de celui d’une enquête ou d’une procédure concernant une infraction. Elle admit que le rôle des inspecteurs était « l’établissement et la consignation de faits qui pourraient par la suite servir de base à l’action d’autres autorités compétentes » (Saunders, § 67).

Après l’affaire Saunders, la Commission, dans l’affaire Abas c. Pays-Bas (décision de la Commission du 26 février 1996, Décisions et rapports (DR) 88-B, p. 120), déclara irrecevable un grief relatif à l’obligation de répondre aux questions d’un inspecteur des impôts, constatant que cette obligation ne portait pas atteinte au droit de garder le silence. Les réponses données par le requérant n’avaient pas été utilisées lors d’une procédure pénale ultérieure bien que, après qu’il avait été questionné, son domicile avait été perquisitionné et des éléments de preuve avaient été recueillis puis utilisés dans le cadre de poursuites pour escroquerie et fraude fiscale. La Commission observa que les pouvoirs coercitifs des autorités fiscales étaient considérés comme nécessaires, dans la plupart des pays, pour permettre aux inspecteurs des impôts de remplir leurs fonctions.

Ce point précis fut examiné par la Cour dans l’affaire I.J.L. et autres c. Royaume-Uni (nos 29522/95, 30056/96 et 30574/96, CEDH 2000-IX). Les requérants soutenaient que l’enquête menée par les inspecteurs des impôts devait être considérée comme faisant partie du processus de poursuite compte tenu de la collusion entre les inspecteurs et les autorités de poursuite, et qu’en conséquence ils auraient dû se voir reconnaître les droits d’une personne « accusée d’une infraction ». La Cour rejeta cet argument et par ailleurs écarta le point de vue selon lequel « l’obligation légale pour une personne de fournir des informations exigées par un organe administratif enfreint forcément l’article 6 de la Convention » (I.J.L. et autres, § 100).

Une autre affaire, King c. Royaume-Uni ((déc.), no 13881/02, 8 avril 2003), jette plus encore le doute sur la position adoptée par la majorité. Contrairement au requérant dans l’affaire Shannon c. Royaume-Uni (no 6563/03, § 41, 4 octobre 2005), l’intéressé dans l’affaire King ne s’était pas trouvé accusé d’une infraction au moment où il avait été soumis à une obligation de fournir des informations. Il avait été poursuivi pour n’avoir pas répondu à cette obligation et « [non pour] une infraction découlant d’actes ou omissions qu’il aurait commis avant ce moment-là ». La Cour conclut à la non-violation du droit de ne pas contribuer à sa propre incrimination. Le requérant en l’espèce ne doit-il pas à coup sûr être considéré comme étant dans la même situation que le requérant dans l’affaire King ? Les deux requérants ont été sanctionnés (en l’espèce, certes, dans le cadre d’une procédure purement administrative) pour manquement à répondre à une obligation de fournir des informations (en l’espèce sous la forme de documents), et ni l’un ni l’autre n’était confronté à une accusation pénale concernant des actes commis avant ce moment-là. Alors que la requête dans l’affaire King a été déclarée irrecevable à cet égard, la majorité dans la présente affaire a conclu à la violation.

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Si l’obligation de produire des informations orales est autorisée dans le cadre d’une enquête purement administrative (voir, en ce sens, les affaires Saunders, Abas ainsi que I.J.L. et autres, précitées) et si une procédure pour manquement à fournir pareilles informations ne viole pas l’article 6 (voir King, précitée), alors on peut se demander pourquoi l’obligation de produire des informations écrites n’est pas autorisée dans le cadre d’une enquête purement administrative ? La distinction entre informations orales et informations écrites est-elle vraiment défendable ? Et pourquoi les poursuites pénales pour manquement sont-elles acceptables et non l’imposition d’une amende administrative ?

La nature des éléments de preuve protégés

Même si l’article 6 § 1 s’appliquait en l’espèce sous son volet pénal (pour ce qui concerne l’imposition d’une amende pour défaut de production de documents), il n’est pas certain qu’une obligation de fournir des informations financières « indépendantes » en réponse à des demandes émanant des autorités puisse passer pour plus « auto-incriminante » que l’obligation de produire un échantillon de sang ou d’urine dans d’autres types d’enquêtes pénales.

Dans la logique qu’elle a suivie pour constater la violation de l’article 6, la Cour, dans l’affaire J.B. c. Suisse, a semblé forger une autre distinction entre les preuves documentaires et d’autres types de « preuves matérielles ». Comme en l’espèce, le requérant dans l’affaire J.B. s’était vu infliger des amendes pour manquement à livrer des informations financières aux autorités fiscales. La Cour fit la distinction entre de tels documents et les échantillons de sang ou d’urine évoqués dans Saunders. Elle estima que les preuves dont il s’agissait dans J.B. « se distingu[aient] de données qui existent indépendamment de la volonté de la personne concernée (...) [et que] l’on ne pouvait dès lors pas les obtenir en recourant à des pouvoirs coercitifs, au mépris de la volonté de l’intéressé » (J.B. c. Suisse, § 68). L’existence d’un document n’est-elle pas aussi indépendante que l’existence d’un échantillon de sang ? Une obligation de produire un document joue sur la volonté du sujet, mais cela vaut également pour une obligation de se soumettre à un test sanguin. Bien entendu, le comportement antérieur du sujet (l’établissement de reçus ou la consommation d’alcool, par exemple) peut avoir une incidence sur le contenu du document comme de l’échantillon sanguin, mais je ne vois aucune raison valable de considérer l’un comme « indépendant de la volonté de la personne » et l’autre non. Voilà encore un domaine dans lequel il faudrait concilier des principes divergents.

Enfin, je connais les nombreux arguments que l’on peut soulever en faveur de l’applicabilité de l’article 6 aux procédures fiscales[1]. Je vois les effets pervers qu’entraîne la divergence dans l’approche de la Cour à l’égard des sanctions fiscales et des procédures d’établissement des obligations fiscales, et peut-être faudrait-il revoir toute la question de l’application de la Convention aux contribuables. Pour ma part, je considère que l’appréciation des obligations fiscales et l’imposition d’amendes pour manquement à satisfaire aux exigences du droit fiscal ressortissent au « noyau dur des prérogatives de la puissance publique, le caractère public du rapport entre le contribuable et la collectivité restant prédominant ».[2]

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LJN: BZ3640, Hoge Raad , CPG 12/01880

Datum uitspraak: 01-03-2013

Datum publicatie: 15-03-2013

Rechtsgebied: Civiel overig

Soort procedure: Cassatie

Inhoudsindicatie: CONCLUSIE PG Samenloop strafvorderlijk zwijgrecht en fiscaalrechtelijke meewerkplicht: vormt de onderhavige civielrechtelijke dwangsom ontoelaatbare dwang? Betekenis van het EHRM-arrest Chambaz voor het Nederlandse recht. Feiten: Eiser tot cassatie had een bankrekening in Zwitserland. Hij was voorts de eerste begunstigde (first beneficiary) ter zake van alle activa en inkomsten van een Liechtensteinse Stiftung. Het doel van die Stiftung was het beheer van die Zwitserse bankrekening. Eind 2000 is de Stiftung geliquideerd. In juni 2009 heeft Inspecteur op grond van art. 47 van de Algemene Wet inzake Rijksbelastingen (AWR) de eiser om informatie over die Stiftung gevraagd. De eiser heeft verklaard niet te kunnen antwoorden op de vraag hoeveel vermogen in de Stiftung was ondergebracht en dat hij niet beschikte over stukken ter zake van de Stiftung. In verband met dreigend verloop van navorderingstermijnen heeft de Inspecteur tot behoud van zijn rechten over 1998 en 1999 aan de eiser geschatte navorderingsaanslagen opgelegd in de vermogensbelasting en de inkomstenbelasting, alsmede vergrijpboeten ad 100% van de nagevorderde belasting. In kort geding vordert de Staat van de eiser alsnog, onder dwangsom, de verstrekking van de gevorderde informatie. Geschil: In geschil is of de Staat de informatie op straffe van verbeurte van een dwangsom mocht vorderen. Zowel de voorzieningenrechter als in hoger beroep het Hof hebben die vordering toewijsbaar geacht. Vervolg inhoudsindicatie: zie conclusie

Vindplaats(en): Rechtspraak.nl

Uitspraak

Eerste kamer - uitspraak volgt

Conclusie

Vervolg inhoudsindicatie

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Cassatiemiddel belanghebbende: Ná 's Hofs uitspraak is door het EHRM arrest gewezen in de zaak Chambaz v Switzerland over de samenloop tussen een fiscale inlichtingenverstrekkingsplicht zoals die ex art. 47 AWR en het recht van een (potentieel) verdachte ex art. 6 EVRM om niet gedwongen te worden tot medewerking aan zijn eigen veroordeling. De eiser betoogt in cassatie dat, mede gezien Chambaz, de oplegging van de dwangsom in casu ontoelaatbare dwang tot medewerking aan de criminal charge tegen hem inhoudt. De Staat daarentegen meent dat Chambaz niet afdoet aan de plicht van belastingplichtigen om desgevorderd inlichtingen te verstrekken die nodig zijn voor een juiste belastingheffing en dat de vraag of het aldus ten behoeve van de heffing verkregen bewijsmateriaal ook gebruikt kan worden voor beboetings- of strafvervolgingsdoeleinden in deze procedure niet aan de orde is, maar beantwoord moet worden door de belastingrechter in een eventuele procedure over de boete-opleggingsbeschikkingen of door de strafrechter in geval van strafvervolging van de eiser door het Openbaar Ministerie.

A-G Wattel overweegt dat het cassatieberoep - opnieuw - de vraag aan de orde stelt of jurisprudentie van de Raad over de samenloop van strafvorderlijk zwijgrecht en fiscaalrechtelijke meewerkplicht strookt met die van het EHRM. Het gaat met name om de vraag of het gegeven dat de eiser 'could not exclude'/'ne pouvait exclure' dat zijn afgedwongen medewerking mede gebruikt zou worden tot substantiëring van de criminal charge tegen hem, meebrengt dat ofwel geen dwang(som) jegens hem gebruikt mocht worden, ofwel een procedurele waarborg had moeten bestaan dat zijn afgedwongen medewerking niet mede tot bewijs in een straf(achtige) procedure tegen hem zou dienen.

De A-G leidt uit de Straatsburgse rechtspraak het volgende af: er bestaat geen grondrechtelijk bezwaar tegen bestraffing van het niet-nakomen van normale fiscale verplichtingen, inclusief plichten tot medewerking aan verkrijging van bewijsmateriaal. Als echter sprake is van een criminal charge, en ook als dat (nog) niet het geval is maar de betrokkene niet kan uitsluiten dat de van hem in de toezichtsfeer onder dwang gevorderde informatie ook strafvorderlijk tegen hem gebruikt zal worden, dan kan hij niet zonder schending van art. 6 EVRM bestraft of met straf of boete bedreigd worden voor niet-verklaren of niet-overhandigen van testimonial or communicative evidence, waaronder begrepen documenten waarop de autoriteiten zonder zijn actieve medewerking (wilsbesluit) niet de hand kunnen leggen, tenzij (i) het gaat om boeten of druk waarvan onder de gegeven omstandigheden niemand wakker hoeft te liggen of (ii) er procedurele waarborgen bestaan dat de in de toezichtsfeer afgedwongen verklaringen of documenten niet strafvorderlijk gebruikt zullen worden. Gaat het om passieve medewerking aan (dulden van; ondergaan van) dwangmiddeluitoefening tot verkrijging van non-testimonial physical evidence - zoals een doorzoeking of inbeslagneming - dan is geen sprake van coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused en rijst dus geen nemo tenetur-kwestie, tenzij dat passief doen ondergaan van dwangmiddelen ontaardt in inhuman and degrading treatment.

Van de eiser tot cassatie wordt in casu door de Inspecteur onder antwoordplicht met strafbedreiging en dwangsomdreiging testimonial evidence geëist. Uit de arresten J.B. v Switzerland en Chambaz lijkt duidelijk te volgen dat het EHRM met het buiten het nemo tenetur-plaatsen van bewijsmateriaal 'that has an existence independent of the will of the accused' (Saunders-materiaal) niet bedoelde dat aan een belastingplichtige/potentieel

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verdachte een substantiële dwangsom of boete opgelegd mag worden wegens niet-overlegging van reeds bestaande en waarschijnlijk belastende documenten waarvan de vervolgende instanties echter zonder zijn medewerking geen kennis kunnen nemen. Eisers geval lijkt onvoldoende te verschillen van die van J.B. en Chambaz, in wier gevallen het EHRM oordeelde dat de gevorderde documenten géén 'Saunders-materiaal' waren. De eiser kon voorts geenszins uitsluiten dat tegen hem een criminal charge zou worden ingesteld, nu de Inspecteur hem immers al twee substantiële vergrijpboeten had opgelegd toen van hem de litigieuze medewerking werd gevorderd. Een dwangsom van € 2.500 per dag(deel) met een plafond van € 500.000 is, ten slotte, niet moderate in de zin van de rechtspraak van het EHRM; een gevangenisstraf van maximaal vier (of zes) jaar en een geldboete (art. 69 AWR) zijn dat overigens evenmin.

Het beweerdelijke karakter van de dwangsom (reparatoir, retributief, punitief, aanmoediging, of nog anders) acht de A-G niet relevant, nu het duidelijk is, gezien alleen al de benaming ervan, dat de dwangsom tot doel en effect heeft dat 'in defiance of the will of the accused'/'au mépris de la volonté de l'accusé' van hem medewerking wordt afgedwongen die hij niet wil geven en dat de litigieuze zeer substantiële dwangsom dus een 'method of coercion or oppression' is.

De Nederlandse wetgeving voorziet niet in de procedurele waarborgen tegen punitief gebruik van afgedwongen bewijsmateriaal waartoe de Straatsburgse rechtspraak wél lijkt te nopen indien men althans wil voorkomen dat een verdachte belastingplichtige ongestraft medewerking aan de belastingheffing kan weigeren waar een onverdachte belastingplichtige dat niet kan. Zolang de wet geen dergelijke waarborgen biedt, zullen zij van de rechter moeten komen.

Conclusie: De A-G geeft de Raad in overweging het beroep in cassatie te verwerpen, maar te verstaan dat de onder druk van de dwangsom door de eiser aan de Inspecteur verstrekte informatie niet voor enig punitief doeleinde toelaatbaar is.

Nr. 12/01880

MR. P.J. WATTEL

1 maart 2013

Conclusie inzake:

[Eiser]

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tegen

Staat der Nederlanden

1. Overzicht

1.1 [Eiser] (hierna: de eiser tot cassatie of de eiser) had een bankrekening in Zwitserland. Hij was voorts de eerste begunstigde (first beneficiary) ter zake van alle activa en inkomsten van een Liechtensteinse Stiftung. Het doel van die Stiftung was het beheer van die Zwitserse bankrekening. Eind 2000 is de Stiftung geliquideerd.

1.2 In juni 2009 heeft de Belastingdienst (hierna te noemen: de fiscus of de Inspecteur) op grond van art. 47 van de Algemene Wet inzake Rijksbelastingen (AWR) de eiser om informatie over die Stiftung gevraagd. De eiser heeft verklaard niet te kunnen antwoorden op de vraag hoeveel vermogen in de Stiftung was ondergebracht en dat hij niet beschikte over stukken ter zake van de Stiftung. In verband met dreigend verloop van navorderingstermijnen heeft de fiscus tot behoud van zijn rechten over 1998 en 1999 aan de eiser geschatte navorderingsaanslagen opgelegd in de vermogensbelasting en de inkomstenbelasting, alsmede vergrijpboeten ad 100% van de nagevorderde belasting.

1.3 In kort geding vordert de Staat van de eiser alsnog, onder dwangsom, de verstrekking van de gevorderde informatie. Zowel de voorzieningenrechter als in hoger beroep het Hof hebben die vordering toewijsbaar geacht. Ná 's Hofs uitspraak is door het Europese Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens en de Fundamentele Vrijheden (EHRM) arrest gewezen in de zaak Chambaz v Switzerland over de samenloop tussen een fiscale inlichtingenverstrekkingsplicht zoals die ex art. 47 AWR en het recht van een (potentieel) verdachte ex art. 6 EVRM om niet gedwongen te worden tot medewerking aan zijn eigen veroordeling. De eiser tot cassatie betoogt dat, mede gezien Chambaz, de oplegging van de dwangsom in casu ontoelaatbare dwang tot medewerking aan de criminal charge tegen hem inhoudt. De Staat daarentegen meent dat Chambaz niet afdoet aan de plicht van belastingplichtigen om desgevorderd inlichtingen te verstrekken die nodig zijn voor een juiste belastingheffing en dat de vraag of het aldus ten behoeve van de heffing verkregen bewijsmateriaal ook gebruikt kan worden voor beboetings- of strafvervolgingsdoeleinden in deze procedure niet aan de orde is, maar beantwoord moet worden door de belastingrechter in een eventuele procedure over de boete-opleggingsbeschikkingen of door de strafrechter in geval van strafvervolging van de eiser door het Openbaar Ministerie.

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1.4 Het cassatieberoep stelt - opnieuw - de vraag aan de orde of uw jurisprudentie over de samenloop van strafvorderlijk zwijgrecht en fiscaalrechtelijke meewerkplicht strookt met die van het EHRM. Het gaat met name om de vraag of het gegeven dat de eiser 'could not exclude'/'ne pouvait exclure' dat zijn afgedwongen medewerking mede gebruikt zou worden tot substantiëring van de criminal charge tegen hem, meebrengt dat ofwel geen dwang(som) jegens hem gebruikt mocht worden, ofwel een procedurele waarborg had moeten bestaan dat zijn afgedwongen medewerking niet mede tot bewijs in een straf(achtige) procedure tegen hem zou dienen.

1.5 Ik leid uit de Straatsburgse rechtspraak het volgende af: er bestaat geen grondrechtelijk bezwaar tegen bestraffing van het niet-nakomen van normale fiscale verplichtingen, inclusief plichten tot medewerking aan verkrijging van bewijsmateriaal. Als echter sprake is van een criminal charge, en ook als dat (nog) niet het geval is maar de betrokkene niet kan uitsluiten dat de van hem in de toezichtsfeer onder dwang gevorderde informatie ook strafvorderlijk tegen hem gebruikt zal worden, dan kan hij niet zonder schending van art. 6 EVRM bestraft of met straf of boete bedreigd worden voor niet-verklaren of niet-overhandigen van testimonial or communicative evidence, waaronder begrepen documenten waarop de autoriteiten zonder zijn actieve medewerking (wilsbesluit) niet de hand kunnen leggen, tenzij (i) het gaat om boeten of druk waarvan onder de gegeven omstandigheden niemand wakker hoeft te liggen of (ii) er procedurele waarborgen bestaan dat de in de toezichtsfeer afgedwongen verklaringen of documenten niet strafvorderlijk gebruikt zullen worden. Gaat het om passieve medewerking aan (dulden van; ondergaan van) dwangmiddeluitoefening tot verkrijging van non-testimonial physical evidence - zoals een doorzoeking of inbeslagneming - dan is geen sprake van coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused en rijst dus geen nemo tenetur-kwestie, tenzij dat passief doen ondergaan van dwangmiddelen ontaardt in inhuman and degrading treatment.

1.6 Van de eiser tot cassatie wordt in casu door de Inspecteur onder antwoordplicht met strafbedreiging en dwangsomdreiging testimonial evidence geëist. Uit de arresten J.B. v Switzerland en Chambaz lijkt duidelijk te volgen dat het EHRM met het buiten het nemo tenetur-plaatsen van bewijsmateriaal 'that has an existence independent of the will of the accused' (Saunders-materiaal) niet bedoelde dat aan een belastingplichtige/potentieel verdachte een substantiële dwangsom of boete opgelegd mag worden wegens niet-overlegging van reeds bestaande en waarschijnlijk belastende documenten waarvan de vervolgende instanties echter zonder zijn medewerking geen kennis kunnen nemen. Eisers geval lijkt onvoldoende te verschillen van die van J.B. en Chambaz, in wier gevallen het EHRM oordeelde dat de gevorderde documenten géén 'Saunders-materiaal' waren. De eiser kon voorts geenszins uitsluiten dat tegen hem een criminal charge zou worden ingesteld, nu de Inspecteur hem immers al twee substantiële vergrijpboeten had opgelegd toen van hem de litigieuze medewerking werd gevorderd. Een dwangsom van € 2.500 per dag(deel) met een plafond van € 500.000 is, ten slotte, niet moderate in de zin van de rechtspraak van het EHRM; een gevangenisstraf van maximaal vier (of zes) jaar en een geldboete (art. 69 AWR) zijn dat overigens evenmin.

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1.7 Het beweerdelijke karakter van de dwangsom (reparatoir, retributief, punitief, aanmoediging, of nog anders) acht ik niet relevant, nu het duidelijk is, gezien alleen al de benaming ervan, dat de dwangsom tot doel en effect heeft dat 'in defiance of the will of the accused'/'au mépris de la volonté de l'accusé' van hem medewerking wordt afgedwongen die hij niet wil geven en dat de litigieuze zeer substantiële dwangsom dus een 'method of coercion or oppression' is.

1.8 De Nederlandse wetgeving voorziet niet in de procedurele waarborgen tegen punitief gebruik van afgedwongen bewijsmateriaal waartoe de Straatsburgse rechtspraak wél lijkt te nopen indien men althans wil voorkomen dat een verdachte belastingplichtige ongestraft medewerking aan de belastingheffing kan weigeren waar een onverdachte belastingplichtige dat niet kan. Zolang de wet geen dergelijke waarborgen biedt, zullen zij van de rechter moeten komen.

1.9 Ik geef U daarom in overweging het beroep in cassatie te verwerpen, maar te verstaan dat de onder druk van de dwangsom door de eiser aan de Inspecteur verstrekte informatie niet voor enig punitief doeleind toelaatbaar is.

2. De feiten

2.1 De Duitse fiscale autoriteiten hebben op basis van art. 4 van Bijstandsrichtlijn 77/799/EG(1) de Nederlands Belastingdienst gegevens verstrekt waaruit onder meer blijkt dat de eiser in cassatie betrokken is geweest bij de Conet Stiftung te Vaduz, Liechtenstein, die op 18 december 1986 is opgericht (de Stiftung(2)).

2.2 De Beistatuten van de Stiftung luiden, voor zover hier van belang, als volgt:

"The Foundation Board (hereafter abbreviated F.B.) enacts herewith the following By-Laws in pursuance of powers conferred to it under Art. IX. And XIII. of the Statutes, for the nomination of Beneficiaries:

I. First Beneficiary of all assets and revenues as well as of any possible liquidation proceeds shall be during his lifetime and without any restriction:

- [Eiser]

(...)

II. Upon death of the first beneficiary

-[Betrokkene 1]

(...)

entirely enters in his right as second beneficiary.

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III. Upon death of the second beneficiary

-[Betrokkene 2] [de broer van eiser; PJW]

(...)

entirely enters in the rights of the deceased second beneficiary as third beneficiary.

IV. Upon the death of the third beneficiary, his part passes to his descendants at equal parts per stirpes.

V. During the lifetime of the first beneficiary, this By-Laws shall be revocable at any time. After his death, it will be revocable with the consent of all actual beneficiaries only.

(...)"

2.3 De eiser hield en houdt een bankrekening aan bij ABN-AMRO (Schweiz) te Basel. Uit een intern document van die bank blijkt dat de formele Auftraggeber tot oprichting van de Stiftung is de ABN AMRO Trust Company te Genève. Als Repräsentant (vertegenwoordiger) van de Stiftung is aangesteld LGT Treuhand AG te Vaduz. Het document vermeldt dat het doel van de Stiftung is "Verwaltung eigenes Vermögen Bankkonto bei ABN Amro Bank Basel" en dat ABN-Amro Basel bij brief van 9 juni 1997 heeft verzocht de Beistatuten van de Stiftung te wijzigen (maar niet waarom of in welke zin). Voorts blijkt uit het document dat de Stiftung per 3 november 2000 is geliquideerd.(3)

2.4 De Inspecteur(4) heeft de eiser bij brief van 9 juni 2009 op grond van art. 47 AWR gevraagd (i) of hij inderdaad betrokken was (geweest) bij de Stiftung, (ii) of hij ter zake van betrokkenheid bij een Liechtensteinse Stiftung of bij enig ander (buitenlands) doelvermogen ooit aangifte had gedaan van enig inkomen en (iii) om toezending van bepaalde documenten betreffende de Stiftung.

2.5 De (raadsman van) de eiser tot cassatie heeft bij brief van 26 juni 2009 de fiscus laten weten dat de eiser slechts een beperkte herinnering had aan enige betrokkenheid bij een Liechtensteinse Stiftung. Hij verklaarde zich te herinneren in het verleden met een Liechtensteinse Stiftung te maken te hebben gehad maar daarover verder niets te kunnen verklaren.

2.6 De eiser heeft bij brief van 11 juni 2010 tot de genoemde LGT Treuhand AG het volgende verzoek om informatie gericht:

"(...). Related to a tax compliance situation I would like to receive information about the 'Conet Stiftung'. This Stiftung was founded on 2 July 1986 and 'gelöscht' on 3 November 2000. Enclosed please find a copy of the documents regarding this Stiftung which I received from the tax authorities in The Netherlands. Can you please inform me whether

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your firm has in its files information regarding the Stiftumg. If that is the case, I will send you an overview of the documents that I would like to obtain. (...)".

2.7 Bij brief van 26 juli 2010 heeft de Fiduciaire Equity Trust AG te Genève (Equity Trust) de eiser het volgende bericht:

"I refer to your letters of 11 and 29 June addressed to LGT (Treuhand AG). [Betrokkene 3] of Fiduco Treuhand AG [voorheen LGT Treuhand AG; PJW] has forwarded them to me. As you may be aware, the Equity Trust Group acquired the business of ABN AMRO Group in 2005. This included ABN Trustcompany (Suisse) S.A. ('ABN'). Although the closing of Conet Stiftung took place in 2000, before the involvement of this Company, we did receive many of the archived files for business previously managed by ABN. I am pleased to be able to advise you that this does include some files for Conet Trust. As I am sure you will appreciate, we are not in the position to confirm if they are complete. We will be happy to provide you with the information that you require and that is on file. (...)".

2.8 De eiser heeft bij brief van 16 augustus 2010 het volgende meer gespecificeerde verzoek om informatie aan Equity Trust gericht:

"(...) I herewith send you copies of the letters from the Dutch Tax Authorities, dated 9 June 2010 and 1 July 2010 respectively. As you can see, these letters indicate that the matter concerns the Conet Stiftung which has been "gelöscht" - according to the documents - in November 2000. Do you still possess the documents requested in the letters of the Tax Authorities and could you provide me with copies?"

2.9 In reactie op dat verzoek berichtte Equity Trust de eiser bij brief van 1 september 2010:

"We refer to your letter of 16 August 2010 regarding information concerning the Conet Stiftung. We are writing to advise you that we are not willing to comply with your request due to confidentiality matters. (...)."

2.10 Op 4 november 2010 heeft de Inspecteur met de eiser en diens raadsman gesproken. Bij die gelegenheid heeft eiser onder meer gezegd dat hij de vraag hoeveel vermogen er in de Stiftung zat op het moment van haar opheffing niet kon beantwoorden en dat hij niet beschikte over stukken betreffende de Stiftung.

2.11 Bij brief van 6 december 2010 heeft de Inspecteur de eiser meegedeeld dat hem tot behoud van heffingsrecht navorderingen inkomstenbelasting 1998/ vermogensbelasting 1999 zouden worden opgelegd op basis van een geschat Stiftungsvermogen ad € 5.000.000 (fl. 11.018.550) en een geschat bedrag aan inkomsten uit dat vermogen ad € 200.000. De vermogensschatting berustte op ervaringen met en gegevens over diverse andere Liechtensteinse Stiftungen en de inkomensschatting op een gemiddeld rendement

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van 4%. Daarnaast legde de Inspecteur voor beide belastingen een vergrijpboete op ad 100% van de nagevorderde belasting met als motivering dat de eiser wist of had moeten weten dat hij de beschikkingsmacht had over het Stiftungsvermogen en dat hij dat vermogen en de inkomsten daaruit opzettelijk niet heeft vermeld in zijn aangiften inkomstenbelasting 1998/vermogensbelasting 1999. De Inspecteur schreef onder meer:

"Het gebruik van een Stiftung in Liechtenstein en van meerdere derde-partijen in het buitenland (zoals ABN-AMRO Bank in Zwitserland en/of Morgan Stanley in Londen) met als doel om de connectie van [eiser] met het vermogen van de Stiftung en daardoor een deel van zijn vermogen buiten het zicht van de Belastingdienst te houden, merk ik aan als listigheid en samenspanning. Daarnaast spant [eiser] zich niet voldoende in om aan de inspecteur de voor het opleggen van een juiste navorderingsaanslag benodigde gegevens te verstrekken. Ik merk dit aan als zeer ernstige gedragingen. Daarom zijn er strafverzwarende omstandigheden. Er zijn mij geen strafverminderende omstandigheden gebleken."

De vervolgens dienovereenkomstig opgelegde navorderingsaanslagen van 10 december 2010 vermeldden uiterlijk op 10 januari 2011 te betalen bedragen, inclusief vergrijpboete en heffingsrente, ad € 285.656 (voor de inkomstenbelasting) en € 85.890 (voor de vermogensbelasting).

2.12 Bij brief van 21 januari 2011 heeft de Inspecteur de eiser bericht dat diens informatieverstrekking onvoldoende was en dat hij zich gedwongen zag de eiser in kort geding te doen dagvaarden om te bewerkstelligen dat de eiser alsnog aan zijn wettelijke informatieverplichting zou voldoen.

3. Het geding voor de voorzieningenrechter(5)

3.1 Bij dagvaarding van 25 februari 2011 voor de Rechtbank Den Bosch (de Rechtbank) heeft de Staat in kort geding op grond van art. 47 AWR een bevel onder dwangsom jegens [eiser] gevorderd om (samengevat):

I) alle gevorderde gegevens en inlichtingen te verstrekken over de Stiftung en dier vermogen, en de bestemming van dat vermogen na de opheffing van de Stiftung;

II) zo de eiser de gevorderde gegevens en inlichtingen bij derden zou moeten opvragen, op te geven hoe hij dat zal doen alsook de namen en contactgegevens van die derden op te geven, onder wie in elk geval (de opvolger(s) van) zijn contactpersoon en accountmanager bij ABN-AMRO Basel en bij alle andere banken in Zwitserland waar hij bankrekeningen aanhoudt;

III) te verklaren of hij na 31 december 1998 buitenlandse bankrekeningen aanhoudt of heeft aangehouden;

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IV) indien hij verklaart na 31 december 1998 buitenlandse bankrekeningen te hebben aangehouden, daarvan en van het vermogen op die rekeningen opgaaf te doen, alsook kopieën te verstrekken van alle afschriften van die rekeningen over de periode 1 januari 1999 t/m 31 december 2010;

V) de onder I t/m IV bedoelde gegevens, inlichtingen en verklaringen naar waarheid, duidelijk, stellig en zonder voorbehoud mondeling of schriftelijk op een door de Belastingdienst te bepalen wijze te verstrekken;

VI) binnen zeven dagen of een door de voorzieningenrechter te bepalen termijn na datum vonnis aan de onder I t/m IV bedoelde bevelen te voldoen op straffe van verbeurte van een dwangsom ad € 5.000 of een door de voorzieningenrechter te bepalen bedrag per dag(deel) dat de eiser daarmee in gebreke blijft;

en voorts gevorderd de eiser te veroordelen;

VII) in de kosten van het geding, met wettelijke rente met ingang van veertien dagen na de datum van dit vonnis;

en tenslotte gevorderd te verklaren:

VIII) dat het vonnis - voor zover mogelijk - bij voorraad uitvoerbaar zal zijn.

3.2 De Staat voerde de volgende gronden aan: de eiser heeft ten onrechte het vermogen van de Stiftung niet in enige belastingaangifte vermeld en blijft ondanks herhaalde verzoeken in strijd met zijn wettelijke verplichtingen weigeren vragen te beantwoorden en gegevens en inlichtingen over de Stiftung en dier vermogen te verstrekken. De Staat heeft spoedeisend belang bij de vordering omdat de termijn voor het opleggen van navorderingsaanslagen over de jaren 1999 en verder (zeer) binnenkort dreigt te verlopen. De Staat wil voorkomen dat op basis van schattingen moet worden nagevorderd, zoals over 1998/1999 reeds is gebeurd.

3.3 De eiser weersprak de vordering als volgt: (i) de kwestie leent zich niet voor behandeling in kort geding omdat de civiele rechter als restrechter onvoldoende is geëquipeerd om zich een oordeel te vormen over de vraag of een belastingplichtige in redelijkheid heeft voldaan aan zijn verplichtingen ex art. 47 AWR en het gaat om beantwoording van een rechtsvraag. De eis van de Staat moet in zoverre niet-ontvankelijk worden verklaard; (ii) de eiser heeft wel degelijk alle gevraagde informatie verstrekt voor zover hij die kon verstrekken; dat Equity Trust weigerde hem de opgevraagde informatie over te leggen, kan hem niet aangerekend worden; (iii) art. 49 AWR eist slechts dat de gegevens 'duidelijk, stellig en zonder voorbehoud' worden verstrekt, niet dat zij 'naar waarheid' moeten worden verstrekt, zodat de vordering sub V in zoverre moet worden afgewezen; (iv) een belastingplichtige heeft geen persoonlijke spreekplicht en kan zich laten vertegenwoordigen door een gemachtigde; (v) uit Europese jurisprudentie kan worden afgeleid dat geen medewerking behoeft te worden verleend aan de beantwoording van vragen die - ook - kunnen leiden tot het opleggen van een boete. De Inspecteur had hem voorts op dat zwijgrecht moeten wijzen. De Inspecteur handelt in strijd met art. 6 EVRM en art. 5:10a(1) en (2) Algemene wet

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bestuursrecht (Awb) en daarmee onrechtmatig; (vi) in geen geval mag een eventuele toewijzende beslissing bij voorraad uitvoerbaar worden verklaard.

3.4 Daarnaast vorderde de eiser tot cassatie in reconventie - kort gezegd - een verbod voor de Staat om nog langer informatie van hem te vorderen als bedoeld in het petitum van de dagvaarding, met veroordeling van de Staat in de kosten van het geding. Hij voerde daartoe hetzelfde aan als in zijn verweer tegen de vordering in conventie, met name dat hij al - voor zover hem mogelijk was - aan zijn informatieplicht ex art. 47 AWR heeft voldaan. Desondanks blijft de Inspecteur hem bestoken met vragen en dreigen met sancties. Door hem nu zelfs te betrekken in een kort geding handelt de Staat in strijd met de beginselen van behoorlijk bestuur, met name het fair play beginsel. De Staat heeft zich verweerd tegen deze reconventionele vordering met verwijzing naar hetgeen hij in conventie heeft aangevoerd.

3.5 De Rechtbank achtte alleen [eiser]'s verweer met betrekking tot de inhoud van art. 49 AWR gegrond en wees de vordering van de Staat (alleen) in zoverre af dat geen bevel tot verklaren 'naar waarheid' werd opgelegd.

3.6 Aangezien in cassatie alleen nog de vraag aan de orde is naar de verhouding tussen - kort gezegd - zwijgrecht en meewerkplicht, neem ik van de overwegingen van de feitenrechters in beginsel alleen de daarop betrekking hebbende overwegingen op. Van 's Hofs arrest neem ik niettemin ook enige feitelijke oordelen op voor context. De Rechtbank overwoog als volgt over de spanning tussen zwijgrecht en inlichtingenplicht:

"4.12. Het verweer onder r.o. 2.3.8. houdt in dat het nemo-tenetur-beginsel met zich brengt dat [eiser] niet door het opleggen van een dwangsom gedwongen kan worden zichzelf te incrimineren. Dit verweer faalt. De onderhavige vordering komt niet in strijd met het beginsel dat [eiser] niet hoeft mee te werken aan zijn eigen strafvervolging, waaronder begrepen de oplegging van een administratieve boete. [Eiser] miskent dat de mogelijkheid dat hij gegevens moet verstrekken die aanleiding zouden kunnen zijn om een strafvervolging tegen hem te beginnen in de zin van artikel 6 EVRM niet aan zijn verplichtingen onder artikel 47 lid 1 onder a afdoet en dat de vraag of die gegevens in een dergelijke strafvervolging mogen worden gebruikt thans niet aan de orde is. Die vraag komt pas aan de orde in een eventuele strafrechtelijke of fiscale procedure waarin de 'determination of a criminal charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM tegen [eiser] moet worden beoordeeld. Het gaat in de onderhavige zaak niet om het vergaren van gegevens ten behoeve van strafvervolging of bestuurlijke boete-oplegging, maar om het verkrijgen van bestaande gegevens ten behoeve van een juiste belastingheffing, tot het verschaffen van welke gegevens [eiser] wettelijk is verplicht.

4.13. Uit het bovenstaande is reeds genoegzaam duidelijk geworden dat een beoordeling van het geschil in kort geding mogelijk is, zodat ook het verweer onder r.o. 2.3.1. faalt.

4.14. Hetgeen partijen overigens nog hebben aangevoerd, kan niet tot een ander oordeel leiden en zal dus buiten bespreking blijven."

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3.7 De Rechtbank heeft de vorderingen van de Staat toegewezen, (daarom) de vorderingen in reconventie afgewezen, en zijn vonnis bij voorraad uitvoerbaar verklaard. De eiser in cassatie is bevolen alle gevraagde informatie te verstrekken op straffe van verbeurte van een dwangsom ad € 2.500 per dag(deel) nalatigheid met een maximum van € 500.000. De eiser werd als in het ongelijk gestelde partij in de kosten veroordeeld.

3.8 Na dit vonnis heeft de eiser bij brief van 8 april 2011 Equity Trust andermaal verzocht om ten behoeve van de Nederlandse fiscale autoriteiten de onder hem berustende documentatie van de Stiftung te verstrekken. Bij brief van 29 april 2011 heeft Equity Trust ook aan dit tweede verzoek geen gehoor te zullen geven wegens "confidentiality matters".

3.9 Na het vonnis heeft de Inspecteur de eiser bij brief van 19 april 2011 opgeroepen voor een "gesprek" op 10 mei 2011, dat wegens eiser's gezondheidsproblemen op diens verzoek niet heeft plaatsgevonden. De eiser heeft wel op 29 april 2011 schriftelijk jegens de Inspecteur verklaard:

"Hiermee verklaar ik naar beste weten dat er na 1998 geen buitenlandse rekeningen op mijn naam staan of hebben gestaan, anders dan een rekening bij ABN-AMRO te Antwerpen die per April 2000 werd getransfereerd naar Merrill Lynch te Amsterdam."

4. Het geding voor de appelrechter(6)

4.1 Bij appeldagvaarding van 29 april 2011 voerde de eiser in spoedappel voor het Hof 's-Hertogenbosch (het Hof) zeven grieven aan tegen het vonnis van de voorzieningenrechter, concluderende tot vernietiging van diens vonnis, afwijzing alsnog van de vorderingen van de Staat, een verbod voor de Staat om van hem nog langer informatie te vorderen als bedoeld in de kort-gedingdagvaarding, restitutie met wettelijke rente van de dwangsommen die hij tot uitvoering van het bestreden vonnis aan de Staat heeft betaald, en veroordeling van de Staat in de proceskosten in beide instanties.

4.2 Bij memorie van antwoord in principaal appel, tevens memorie van grieven in incidenteel appel heeft de Staat in principaal appel de grieven bestreden en in incidenteel appel een grief aangevoerd, concluderende tot vernietiging van het bestreden vonnis voor zover de vordering van de Staat niet geheel is toegewezen (zie 3.5, r.o. 4.10 van het vonnis in eerste aanleg) en tot toewijzing alsnog van zijn vordering in volle omvang.

4.3 Het Hof overwoog over de geloofwaardigheid van eiser's verklaringen:

"4.2.1. Ook in hoger beroep heeft [eiser] niet betwist hetgeen door de Belastingdienst ten aanzien van de Conet Stiftung en over Liechtensteinse Stiftungen in het algemeen is

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gesteld. Verder heeft [eiser] in hoger beroep evenmin feiten of omstandigheden aangevoerd die het uitgangspunt van de Belastingdienst ontkrachten dat uit de oprichting van de Conet Stiftung en de betrokkenheid van [eiser] daarbij als begunstigde, een en ander gelet op hetgeen ten aanzien van Liechtensteinse Stiftungen bekend is, moet worden geconcludeerd dat [eiser] over financiële belangen (heeft) beschikt waarvan hij aan de Nederlandse Belastingdienst aangifte had moeten doen doch niet heeft gedaan. Door [eiser] zijn geen feiten en omstandigheden aangevoerd tegen de stelling van de Belastingdienst dat de oprichting van de Conet Stiftung erop wijst dat [eiser] ten tijde van de oprichting van deze Stiftung over een vermogen van enige omvang bij een Zwitserse bank moet hebben beschikt en dat bij de opheffing van de Conet Stiftung in 2000 het in de Stiftung ondergebrachte vermogen weer aan [eiser] moet zijn uitgekeerd.

4.2.2. Het hof is met de Belastingdienst en de voorzieningenrechter van oordeel dat het ongeloofwaardig is dat [eiser], die in de correspondentie met de fiscus - zoals bijvoorbeeld ten aanzien van zijn verklaring van de vermogenstoenames in de jaren 1999, 2000 en 2001 - blijk geeft van een goed inzicht in en overzicht van zijn financiële zaken, zich voor wat betreft de Conet Stiftung niet meer zou kunnen herinneren dan dat hij bij een dergelijke Stiftung betrokken is geweest en dat hij zich niet meer zou kunnen herinneren wie hem die Stiftung heeft geadviseerd, hoeveel van zijn vermogen daarin is ondergebracht en hoeveel vermogen hij daaruit heeft ontvangen. Dit geldt temeer indien daarbij in aanmerking wordt genomen dat, naar door [eiser] niet wordt betwist, het onderbrengen van spaargelden in Zwitserland en Liechtenstein door Nederlanders juist vaak werd/wordt verkozen vanwege de door die landen gehanteerde geheimhouding van bankgegevens. In het licht van het voorgaande acht het hof de stelling van [eiser], dat hij zich van de jaren 1976 en 1977 nog wel wat herinnert omdat hij in 1976 uit Afrika terug kwam in Nederland, in 1976/1977 zijn huidige echtgenote ontmoette en in 1977 met haar is gehuwd, ontoereikend om zijn verklaring, dat hij zich van de in 1986 opgerichte Conet Stiftung niet meer herinnert dan dat hij daarbij betrokken is geweest, geloofwaardig te achten. Het hof merkt hierbij op dat de Conet Stiftung niet alleen in 1986 is opgericht maar dat op 7 juni 1997 nog een verzoek tot wijziging van het Beistatut is gedaan door ABN AMRO Bank Basel, waarvan moet worden aangenomen dat dit namens [eiser] is gedaan, en dat de opheffing van de Conet Stiftung dateert van 3 november 2000.

4.2.3. Gelet op de door [eiser] niet weersproken betrouwbaarheid van Zwitserse en Liechtensteinse banken ten aanzien van geheimhouding van bankgegevens van hun cliënten voor derden zoals buitenlandse fiscale autoriteiten, acht het hof voorts een reactie als die van Equity Trust als hiervoor in (...) [zie 2.9; PJW] vermeld niet indicatief voor (het antwoord op) de vraag of [eiser] de feiten en gegevens, waarvan hij stelt dat hij zich die niet herinnert en dat hij daarover niet beschikt, niet elders kan verkrijgen. Voor de hiervoor in r.o. 4.1.2 onder p vermelde reactie van Equity Trust van 29 april 2011 geldt hetzelfde nu aan die reactie geen ander verzoek om informatie ten grondslag lag dan dat waarop de reactie van 1 september 2010 is gevolgd. De inhoud van de (...) brief van 26 juli 2010 van Fiduciaire Equity Trust A.G. [zie 3.8; PJW] doet het naar het oordeel van het hof vooralsnog juist aannemelijk zijn dat [eiser] van deze laatste rechtspersoon desgewenst wel nadere informatie en gegevens kan verkrijgen.

De stelling [van] [eiser], dat hij na de brief van 26 juli 2010 nog naar Zwitserland is geweest om persoonlijk zijn verzoek om inlichtingen toe te lichten, leidt het hof niet tot een ander oordeel nu, naar de Belastingdienst terecht heeft opgemerkt, [eiser] over dat

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bezoek geen enkele bijzondere informatie heeft verstrekt en bijvoorbeeld niet heeft vermeld met wie hij daar heeft gesproken en wat hij heeft besproken.

(....). [volgt verwerping van grieven 1 en 2; PJW]

4.3.1. Grief 3 is gericht tegen het oordeel van de voorzieningenrechter dat de Belastingdienst op grond van (...) art. 49 AWR kan verlangen dat inlichtingen die door [eiser] ingevolge art. 47 lid 1 AWR dienen te worden verstrekt mondeling door [eiser] aan de Belastingdienst worden verstrekt.

4.3.2. Het hof deelt voormeld oordeel van de voorzieningenrechter en verwerpt daarom grief 3. Door de Belastingdienst is bovendien terecht opgemerkt dat vertegenwoordiging naar haar aard alleen betrekking kan hebben op het verrichten van rechtshandelingen en niet op het verstrekken van feitelijke informatie."

4.4 Over het beroep van de eiser op het nemo tenetur beginsel overwoog het Hof:

"4.4.1. Grief 4 is gericht tegen de verwerping door de voorzieningenrechter van het beroep van [eiser] op het nemo tenetur beginsel. [Eiser] wijst erop dat hem op 10 december 2010 door de inspecteur al twee vergrijpboetes van € 256.530,= en € 77.133,= [ik leid uit het dossier af dat het bij deze bedragen niet om euro's, maar om guldens gaat;(7) PJW] zijn opgelegd voor de aangifte inkomstenbelasting over 1998/ vermogensbelasting 1999 en dat het duidelijk is dat de van hem verlangde gegevens niet alleen voor de belastingheffing worden gevraagd maar mede van belang zijn voor op te leggen boetes. De informatie wordt daarmee volgens [eiser] mede gevraagd in het kader van een criminal charge in de zin van art. 6 EVRM, reden waarom hij, naar [eiser] stelt, op grond van het nemo tenetur beginsel niet tot het verstrekken van die informatie mag worden gehouden. Bij het pleidooi in hoger beroep heeft de raadsman van [eiser] hieraan nog toegevoegd dat de inspecteur in brieven van 10 mei 2011 navorderingsaanslagen heeft aangekondigd over de jaren 1999 t/m 2005.

4.4.2. Ook deze grief faalt nu naar vaste rechtspraak (onder meer HR 18-09-2009, 08/01490, LJN: BI5906, BNB 2010, 21, NJ 2009, 566) de verplichting tot het verstrekken van inlichtingen op grond van art. 47 lid 1 AWR ten behoeve van een juiste belastingheffing niet in strijd komt met het nemo tenetur beginsel. De door [eiser] gestelde omstandigheid dat de Belastingdienst er blijk van heeft gegeven dat hij [eiser] verdenkt van strafrechtelijk verwijtbaar handelen doet dit niet anders zijn. De stelling van [eiser] dat de Belastingsdienst bij de thans van hem gevraagde informatie mede belang kan hebben voor bijvoorbeeld een vaststelling van vergrijpboetes is niet relevant voor de vordering van de Belastingdienst in dit kort geding om de gevraagde gegevens ten behoeve van een juiste belastingheffing te verstrekken. De vraag of die gegevens later wel of niet zullen kunnen worden gebruikt voor beboeting of strafvervolging is een vraag die thans niet aan de orde is en die, indien zich een dergelijke situatie zou voordoen, alsdan in een desbetreffende fiscale of strafrechtelijke procedure aan de orde kan worden gesteld."

Het Hof verwierp daarom het principale appel:

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"4.5.1. Het falen van de grieven 1 t/m 4 brengt mee dat ook de grieven 5 en 6, waarin [eiser] opkomt tegen de afwijzing van zijn vordering in reconventie en zijn veroordeling in de proceskosten van het geding in eerste aanleg, dienen te worden verworpen."(8)

Incident: nieuw art. 52a AWR; informatievorderingsbeschikking; doorkruising?

4.5 Tijdens de appelprocedure heeft de Inspecteur met dagtekening 23 augustus 2011 een informatievorderingsbeschikking ex het nieuwe art. 52a AWR opgelegd die van de eiser informatie vordert ten behoeve van de aanslagregeling inkomstenbelasting/ vermogensbelasting 1998 t/m 2000. Hij heeft bovendien aanslagen inkomstenbelasting/ premie volksverzekeringen 2000 tot en met 2005 opgelegd. Bij uitspraak van 18 november 2011 heeft de Inspecteur eisers bezwaar tegen die informatievorderingsbeschikking verworpen. Op 6 december 2011 heeft de eiser daartegen beroep ingesteld bij de sector bestuursrecht van de Rechtbank Breda.(9) Bij pleidooi in hoger beroep (dus ná indiening grieven) in de thans door u te berechten zaak heeft de eiser aangevoerd dat de invoering van de informatievorderingsbeschikking en van de publiekrechtelijke rechtsgang daartegen, en het thans lopen van eiser's beroep op de bestuursrechter tegen de aan hem opgelegde informatievorderingsbeschikking, meebrengt dat de burgerlijke rechter niet langer bevoegd is, althans dat, mede gezien het nieuwe art. 27e(2) AWR, zijn verstrekkingsplicht is opgeschort zolang de bestuursrechtelijke procedure tegen de beschikking loopt. Het Hof liet deze grief toe omdat zij niet eerder ingebracht kon worden, maar verwierp haar:

"4.5.4. Het hof verwerpt dit verweer. Naar door de Belastingdienst terecht is opgemerkt, worden met de vorderingen tot het verstrekken van informatie en de informatiebeschikking verschillende doelen gediend. De Belastingdienst heeft bij het eerste belang ter vaststelling van een juiste belastingheffing. De informatiebeschikking behelst de vaststelling van de inspecteur dat aan de informatieverzoeken niet of onvoldoende is voldaan en strekt ertoe dat, indien de gevraagde informatie niet alsnog wordt verstrekt of niet tijdig bezwaar tegen de informatiebeschikking wordt gemaakt of de beschikking na een bezwaar- en beroepsprocedure onherroepelijk wordt, op de belastingplichtige de bewijslast komt te rusten dat de door de Belastingdienst vastgestelde aanslagen niet juist zijn (de zogeheten omkering en verzwaring van de bewijslast). In het laatste geval doet zich het risico voor dat geen juiste (c.q. een te lage) belastingheffing plaatsvindt omdat de aanslag in dat geval door de Belastingdienst op basis van een schatting moet worden vastgesteld. De in art. 52a AWR neergelegde mogelijkheid tot uitvaardiging van een informatiebeschikking laat dan ook het primaire belang van de Belastingdienst om te bewerkstelligen dat door een belastingplichtige, in casu [eiser], aan zijn informatieverplichting wordt voldaan, onverlet. Indien op die wijze een voldoen aan de informatieverplichting kan worden bewerkstelligd, zal, zo is door de Belastingdienst verklaard, de informatiebeschikking kunnen vervallen. Dat met het nieuwe art. 52a AWR niet is beoogd de toegang tot de burgerlijke rechter te beperken, is bovendien expliciet bepaald in lid 4 van dat artikel. Het hof verwerpt het standpunt van [eiser] dat er ten aanzien van hem geen sprake zou zijn van een bijzonder geval. Gezien hetgeen het hof in verband met de grieven heeft overwogen, is het hof met de Belastingdienst en de voorzieningenrechter voorshands van oordeel dat door [eiser] niet alle informatie is verstrekt die hij zou kunnen en moeten verstrekken. In aanmerking genomen dat door [eiser] op zichzelf niet is betwist dat de door de Belastingdienst gevraagde informatie relevant is voor een juiste belastingheffing, valt dan ook niet in te

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zien waarom de Belastingdienst in het geval van [eiser] bij zijn vorderingen in dit kort geding teneinde nakoming door [eiser] van zijn informatieverplichting te geraken niet meer zou kunnen worden ontvangen. Het belang van de Belastingdienst bij de vorderingen in dit kort geding is door de informatiebeschikking niet komen te vervallen en van enige onredelijkheid of disproportionaliteit van de informatieverzoeken is vooralsnog niet gebleken."

4.6 In het incidenteel appel overwoog het Hof (curs. In origineel):

"4.6.1. De grief in het incidenteel appel is gericht tegen het oordeel van de voorzieningenrechter (...) 'dat de voorzieningenrechter het standpunt van [eiser] deelt dat artikel 49 AWR niet voorschrijft dat deze gegevens ook naar waarheid dienen te worden verstrekt.' en tegen de afwijzing op die grond van de vordering van de Belastingdienst in conventie onder V [zie 3.1; PJW] voor zover in die vordering mede wordt gevorderd "de onder I, II, III en IV omschreven gegevens, inlichtingen en/of verklaringen naar waarheid (onderstreping hof) (...) te verstrekken."

4.6.2. Deze grief slaagt voor zover de voorzieningenrechter met voormelde overweging heeft willen oordelen dat een belastingplichtige aan zijn informatieverplichting zou kunnen voldoen door het verstrekken van onjuiste informatie. Het hof is met de Belastingdienst van oordeel dat reeds uit het feit dat de informatieverstrekking als omschreven in art. 49 AWR betrekking heeft op gegevens die op grond van art. 47 AWR dienen te worden verstrekt vanwege het belang van die gegevens voor de belastingheffing voortvloeit dat 'naar waarheid' informatie dient te worden verstrekt. Dit in de aard van de informatieverplichting besloten uitgangspunt komt ook tot uitdrukking in het feit dat het in het kader van een informatieverplichting verstrekken van niet volledige of onjuiste gegevens in de artikelen 68 en 69 AWR strafbaar is gesteld en - voor wat betreft schriftelijk te verstrekken gegevens - bovendien strafbaar is gesteld in art. 225 Sr.

4.6.3. Anders dan de Belastingdienst bepleit, ziet het hof in het voorgaande geen reden om het vonnis waarvan beroep om voormelde reden te vernietigen. Nu de eis dat inlichtingen naar waarheid dienen te worden verstrekt zozeer besloten ligt in de aard van de informatieverplichting, heeft de Belastingdienst bij een afzonderlijke vermelding van die eis in zijn vordering onder V onvoldoende belang. Het hof zal volstaan met een bekrachtiging van het vonnis waarvan beroep onder verbetering van gronden."

4.7 Het Hof heeft, onder verbetering van gronden (r.o. 4.6.3), het vonnis van de voorzieningenrechter bevestigt, de eiser als de (grotendeels) in het ongelijk gestelde partij in de proceskosten van het principaal en het incidenteel appel veroordeeld en zijn arrest bij voorraad uitvoerbaar verklaard.

5. Het geding in cassatie

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5.1 [Eiser] heeft tijdig en regelmatig beroep in cassatie ingesteld. De Staat heeft het beroep bij conclusie van antwoord tegengesproken. Beide partijen hebben hun standpunt schriftelijk doen toelichten. [Eiser] heeft afgezien van repliek. De Staat heeft bij nota van dupliek gereageerd op de schriftelijke toelichting van [eiser].

5.2 [Eiser] stelt één middel voor: schending van het recht en/of verzuim van wezenlijke vormen doordat het Hof in r.o. 4.4.1 en 4.4.2 is uitgegaan van een onjuiste rechtsopvatting, althans zijn oordeel ontoereikend heeft gemotiveerd, door te oordelen dat het nemo teneturbeginsel en het daaraan verwante zwijgrecht niet in de weg staan aan een verplichting van [eiser] de Staat informatie op straffe van een hoge dwangsom te verstrekken. U heeft volgens de eiser noch in HR NJ 2009, 566, BNB 2010/21 (X. v Staat), noch in "vaste rechtspraak" geoordeeld dat de verplichting tot informatieverstrekking ex art. 47(1) AWR voor de belastingheffing niet in strijd zou komen met het nemo teneturbeginsel, althans niet voor een geval als dat van de eiser, dat zich erdoor kenmerkt dat: (i) de Inspecteur informatie van de eiser afdwingt op straffe van een hoge dwangsom in een civiele procedure, (ii) nadat hij de eiser al aanzienlijke navorderingsaanslagen met punitieve 100%-boetes heeft opgelegd, zich daarbij beroepende op omkering en verzwaring van de bewijslast, (iii) terwijl hij de eiser verdenkt van 'strafrechtelijk verwijtbaar handelen'; en (iv) hij mede belang bij de informatieverstrekking kan hebben voor de oplegging van vergrijpboetes.

Uit HR NJ 2009, 566, BNB 2010/21 volgt dat volgens de eiser niet omdat in die zaak - anders dan in zijn geval - van een criminal charge (boete-oplegging) (nog) geen sprake was ten tijde van de dwanguitoefening. Bovendien heeft het Hof ten onrechte niet vastgesteld dat van de eiser alleen gegevens worden gevorderd die bestaan onafhankelijk van diens wil (Saunders-materiaal). De Staat eist juist persoonlijke en mondelinge informatieverstrekking, hetgeen op het tegendeel duidt, zodat 's Hofs oordeel, als het gebaseerd zou zijn op de veronderstelling dat alleen Saunders-materiaal wordt gevorderd, niet begrijpelijk is. Het gegeven dat (ook) in een eventuele fiscale procedure de vraag onderzocht kan worden naar de toelaatbaarheid van het gebruik van de afgedwongen informatie voor beboeting of strafoplegging (r.o. 4.4.2), is onvoldoende motivering voor afwijzing van een beroep op nemo tenetur, met name omdat de Inspecteur en de belastingrechter, vanwege de aard en de samenloop van de heffings- en boeteprocedure, tegelijk over zowel de verschuldigde belasting als de opgelegde boete moeten oordelen en het menselijkerwijs niet voorstelbaar is dat zij de afgedwongen informatie uitsluitend gebruiken bij hun oordeelsvorming over de (hoogte van de) verschuldigde belasting, maar niet bij hun simultane oordeelsvorming over de boete, waarvan de hoogte vooral wordt bepaald door de hoogte van de verschuldigde belasting. In casu is sprake van een criminal charge en zal, gezien de genoemde omstandigheden (i)-(iv), de van de eiser gevorderde medewerking mede gebruikt (kunnen) worden voor diens beboeting of strafvervolging. Dan is zonder nadere motivering niet begrijpelijk dat het afdwingen van de informatie in casu niet in strijd zou zijn met het nemo teneturbeginsel en eiser's zwijgrecht. Uit de EHRM-arresten J.B. v Zwitserland en Chambaz blijkt dat de in casu door de Staat jegens de eiser uitgeoefende dwang ontoelaatbaar is.

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5.3 De staat weerspreekt het cassatieberoep bij schriftelijke toelichting als volgt: het Hof heeft terecht eiser's vierde grief verworpen op grond van HR NJ 2009, 566, BNB 2010/21. De "vaste rechtspraak" waarop het Hof doelt, is er wel degelijk, nl. HR BNB 2002/27 en HR BNB 2004/225. Reeds hierom faalt het middel. De Belastingdienst zag tot de voor juiste belastingheffing vereiste feitenvaststelling geen andere mogelijkheid dan een kort geding omdat navorderingstermijnen dreigden te verstrijken en hij niet over nog meer jaren op basis van schattingen wilde navorderen. Uit de EHRM-arresten Allen en Martinnen volgt dat informatieverstrekkingsplichten ten behoeve van belastingheffing niet onder art. 6 EVRM vallen omdat zij een gebruikelijk en onmisbaar onderdeel zijn van de belastingsystemen van de lidstaten van de Raad van Europa waarzonder die systemen niet kunnen functioneren. De litigieuze dwangsom is bovendien niet punitief maar reparatoir van aard. Zelfs als art. 6 EVRM in casu relevant zou zijn, dan nog is het verbod op gedwongen zelfincriminatie geen algemeen recht op het niet of onjuist verstrekken van informatie om onderzoeken van de fiscus te frustreren, ook niet indien die onderzoeken zouden kunnen leiden tot een vervolging als bedoeld in art. 6(1) EVRM. Aanvaarding van eiser's standpunt zou ertoe leiden dat een verdachte belastingplichtige zich zou kunnen onttrekken aan normale verplichtingen die elke andere belastingplichtige wel moet nakomen. De vraag of de gevorderde fiscaal relevante informatie ook gebruikt mag worden voor beboeting of strafvervolging, is in deze procedure niet aan de orde. De Hoge Raad heeft voorts al geoordeeld(10) dat de Belastingdienst geen garanties aan belastingplichtigen hoeft te geven omtrent het al dan niet gebruiken van door hen onder meewerkplicht te verstrekken informatie. Bovendien volgt uit HR BNB 2008/159 dat het gebruik van de gegevens voor beboeting niet zonder meer zou afstuiten op het nemo teneturbeginsel, maar dat dat van de aard van de dwang en het delict afhangt. Pas in een eventuele strafrechtelijke procedure moet worden bezien of het gaat om onafhankelijk van de wil van de eiser bestaande gegevens, zodat het Hof ook daarover niet hoefde oordelen in deze procedure. De eiser is trouwens reeds zonder zijn medewerking als eerstbegunstigde bij de Stiftung geïdentificeerd. Een beroep op J.B. v Zwitserland faalt omdat die zaak de determination of a criminal charge betrof en niet de vraag of de Staat zijn burgers kan verplichten informatie te geven met als doel juiste belastingheffing te verzekeren. Als prikkel tot nakoming van die verplichting mag een dwangsom aan weigering worden verbonden. Chambaz maakt dat niet anders nu dat arrest in dezelfde lijn ligt als J.B. v Switzerland.

5.4 Ik merk volledigheidshalve op dat ook cassatieberoep loopt in een andere zaak (rolnr. 12/03379) waarin (mede) hetzelfde conflict tussen strafvorderlijk zwijgrecht en fiscaal-bestuurlijke medewerkingsplicht aan de orde gesteld wordt (zie 8.2 hieronder).

6. Geannoteerde jurisprudentiële chronologie tot Chambaz

6.0 Ik geef onder dit hoofd een chronologisch overzicht van de nationale en Straatsburgse rechtspraak over de samenloop van enerzijds het recht van een (potentieel) verdachte om verschoond te blijven van dwang tot zelfbeschuldiging en anderzijds wettelijke, met sancties verzwaarde meewerkplichten met (i) een strafvorderlijk (punitief) doel (inclusief bestuurlijke beboeting), (ii) een niet-

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strafvorderlijk (reparatoir) doel (zoals belastingheffing; terugvordering van onverschuldigd betaalde uitkeringen of subsidies, voorkoming of ongedaanmaking van milieuvervuiling, ongedaanmaking van beurskoersmanipulatie, voorkoming van mededingingsvervalsing of ongedaanmaking van crediteursbenadeling), of (iii) een gemengd, hybride of voor de betrokken persoon onduidelijk doel. Ik zal steeds de bijzonderheden in de feiten of in de nationale wetgeving benadrukken die het desbetreffende arrest mijns inziens relevant of juist minder relevant maken voor de zaak van de eiser tot cassatie. Ik probeer voorts elk arrest steeds in het licht van voorafgaande arresten te begrijpen, hetgeen tot interpretatief commentaar leidt.

6.1 Naar aanleiding van de wettelijke en gesanctioneerde plicht om bloedonderzoek te ondergaan bij verdenking van beschonken bestuurderschap overwoog uw tweede kamer in 1977(11) dat in het Nederlandse recht:

"(...) niet is verankerd een onvoorwaardelijk recht of beginsel dat een verdachte op generlei wijze kan worden verplicht tot het verlenen van medewerking aan het verkrijgen van voor hem mogelijk bezwarend bewijsmateriaal (...)"

Uw derde kamer herhaalde deze regel voor het belasting(boete)recht in HR BNB 1992/243(12) in een zaak waarin de verdachte/belastingplichtige betoogde dat de bewijslast in de procedure voor de belastingrechter niet kon worden omgekeerd en verzwaard wegens zijn niet-medewerking omdat hij een zwijgrecht had in de eveneens tegen hem ingestelde strafprocedure wegens opzettelijk onjuiste belastingaangifte. Uw derde kamer overwoog dat de belastingplichtige in de bestuurlijke procedure gewoon moet meewerken en dat het aan de strafrechter is om het met bestuursrechtelijke bevoegdheden verkregen bewijsmateriaal desgeraden uit te sluiten uit de strafprocedure:

"3.6.3. Ook de in artikel 6, lid 2, EVRM aan een ieder tegen wie een vervolging is ingesteld, gegeven waarborg voor onschuldig te worden gehouden totdat zijn schuld in rechte is komen vast te staan, doet niet af aan de omvang van [de] aangifteplicht. Immers die verplichting staat niet ten dienste van het op het spoor komen van strafbare feiten maar is met betrekking tot belastingen die bij wege van aanslag worden geheven, erop gericht de inspecteur een hulpmiddel te verschaffen tot het opleggen van de aanslag en zij is dan ook niet van dien aard dat van de wettelijke regeling van de aangifteplicht zou moeten worden gezegd dat zij berust op een door artikel 6, lid 2, EVRM verboden veronderstelling van schuld.

3.6.4. Dit laatste kan in de gevallen waarin met toepassing van de gewone bewijsregels is komen vast te staan dat de vereiste aangifte niet is gedaan, ook niet worden gezegd van de voor die gevallen in artikel 29, lid 2, [thans 25(3); PJW] van de AWR voorziene omkering van de bewijslast. Het gaat daar om een dwangmiddel van administratiefrechtelijke aard dat is gericht op het bevorderen van juiste en volledige aangiften en niet om een dwangmiddel dat de strekking heeft bewijs te verkrijgen tegen een belastingplichtige tegen wie een strafvervolging, bij voorbeeld wegens overtreding van artikel 68, lid 1, letter a, van de AWR, is ingesteld.

3.6.5. Weliswaar kan het bepaalde in artikel 29, lid 2, van de AWR [omkering bewijslast; PJW] meebrengen dat de belastingplichtige ter voldoening aan de op hem ingevolge die

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bepaling rustende bewijslast zich in de administratieve procedure genoopt ziet tot het produceren van bewijsmateriaal dat tevens in de strafzaak tot bewijs kan dienen, maar het is aan de strafrechter om te beslissen of en in hoeverre, gelet op de omstandigheden waaronder het bewijsmateriaal ter beschikking is gekomen, het hier betreft materiaal waarop in het strafproces geen acht mag worden geslagen."

6.2 In 1993 oordeelde het EHRM in de zaak Funke v France(13) acht tegen één dat art. 6 EVRM in de weg staat aan oplegging van dwangsommen en boeten om een verdachte belastingplichtige te dwingen vermoed bewijsmateriaal van zijn vermoede wetsovertreding te produceren. Funke werd door de Franse douane-autoriteiten verdacht van deviezendelicten en het aanhouden van buitenlandse bankrekeningen. De douane wilden de bankafschriften van hem hebben. Funke werd vervolgd wegens niet-overlegging daarvan. Het EHRM achtte dat ontoelaatbaar:

"44. The Court notes that the customs secured Mr Funke's conviction in order to obtain certain documents which they believed must exist, although they were not certain of the fact. Being unable or unwilling to procure them by some other means, they attempted to compel the applicant himself to provide the evidence of offences he had allegedly committed. The special features of customs law (...) cannot justify such an infringement of the right of anyone "charged with a criminal offence", within the autonomous meaning of this expression in Article 6, to remain silent and not to contribute to incriminating himself. There has accordingly been a breach of Article 6 § 1."

Funke was dus al charged op het moment van dwanguitoefening en het was niet zeker dat de van hem gevorderde en hem waarschijnlijk belastende bescheiden bestonden (al blijkt mijns inziens uit de weergegeven feiten dat Funke al had toegegeven dat ze bestonden). Zijn veroordeling zag specifiek op zijn weigering om mee te werken aan bewijsproductie tegen zichzelf; niet op de vermoede deviezendelicten. Bestraffing van het niet-produceren van bewijs van eigen wetsovertreding in een procedure die gericht is op bestraffing van die eigen wetsovertreding is dus onverenigbaar met art. 6 EVRM.

6.3 Saunders was directeur van het Britse Guinness-concern en werd verdacht van beurskoersmanipulatie met het oog op een verwachte overname van the Distillers Company Plc. Inspecteurs van het Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) stelden een toezichtsonderzoek in naar verdachte koersbewegingen waaraan Saunders wettelijk verplicht was mee te werken. De DTI-inspecteurs gaven hun bevindingen door aan de vervolgingsautoriteiten, die Saunders' antwoorden tegen hem gebruikten in een latere strafzaak die tot een veroordeling leidde wegens conspiracy, false accounting and theft. Het EHRM oordeelde(14) 16 tegen 4 dat art. 6 EVRM was geschonden door het gebruik van het bij het mededingingsonderzoek onder antwoordplicht verkregen bewijsmateriaal in de latere strafzaak, ook al was ten tijde van het DTI-onderzoek nog geen sprake van enige criminal charge. Dat gebruik tastte Saunders' geloofwaardigheid en verklaringsvrijheid voor de jury in het strafproces aan. Het EHRM overwoog echter ook dat het verbod op gedwongen zelfincriminatie zich niet uitstrekt tot het gebruik in strafzaken van bewijsmateriaal dat door toepassing van dwangmiddelen kan worden verkregen onafhankelijk van de wil van de beklaagde, zoals documenten die in beslag

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genomen worden op grond van een doorzoekingsbevel, alsmede bloed-, urine- en dna-monsters:

"68. The Court recalls that, although not specifically mentioned in Article 6 of the Convention, the right to silence and the right not to incriminate oneself, are generally recognised international standards which lie at the heart of the notion of a fair procedure under Article 6. Their rationale lies, inter alia, in the protection of the accused against improper compulsion by the authorities thereby contributing to the avoidance of miscarriages of justice and to the fulfilment of the aims of Article 6 (see the above-mentioned John Murray judgment and the above-mentioned Funke judgment). The right not to incriminate oneself, in particular, presupposes that the prosecution in a criminal case seek to prove their case against the accused without resort to evidence obtained through methods of coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused. In this sense the right is closely linked to the presumption of innocence contained in Article 6 § 2 of the Convention.

69. The right not to incriminate oneself is primarily concerned, however, with respecting the will of an accused person to remain silent. As commonly understood in the legal systems of the Contracting Parties to the Convention and elsewhere, it does not extend to the use in criminal proceedings of material which may be obtained from the accused through the use of compulsory powers but which has an existence independent of the will of the suspect such as, inter alia, documents acquired pursuant to a warrant, breath, blood and urine samples and bodily tissue for the purpose of DNA testing.

(...).

71. (...). In any event, bearing in mind the concept of fairness in Article 6, the right not to incriminate oneself cannot reasonably be confined to statements of admission of wrongdoing or to remarks which are directly incriminating. Testimony obtained under compulsion which appears on its face to be of a non-incriminating nature - such as exculpatory remarks or mere information on questions of fact - may later be deployed in criminal proceedings in support of the prosecution case, for example to contradict or cast doubt upon other statements of the accused or evidence given by him during the trial or to otherwise undermine his credibility. Where the credibility of an accused must be assessed by a jury the use of such testimony may be especially harmful. It follows that what is of the essence in this context is the use to which evidence obtained under compulsion is made in the course of the criminal trial."

(...).

74. (...).

[The Court] does not accept the Government's argument that the complexity of corporate fraud and the vital public interest in the investigation of such fraud and the punishment of those responsible could justify such a marked departure as that which occurred in the present case from one of the basic principles of a fair procedure. Like the Commission, it considers that the general requirements of fairness contained in Article 6, including the right not to incriminate oneself, apply to criminal proceedings in respect of all types of criminal offences without distinction from the most simple to the most complex."

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Het ging in deze zaak om later gebruik van tijdens een niet-punitief onderzoek onder wettelijke en strafbedreigde meewerkplicht verkregen informatie, welk gebruik diende om de positie van de onderzochte/latere verdachte in een later strafproces te ondermijnen. Dat is ontoelaatbaar, behalve voor zover het gaat om bewijsmateriaal dat ook los van de wil van de onderzochte/latere verdachte reeds bestond en door eigenmachtige toepassing van dwangmiddelen zoals doorzoeking en inbeslagneming door de autoriteiten veilig gesteld zou kunnen worden zonder diens medewerking (hierna te noemen: Saunders-materiaal). Het EHRM maakt kennelijk onderscheid tussen een (actieve) meewerkplicht en een duldplicht; tussen materiaal voor de verkrijging of kennisneming waarvan de actieve medewerking van de verdachte (een wilsbesluit) vereist is en materiaal dat ook verkregen kan worden door uitoefening van dwangmiddelen waarbij de verdachte 'slechts' iets hoeft te ondergaan, zoals een telefoontap, doorzoeking, inbeslagneming, wangslijmafneming, ademproef, bloedproef, etc. Lenos schrijft daarover (citaat zonder noten, cursiveringen in origineel):(15)

"Op het eerste gezicht is niet duidelijk wat het EHRM met deze overweging [para. 44 Funke; PJW] bedoelt. Waarom is het relevant dat de autoriteiten meenden, doch niet zeker wisten, dat de gevraagde documenten bestonden? Het werkt verhelderend indien de jurisprudentie van een andere rechterlijke instantie, die zich over het nemo-teneturrecht heeft uitgelaten, in ogenschouw wordt genomen. Het EHRM beroept zich immers voor de afbakening van het nemo-teneturrecht niet alleen op het recht van de lidstaten maar ook op rechtssystemen elders. Het Amerikaanse Supreme Court is een instantie die zich eveneens gesteld zag voor de vraag welk bewijsmateriaal het privilege against self incrimination bestrijkt. De Amerikaanse rechter beperkt het grondrecht tot bewijs van testimonial or communicative nature.(16) Daaronder valt bijvoorbeeld niet het afnemen van bloed of het meedoen aan een schrijfproef. De plicht tot het overleggen van documenten is in beginsel evenmin in strijd met dit privilege. Echter, in sommige gevallen kan het overleggen van documenten wel testimonial or communicative van aard zijn. Namelijk indien het bestaan en de locatie van de documenten niet reeds uit andere bron aan de overheid bekend waren."

Voor het probleem dat verklaringen zowel voor vaststelling van een uitkering als voor de boeteoplegging relevant kunnen zijn ziet zij na Saunders de volgende oplossing (p. 800):

"Mijns inziens kan het nemo-teneturrecht toch in volle omvang worden gewaarborgd, namelijk door het boetebesluit te laten nemen door een andere medewerker dan de medewerker die de omvang van de uitkering vaststelt."

6.4 De (Nederlandse) zaak Abas(17) betrof een (ex-)piloot aan wie op zijn verzoek vrijstelling van loonbelasting was verleend omdat hij in Ierland zou wonen. De fiscus stelde op zeker moment op grond van art. 47 AWR vragen over zijn woonplaats, waarop Abas antwoordde. Na opening van een gerechtelijk vooronderzoek werd de woning van zijn familie in Aerdenhout doorzocht, waarbij materiaal werd gevonden waaruit bleek dat hij altijd in Aerdenhout had gewoond. In Nederland werd Abas tot in hoogste instantie veroordeeld.(18) Hij klaagde bij de (toen nog) Commissie voor de Rechten van de Mens (ECRM) dat met de door hem verplicht beantwoorde vragenbrief van de Inspecteur het verbod op gedwongen zelfincriminatie was geschonden. Onder verwijzing naar de zaak

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Schenk(19) overwoog de Commissie preliminair dat art. 6 EVRM op zichzelf geen regels stelt over de toelaatbaarheid van bewijsmateriaal in een strafproces. Dat is aan het nationale recht. De ECRM overwoog vervolgens dat onderzoek op basis art. 47 AWR gericht is op feitenvaststelling voor de belastingheffing, niet op vestiging van strafrechtelijke aansprakelijkheid en dat daaraan niet afdoet dat de verkregen informatie wellicht ook kan worden gebruikt in een strafrechtelijke procedure. Hij stelde voorts vast dat Abas' antwoorden in essentie niet afweken van reeds eerder - vrijwillig - door hem verstrekte informatie, en overwoog voorts:

"The Commission further finds that a requirement that an investigation by a Tax Inspector under Article 47 of the General State Taxes Act should be subject to the guarantees of a judicial procedure as set forth in Article 6 para. 1 (Art. 6-1) of the Convention would in practice unduly hamper the effective functioning in the public interest of the activities of fiscal authorities (cf., mutatis mutandis, Eur. Court H.R., Fayed v. United Kingdom judgment of 21 September 1994, Series A no. 294-B, p. 48, para. 62 and Saunders v. United Kingdom, loc. cit., para. 67)."

De ECRM verklaarde Abas' klacht daarom unaniem niet-ontvankelijk. Uit deze zaak valt mijns inziens slechts af te leiden dat feitenonderzoek onder meewerkplicht door de overheid voor niet-punitieve doeleinden niet onderworpen hoeft te zijn aan garanties voor de eerbiediging van het nemo tenetur beginsel, omdat (i) we anders - kort gezegd - de uitvoerbaarheid van de belastingwet en andere sociaal-economische wetgeving wel kunnen vergeten, én omdat (ii) (zie de verwijzing naar Fayed en Saunders) het gebruik van administratief onder meewerkplicht verkregen materiaal in een eventueel latere straf(achtig) procedure van gebruik uitgesloten kan worden door de trial judge in dat eventuele strafproces. Ik benadruk dat het Hof er kennelijk vanuit gaat, net als in Fayed en Saunders, dat het aanvankelijke onderzoek niet mede gericht was op bestraffing en evenmin hybride (op voor de burger onduidelijke wijze mogelijk gericht op zowel belastingheffing als administratieve beboeting of strafvervolging, zoals in de hieronder te behandelen Zwitserse zaken J.B. v Zwitserland en Chambaz).

6.5 Saunders was niet de enige leidinggevende van Guinness die werd vervolgd. Ook in de drie zaken I.J.L., G.M.R. en A.K.P. v UK(20) oordeelde het EHRM - unaniem - dat het VK art. 6(1) EVRM had geschonden door hun medewerking tijdens het DTI-onderzoek tegen hen te gebruiken in een latere strafzaak. Deze drie hadden echter ook geklaagd dat de samenwerking tussen het DTI en de aanklager een zelfstandige schending van art. 6(1) EVRM opleverde omdat, gegeven die samenwerking, reeds het DTI-onderzoek onderworpen had moeten zijn aan de garanties van art. 6 EVRM. Het EHRM verwierp die klacht eveneens unaniem omdat het werk van de DTI-inspecteurs in essentie feitenvaststellend en niet oordelend van aard was en dat het resultaat door andere overheidsdiensten voor een veelheid van - mede niet-punitieve - doeleinden gebruikt zou kunnen worden:

"26. (...). It is the applicants' view that, at the stage of interview, the Inspectors were in effect determining a "criminal charge" within the meaning of Article 6 par. 1 and on that account the guarantees laid down in Article 6 should have been applied to them. The Court does not accept that submission and refers in this connection to the nature and

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purpose of investigations conducted by DTI Inspectors. It observes that the Court in (...) Fayed v. the United Kingdom held that the functions performed by the Inspectors (...) were essentially investigative in nature and that they did not adjudicate either in form or in substance. Their purpose was to ascertain and record facts which might subsequently be used as the basis for action by other competent authorities prosecuting, regulatory, disciplinary or even legislative (judgment of 21 September 1994, Series A no. 294-B, p. 47, par. 61). As stated in that case, a requirement that such a preparatory investigation should be subject to the guarantees of a judicial procedure as set forth in Article 6 par. 1 would in practice unduly hamper the effective regulation in the public interest of complex financial and commercial activities (...).

27. (...).

28. In the light of the above considerations, the Court finds that there has been no violation of Article 6 par. 1 of the Convention as regards the alleged improper collusion between the DTI Inspectors and the prosecuting authorities."

Dit oordeel is dus in essentie een herhaling van Abas (zie 6.4): het gegeven dat de resultaten van een puur administratief controle-onderzoek later wellicht ook in een strafprocedure gebruikt zouden kunnen worden (naast administratief, reparatoir of disciplinair gebruik waar het van meet af aan primair voor bedoeld is), is geen reden voor toepassing van art. 6 EVRM reeds in de fase van dat administratieve onderzoek, dat op dat moment slechts neutraal gericht is op feitenvaststelling en mogelijk herstel van de rechtmatige toestand. De uitvoerende macht moet de feiten kunnen onderzoeken om de niet-punitieve wet te kunnen uitvoeren (om daarna, op basis daarvan, wellicht ook te besluiten tot verdergaand onderzoek, gericht op bestraffing). Ik merk opnieuw op dat het EHRM kennelijk uit gaat van een bestuurlijke toezichtsprocedure die afgescheiden is van punitieve trajecten.

6.6 Heaney en McGuinness werden verdacht van een bomaanslag opgeëist door de IRA. Zij kregen tijdens hun verhoor tegenstrijdige instructie: enerzijds werden zij op hun zwijgrecht gewezen, anderzijds werd hen gezegd dat zij ex art. 52 van de State Act 1939 op straffe van maximaal zes maanden opsluiting verplicht waren aan te geven waar zij zich op bepaalde tijden bevonden hadden:

"53. (...). At the beginning of their interviews they were informed that they had the right to remain silent. Nevertheless, when the section 52 requests were made during those interviews, they were then effectively informed that, if they did not account for their movements at particular times, they risked six months' imprisonment. The only reference during the interviews to the possible use of statements made by the applicants in any later proceedings was to inform them that anything they did say would be written down and might be used against them."

Zij werden veroordeeld tot gevangenisstraf wegens dat zwijgen over hun whereabouts. Voor het EHRM voerde Ierland aan dat art. 6 EVRM niet was geschonden omdat de strafrechter vrij was om bewijsmateriaal verkregen onder art. 52 van de State Act 1939

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uit te sluiten of toe te laten als hem dat "fair and equitable" voorkwam. Volgens Heaney en McGuinness was door de onduidelijk Ierse jurisprudentie en de tegenstrijdige instructie geenszins gegeven dat de strafrechter een onder art. 52 van de State Act 1939 afgedwongen verklaring van de bewijsvoering zou uitsluiten. Het EHRM achtte unaniem het recht op vrijwaring van zelfbeschuldiging inderdaad in de kern geschonden:(21)

"55. (...), the Court finds that the "degree of compulsion" imposed on the applicants by the application of section 52 of the 1939 Act with a view to compelling them to provide information relating to charges against them under that Act in effect destroyed the very essence of their privilege against self-incrimination and their right to remain silent."

Het EHRM verwierp het Ierse betoog dat de meewerkplicht onder strafdreiging ex art. 52 van de State Act 1939 een proportioneel antwoord was op de IRA-terreurdreiging omdat die regeling de 'very essence' van het zwijgrecht teniet deed:

"58. The Court (...) finds that the security and public order concerns relied on by the Government cannot justify a provision which extinguishes the very essence of the applicants' rights to silence and against self-incrimination guaranteed by Article 6 § 1 of the Convention.

59. It concludes, therefore, that there has been a violation of the applicants' right to silence and their right not to incriminate themselves guaranteed by Article 6 § 1 of the Convention."

Hij benadrukte dat hij in deze zaak niet oordeelde over gebruik van afgedwongen materiaal in een eventuele latere strafprocedure ter zake van de terroristische activiteiten waarvan de verdachten verdacht werden, maar over de bestraffing van hun niet-medewerking:

"54. (...). The Court is not, therefore, called upon in the present case to consider the impact on the rights to silence or against self-incrimination of the direct or indirect use made in later proceedings against an accused of statements made pursuant to section 52 of the 1939 Act."

Anders dan de interviews c.q. de vragenbrief in de zaken Saunders, Abas en I.J.L., G.M.R. en A.K.P. v UK, die op zichzelf niet-punitieve doelen dienden, betrof de zaak Heaney en McGuinness dus strafdreiging tijdens een manifest strafvorderlijk verhoor (gevolgd door daadwerkelijke veroordeling) om de verdachten te doen meewerken aan bewijsvergaring in een van meet af aan manifest strafvorderlijke procedure tegen hen (verdenking van terroristische activiteit), waar niets bestuurlijk-toezichthoudends aan was.

6.7 J.B. was een skileraar van wie de Zwitserse fiscus met opeenvolgende oplegging van vier disciplinaire boetes probeerde medewerking te verkrijgen (met name overlegging van documenten) om de herkomst vast te stellen van door J.B. geïnvesteerd vermogen

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dat niet in zijn belastingaangiften voorkwam. Het onderzoek was gericht op correcte belastingheffing, maar kon ook uitlopen op beboeting of strafvervolging wegens belastingontduiking; de bevoegdheden en procedures waren niet gescheiden. Het EHRM achtte - unaniem - art. 6 EVRM geschonden omdat (i) het volgens het Hof niet ging om bewijsmateriaal dat onafhankelijk van J.B.'s wil bestond (para. 68), en (ii) J.B. niet kon uitsluiten dat door hem verstrekte informatie niet slechts voor correcte belastingheffing, maar ook voor fiscale beboeting of strafvervolging tegen hem zou worden gebruikt (para. 66). Dat het voor de overheid niet praktisch is om de bestuurlijke toezichtprocedure (de aanslagregeling) te moeten afscheiden van punitieve procedures, achtte het EHRM geen argument (para. 70):(22)

"47. In the present case, the Court observes that the proceedings served the various purposes of establishing the taxes due by the applicant and, if the conditions therefor were met, of imposing a supplementary tax and a fine for tax evasion on him. Nevertheless, the proceedings were not expressly classified as constituting either supplementary tax proceedings or tax evasion proceedings.

(...).

66. (...), it appears that the authorities were attempting to compel the applicant to submit documents which would have provided information as to his income with a view to the assessment of his taxes. Indeed, (...), it was in particular important for the authorities to know whether or not the applicant had obtained any income which had not been taxed. While it is not for the Court to speculate as to what the nature of such information would have been, the applicant could not exclude that, if it transpired from these documents that he had received additional income which had not been taxed, he might be charged with the offence of tax evasion.

67. (...).

68. (...). In the Court's opinion, (...), the present case does not involve material (...) which, as the Court found in the Saunders case, had an existence independent of the person concerned and was not, therefore, obtained by means of coercion and in defiance of the will of that person (...).

69. (...), between 1987 and 1990 the authorities found it necessary to request the applicant on eight separate occasions to submit the information concerned and, when he refused to do so, they successively imposed altogether four disciplinary fines on him."

70. Finally, the Government have submitted that a separation of proceedings - the regular tax proceedings, on the one hand, and the criminal tax evasion proceedings, on the other - would be impractical. However, the Court recalls that its task is to determine whether the Contracting States have achieved the result called for by the Convention, but not to indicate which means a State should utilise in order to perform its obligations under the Convention (...).

71. (...), the Court considers that there has been a violation of the right under Article 6 § 1 of the Convention not to incriminate oneself."

Uit het gegeven dat het Hof de gevorderde documenten expliciet geen bestaan onafhankelijk van J.B.'s wil toedichtte (hen dus niet als Saunders-materiaal

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beschouwde), terwijl het wél om reeds bestaande documenten ging, volgt mijns inziens dat pas van Saunders-materiaal sprake is als aan twee eisen voldaan is: (i) niet alleen moet het materiaal reeds bestaan op het moment van vorderen (zodat de verdachte niet gedwongen wordt het te vervaardigen of over de strekking ervan te verklaren), maar ook moet (ii) de vorderende overheidsinstantie er de hand op kunnen leggen c.q. kennis van kunnen nemen door eigenmachtig gebruik van dwangmiddelen (zonder afgedwongen actieve medewerking van de verdachte), zoals doorzoeking en inbeslagneming (in Saunders noemt het Hof 'documents acquired pursuant to a warrant'), een telefoontap, een ademproef, of de afname van urine- of bloedmonsters of wangslijm. Kennelijk levert het moeten ondergaan van een huiszoeking, ademproef of bloedafname geen gedwongen (actieve) medewerking aan bewijsvergaring op (in de VS zou deze categorie vermoedelijk testimonial or communicative evidence genoemd worden),(23) maar 'slechts' een moeten dulden (duldplicht) waartegen geen nemo-tenetur-bezwaren bestaan (in de VS zou deze categorie vermoedelijk non-testimonial physical evidence worden genoemd). Aan deze benadering ligt kennelijk ten grondslag (zie § 68) 's Hofs uit Saunders (eveneens § 68) overgenomen uitgangspunt dat het recht op vrijwaring tegen dwang tot zelfincriminatie inhoudt:

'that the prosecution in a criminal case seek to prove their case against the accused without resort to evidence obtained through methods of coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused.'

Kan de overheid niet zonder dergelijke dwang of druk tegen de wil van de verdachte kennis nemen van het gevorderde materiaal, dan gaat het niet om Saunders-materiaal en is dwang tot actieve medewerking van de verdachte aan de kennisneming ervan in strijd met art. 6 EVRM, hoezeer ook het gevorderde mogelijk in reeds bestaande documenten te vinden zou kunnen zijn die de fiscus echter niet kan vinden zonder medewerking van de belastingplichtige/verdachte af te dwingen of die voor de fiscus niet te duiden zijn zonder medewerking van de verdachte. Het beslissende criterium lijkt mij aldus 'coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused' ('par la contrainte ou les pressions, au mépris de la volonté de l'accusé').(24) Ik benadruk dat het bij J.B. ging om meewerkvorderingen en boete-oplegging in het kader van een onderzoek waarvan voor de gevorderde - en wellicht ook voor de vorderende ambtenaren - niet duidelijk was of het (slechts) belasting(na)heffing of tevens beboeting zou betreffen.

6.8 Kort na J.B. overwoog uw derde kamer in de zaak HR BNB 2002/27(25) als volgt in een zaak waarin een belastingplichtige tijdens een controle-onderzoek (grotendeels) weigerde informatie te verstrekken, waarna de inspecteur hem een geschatte naheffingsaanslag met verhoging (boete), dus mét straf oplegde:

"3.3. (...). De weigering om door middel van verstrekking van de gevraagde gegevens, inlichtingen en bescheiden mee te werken aan het vaststellen van zijn belastingschuld kan belanghebbende niet rechtvaardigen met een beroep op evenbedoelde verdragen [het EVRM en IVBPR; PJW]. Dit geldt, voorzover het die vaststelling betreft, ook voor het verweer tegen de consequenties die de artikelen 25, lid 6, en 29, lid 1, AWR [omkering en verzwaring van de bewijslast; PJW] verbinden aan het niet voldoen aan de ingevolge artikel 47 AWR geldende verplichting.

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3.4. (...). Gelet op het arrest Saunders brengt het een en ander in een geval als het onderhavige, waarin een belastingplichtige aan het EVRM niet het recht kan ontlenen zich te onttrekken aan de verplichting gegevens, inlichtingen en bescheiden te verstrekken, mee dat een verklaring die de betrokkene heeft afgelegd ter voldoening aan die verplichting, niet mag worden gebruikt ten behoeve van de boete-oplegging. Dit betekent dat de verklaring die belanghebbende tegenover de Inspecteur heeft afgelegd over de aanschafprijs van het kantoormeubilair, door het Hof buiten beschouwing moest worden gelaten bij de beoordeling van de grondslag voor de boete-oplegging. Het ligt in de lijn van het voorgaande om met het in artikel 6, lid 1, EVRM begrepen recht voor de beschuldigde om te zwijgen en om zichzelf niet te behoeven incrimineren, tevens in die zin rekening te houden dat voorzover een belanghebbende, ofschoon hij tot het afleggen van een verklaring kon worden verplicht, heeft geweigerd te voldoen aan de verplichting een van hem gevorderde verklaring af te leggen, in het kader van de vaststelling en toetsing van een boete aan die weigering als zodanig geen voor hem nadelig gevolg mag worden verbonden. Hieruit volgt dat het Hof aan zijn oordeel met betrekking tot de toepasselijkheid in het onderhavige geval van artikel 29, lid 1, AWR, neerkomende op een omkering en verzwaring van de bewijslast, voor wat betreft de boete-oplegging niet mocht doen bijdragen dat belanghebbende had geweigerd een verklaring te geven voor contante stortingen op zijn bankrekening."

Uw derde kamer nam dus als uitgangspunt dat als het gaat om informatie benodigd voor de belastingheffing, geen enkele wettelijk verplichte medewerking straffeloos geweigerd kan worden, vermoedelijk om te voorkomen dat een verdachte belastingplichtige aan minder fiscale verplichtingen zou worden onderworpen dan een niet-verdachte. Een onder dergelijke dwang verstrekte verklaring (testimonial or communicative evidence) wordt echter uitgesloten van bewijs in de punitieve procedure. Uw derde kamer onderscheidde niet alleen (i) de belastingprocedure van de punitieve procedure, maar ook (ii) Saunders-materiaal van niet-Saunders-materiaal: nu de medewerkingsvordering zowel de belastingheffing als de beboeting bleek te dienen, mocht de verklaring c.q. de weigering om te verklaren (dus het niet-Saunders-materiaal) niet tegen de verdachte/belastingplichtige gebruikt worden in de boetezaak, maar wél - door omkering van de bewijslast - in de belastingzaak. Saunders-materiaal daarentegen (gegevens, inlichtingen en bescheiden die hun bestaan niet danken aan de wil van de verdachte; non-testimonial physical evidence) mag wél gebruikt worden (en de weigering het te verstrekken mag 'bestraft' worden met omkering van de bewijslast) óók voor de boete-oplegging:

"3.5. (...). Gelet op het arrest Saunders, waarin door het EHRM onderscheid wordt gemaakt tussen (bewijs)materiaal dat wel en dat niet zijn bestaan dankt aan de wil van de beschuldigde, zou artikel 6, lid 1, EVRM niet eraan in de weg hebben gestaan dat ook in het kader van de beoordeling van de boete-oplegging rekening was gehouden met de door de Inspecteur ten behoeve van de vaststelling van de belastingschuld opgevraagde bescheiden, indien deze door belanghebbende zouden zijn verstrekt. Derhalve bestaat er geen reden aan de weigering van belanghebbende om die bescheiden - uit 's Hofs uitspraak en de stukken van het geding blijkt niet dat belanghebbende het bestaan daarvan heeft ontkend - te verstrekken voor de boete-oplegging het gevolg te ontzeggen dat artikel 29, lid 1, AWR aan het niet naleven van de verplichtingen ingevolge artikel 47 AWR verbindt. Het Hof heeft bovendien - in cassatie onbestreden - geoordeeld dat belanghebbende niet volledig heeft voldaan aan zijn administratieverplichting.

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Laatstbedoeld oordeel draagt zelfstandig 's Hofs oordeel dat artikel 29, lid 1, AWR [omkering bewijslast; PJW] in dit geval van toepassing is. Indien aan een belastingplichtige, zonder dat daarbij voorbij wordt gezien aan de rechten die deze aan het EVRM of het IVBPR kan ontlenen, de gedraging kan worden verweten die tot de toepasselijkheid van artikel 29, lid 1, AWR leidt, kan de door laatstbedoelde bepaling bewerkstelligde omkering en verzwaring van de bewijslast als zodanig niet worden beschouwd als strijdig met het EVRM of het IVBPR. (...)."

Zoals boven (6.7) en uit mijn conclusie voor HR BNB 2008/159(26) bleek, twijfel ik aan de juistheid van dit laatste oordeel in het licht van Funke, Saunders, J.B. v Switzerland en Shannon, nu uit die arresten mijns inziens volgt dat niet beslissend is of de documenten al dan niet reeds bestonden, maar of de fiscus er zonder de verdachte/belastingplichtige tegen zijn wil tot medewerking te nopen de hand op kon leggen c.q. kennis van kon nemen.

6.9 Allen(27) werd in mei 1991 door de Britse Inland Revenue schriftelijk gevraagd - op straffe van een boete ad £ 300 - om een overzicht te geven van zijn vermogen per 31 januari 1991. Hij reageerde niet, waarop Inland Revenue hem schriftelijk een Hansard Warning gaf, die onder meer uiteenzette dat volledige medewerking aan het onderzoek de bereidheid van Inland Revenue zou kunnen bevorderen om mogelijk blijkende fraude niet strafrechtelijk te vervolgen. In april 1992 gaf Allen alsnog een overzicht van zijn vermogen. Hij werd uiteindelijk vervolgd voor dertien belastingfraude-delicten, en veroordeeld omdat de door hem verstrekte vermogensopstelling onjuist en onvolledig was. Het EHRM oordeelde unaniem, onder verwijzing naar het DTI-onderzoek in Saunders, dat op zichzelf dwang niet verboden is bij bestuurlijke informatiegaring over de financiële status van een persoon:

"The right not to incriminate oneself (...) does not per se prohibit the use of compulsory powers to require persons to provide information about their financial or company affairs (see the above mentioned Saunders judgment, where the procedure whereby the applicant was required to answer the questions of the Department of Trade Inspectors was not in issue). In the present case, therefore, the Court finds that the requirement on the applicant to make a declaration of his assets to the Inland Revenue does not disclose any issue under Article 6 § 1, even though a penalty was attached to a failure to do so. The obligation to make disclosure of income and capital for the purposes of the calculation and assessment of tax is indeed a common feature of the taxation systems of Contracting States and it would be difficult to envisage them functioning effectively without it."

Er bestaat dus, zoals wij wellicht al dachten, geen grondrechtelijk bezwaar tegen dat Staten sancties verbinden aan een weigering van een belastingplichtige om wettelijke verplichtingen - zoals de aangifteplicht - ten dienste van de (eigen) belastingheffing na te komen. Het EHRM stelde vast dat Allen's in het fiscaal-bestuurlijke traject gedane valse opgave niet tegen hem werd gebruikt als bewijs in een procedure over een strafbaar feit dat hij daarvóór al gepleegd zou hebben (zoals bij Saunders); die valse opgave wás juist het strafbare feit ter zake waarvan hij vervolgd werd. Evenmin werd hij vervolgd wegens

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weigering mee te werken aan zijn eigen veroordeling (zoals Funke, Heaney en McGuinness en J.B.). Het Hof onderscheidde Allen aldus expliciet van zowel Saunders als van Funke, Heaney en McGuinness en J.B. v Zwitserland:

"The Court notes that in this case the applicant does not complain that the information about his assets which he gave the Inland Revenue was used against him in the sense that it incriminated him in the commission of an offence due to acts or omissions in which he had been involved prior to that moment. His situation may therefore be distinguished from that of the applicant in Saunders (...). Nor was he prosecuted for failing to provide information which might incriminate him in pending or anticipated criminal proceedings, as in the cases of Funke, Heaney and McGuinness and J.B. (...). The applicant was charged with and convicted of the offence of making a false declaration of his assets to the Inland Revenue. In other words, he lied, or perjured himself through giving inaccurate information about his assets. This was not an example of forced self-incrimination about an offence which he had previously committed; it was the offence itself. It may be that the applicant lied in order to prevent the Inland Revenue uncovering conduct which might possibly be criminal and lead to a prosecution. However, the privilege against self-incrimination cannot be interpreted as giving a general immunity to actions motivated by the desire to evade investigation by the revenue authorities."

Het EHRM overwoog voorts dat als de bestuurlijk gevraagde informatie mogelijk ook in een strafvorderlijk circuit zou kunnen belanden, de intensiteit van de dwang of druk relevant is voor de vraag of zij toelaatbaar is: een boete van £ 300 op niet-meewerken aan een fiscale informatievordering was volgens het Hof niet om van wakker te liggen (in tegenstelling tot de twee jaar gevangenis die Saunders had kunnen belopen als hij niet zou hebben meegewerkt aan het DTI-onderzoek), zodat ook als het bij Allen wél om bewijs voor een reeds eerder gepleegd delict was gegaan, de valse opgave als bewijs gebruikt zou hebben mogen worden voor dat eerdere feit (bijvoorbeeld een daarvóór reeds ingediende onjuiste aangifte):

"Furthermore, not every measure taken with a view to encouraging individuals to give the authorities information which may be of potential use in later criminal proceedings must be regarded as improper compulsion (see (...) John Murray v. the United Kingdom judgment, § 46). The applicant faced the risk of imposition of a penalty of a maximum of GBP 300 if he persisted in refusing to make a declaration of assets, which may be contrasted with the position in the Saunders case, where a two year prison sentence was the maximum penalty (...). Nor does the Court consider that any improper inducement was brought to bear through the use of the so-called 'Hansard Warning' which informed the applicant of the practice of the Inland Revenue of taking into account the co-operation of the taxpayer in deciding whether to bring any prosecution for fraud. There is no indication that the applicant was misled as to the effect of the warning, accepting that it could not be interpreted as any kind of guarantee of freedom from prosecution.

Allen's klacht over schending van art. 6(1) EVRM werd door een unaniem Hof niet-ontvankelijk verklaard.

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6.10 HR BNB 2004/225(28) betrof een huiszoeking in een strafvorderlijk onderzoek naar beursfraude waarbij fiscaal belastend materiaal werd gevonden. De betrokkene werd strafrechtelijk vervolgd voor misbruik van voorwetenschap en zijn aangegeven belastbare inkomen en vermogen werden zeer aanzienlijk hoger vastgesteld dan door hem aangegeven. Hem werden geen fiscaal-bestuurlijke boeten opgelegd omdat destijds nog geen boeten bij primitieve aanslag konden worden opgelegd. Tijdens de bezwaarprocedure tegen de aanslagen vroeg de Inspecteur de betrokkene om nadere informatie, die deze met een beroep op zijn zwijgrecht weigerde te geven. De inspecteur wees daarop het bezwaar af met verwijzing naar de wettelijke omkering van de bewijslast wegens niet-meewerken. In cassatie bestreed de belastingplichtige onder meer de omkering van de bewijslast met een beroep op zijn zwijgrecht. Ik concludeerde (ik laat voetnoten weg):

"7.9 Ik leid hieruit [uit J.B. v. Switzerland; PJW] (...) af dat documenten bij nader inzien toch niet onder de Saunders-regel vallen. In § 68 overweegt het Hof immers dat het bij de documenten die van J.B. gevorderd werden om bewijs gaat dat verschilt van het in Saunders bedoelde bewijs dat een bestaan heeft onafhankelijk van de wil van de verdachte, (...). Kennelijk mag de overheid de verdachte niet met sancties dwingen mogelijk belastende documenten aan die overheid te verstrekken, zelfs niet als die documenten tevens of voornamelijk gevraagd worden met het oog op niet-strafrechtelijke doeleinden zoals belastingheffing. Het EHRM acht het immers voldoende voor een niet-meewerkrecht (althans vrijwaring van sancties) van J.B. dat "hij niet kon uitsluiten dat niet-aangegeven inkomen blijkende uit deze documenten het strafbare feit van belastingontduiking zou opleveren" (zie r.o. 66; vertaling en curs. PJW).

7.10 Ik kan Saunders en J.B. v. Switzerland slechts met elkaar rijmen als de term "documents, acquired pursuant to a warrant" in Saunders wordt uitgelegd als: bescheiden die (bij een doorzoeking of inbeslagneming) zonder medewerking van de verdachte verkregen worden. Kennelijk neemt het Hof in zijn jurisprudentie stelling tegen twee verschijnselen:

(i) de bestraffing van weigering van actieve medewerking aan vergaring van incriminerend bewijsmateriaal door een reeds verdachte (zulks blijkt uit Funke en J.B.) en

(ii) incriminerend gebruik van bewijsmateriaal dat voor niet-strafrechtelijke doeleinden vergaard is onder een antwoordplicht toen de belanghebbende nog niet "charged" was (zulks blijkt uit Saunders).

7.11 Mijn conclusie daaruit is dat de fiscus van een reeds verdachte belastingplichtige wel actieve verstrekking van informatie mag vorderen, ook als niet uitgesloten is dat die gegevens tevens voor vervolgingsdoeleinden gebruikt zullen worden, maar dat weigering in die omstandigheden niet bestraft mag worden met (zoals in J.B. en Funke) "disciplinary fines" of dwangsommen, omdat zo'n bestraffing een ontoelaatbare "method of coercion or oppression" is, "in defiance of the will of the accused." Bestraffing van niet-medewerking is kennelijk slechts mogelijk als aan de verdachte/belastingplichtige de zekerheid wordt gegeven dat zijn actieve medewerking die via sanctie(dreiging) afgedwongen wordt, niet voor bestraffingsdoeleinden gebruikt zal worden. (...) Uit r.o. 70 van J.B. v. Switzerland blijkt dat het Hof geen boodschap heeft aan het bureaucratische bezwaar van de Zwitserse regering dat alsdan de informatiegaring voor

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de belastingheffing en de bewijsvergaring in de straf(achtige) procedure gescheiden moeten worden.

7.12 Nu uit Saunders blijkt dat kennelijk wél gebruik gemaakt mag worden van "documents, acquired pursuant to a warrant" bij een reeds verdachte, is deze rechtspraak een aanmoediging voor de Staten van de Raad van Europa om, indien van reeds verdachte burgers gegevens worden gevraagd voor administratieve doeleinden, het doorzoekingsverlof alvast bij de hand te hebben. Hoewel een dwangsom, bestuurlijke boete of strafvervolging(sdreiging) als sanctie op weigering ontoelaatbaar is omdat die de verdachte dwingt tot actieve medewerking aan zelfbeschuldiging, is kennelijk wél toegestaan een doorzoeking of inbeslagneming om de gegevens te verkrijgen, als de verdachte maar niet actief hoeft mee te werken maar slechts moet dulden (lijdzaam moet toezien hoe zijn bedoening binnenstebuiten gekeerd wordt). Deze rechtspraak dwingt de overheden om zichzelf te gaan helpen, dat wil zeggen om eerder over te stappen op strafvorderlijke dwangmiddelen buiten de medewerking van de burger om. Ik weet niet of de positie van de verdachte belastingplichtige hiermee gediend is vanuit een oogpunt van de belangen die art. 6 EVRM beoogt te beschermen. De vraag rijst ook of nog van "niet tegen de wil van de verdachte" gesproken kan worden als de verdachte weliswaar bij niet-medewerking niet bestraft mag worden met boeten of dwangsommen, maar wel met huiszoeking. Als een verdachte meewerkt om huiszoeking te voorkomen, is dan géén sprake van "coercion" of "oppression," althans niet van "defiance of the will of the accused"?

7.13 Mijn conclusie uit de Straatsburgse rechtspraak is dat meewerkplichten met sanctiebedreigingen ingeval van een reeds verdachte burger slechts op twee manieren te verenigen zijn met "the right not to incriminate onself" ex art. 6 EVRM:

(i) vanaf het moment van redelijke verdenking (in de zin van art. 27 Sv.) van een fiscaal delict, resp. (bij bestuurlijke beboeting) vanaf het moment van "charge" in de zin van art. 6 EVRM (welk moment in beginsel later ligt dan dat van de redelijke verdenking), stapt de overheid geheel over op het strafvorderlijke scenario, althans zij ziet vanaf dat moment af van het dwingen tot actieve medewerking van de verdachte/belastingplichtige aan de vergaring van mogelijk bezwarend materiaal (dat wil niet zeggen dat de verdachte niets gevraagd mag worden, maar alleen dat niet-medewerking niet bestraft mag worden);

(ii) scheiding van informatiestromen: de overheid kan ook na het moment van de redelijke verdenking/"charge" doorgaan op de bestuursrechtelijke weg, inclusief informatievorderingen met sanctiedreiging, maar zal dan, ingeval van een beroep op het zwijgrecht, aan de verdachte/belastingplichtige moeten toezeggen dat het materiaal dat door middel van de af te dwingen medewerking boven water komt, niet het strafvorderingscircuit in zal stromen. Na een dergelijke rechtens afdwingbare toezegging kan de verdachte/belastingplichtige zich niet meer rechtens relevant op een zwijgrecht beroepen ter zake van de voor de belastingheffing gevraagde informatie, die immers niet voor incriminerende doeleinden gebruikt zal worden. Als na zo'n toezegging nog steeds medewerking geweigerd wordt, kan zulks zonder bezwaar met de gewone sancties bestraft worden, nu immers van "coercion" of "oppression" voor bestraffingsdoeleinden geen sprake is. Ik leid dit laatste met name af uit (...) r.o. 63 van J.B.v. Switzerland.

7.14 De President van het Hof Amsterdam heeft al eens een oplossing gekozen die in de richting gaat van de hierboven onder (ii) geschetste oplossing. Het ging om een

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belastingplichtige die vreesde dat de van hem voor de heffing van belasting gevorderde gegevens doorgegeven zouden worden aan het OM ten behoeve van strafvervolging. Hij eiste (subsidiair) een verbod op doorgifte. De President overwoog als volgt:(29)

"5.1. Verzoeker (...) heeft, samengevat, primair aangevoerd dat aan de inspecteur

een verbod moet worden opgelegd zich bij het uitoefenen van zijn bevoegdheid tot het verzoeken om inlichtingen zodanig op te stellen dat verzoeker zich zelf incrimineert bij de nakoming van zijn verplichting om aan dat verzoek gehoor te geven. Subsidiair houdt het verzoek in het opleggen van een verbod aan de inspecteur om de inlichtingen die verzoeker op verzoek van de inspecteur verstrekt in het kader van de belastingheffing aan te wenden voor, of aan derden te verstrekken ten behoeve van, strafvorderlijk optreden jegens verzoeker. Meer subsidiair houdt het verzoek tot een voorlopige voorziening in dat het Hof zodanige maatregelen treft dat verzoeker aan zijn uit de belastingwet voortvloeiende verplichtingen kan voldoen zonder zichzelf daardoor bloot te stellen aan strafvervolging.

(...)

6.1. Verzoeker heeft jarenlang niet of nauwelijks aangifte gedaan en de stellingen van verzoeker zijn nogal ongewoon. De President acht het instellen van een nauwkeurig onderzoek vanwege de inspecteur daarom geboden.

6.2. De inspecteur heeft uitdrukkelijk ontkend dat het verzoek om de gegevens en inlichtingen te verstrekken wordt gedaan in het kader van een strafrechtelijk onderzoek. De President heeft onvoldoende redenen om daaraan te twijfelen.

6.3. Verzoeker heeft tegenover de politie verklaard dat geen sprake is van geld met een criminele oorsprong en verzoeker is daarop niet teruggekomen, zodat niet valt in te zien waarom verstrekking van de verzochte gegevens en inlichtingen achterwege zou moeten blijven. Het is de taak van de inspecteur om vervolgens een onderzoek te doen instellen naar de juistheid van de verstrekte inlichtingen en gegevens en de consequenties daarvan. De President is daartoe onvoldoende geëquipeerd zodat een beoordeling van de te verstrekken inlichtingen en gegevens en eventueel een onderzoek vanwege de rechter een uitzondering moet blijven. Voor zo'n uitzondering ziet de President in dit geval onvoldoende aanleiding.

6.4. De vraag of al dan niet het Openbaar Ministerie of de politie moet worden ingelicht omtrent de bevindingen kan pas na verstrekking van de gegevens en inlichtingen, en eventueel het onderzoek, worden beantwoord. Daarbij zal zo nodig een afweging van belangen moeten plaatsvinden.

6.5. De President acht het geboden dat de inspecteur te zijner tijd verzoeker op de hoogte stelt van een eventueel voornemen de justitiële autoriteiten in te lichten zodat verzoeker in dat stadium al dan niet in rechte oppositie kan voeren. Aannemende dat de inspecteur deze voorwaarde ook zonder dwangsom zal respecteren (...)."

Deze (tussen)oplossing houdt in dat de meewerkplicht blijft bestaan, ook zonder toezegging dat de onder dwang verkregen gegevens niet voor bestraffing gebruikt zullen worden, maar dat de fiscus een eventueel voornemen om de gegevens voor bestraffing te gaan (doen) gebruiken, aan de belanghebbende meegedeeld moet worden alvorens

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het uitgevoerd wordt, opdat de belanghebbende de gelegenheid heeft een rechterlijk verbod te halen."

Uw derde kamer verwierp het beroep van de verdachte/belastingplichtige op art. 6 EVRM:

"3.3.4. De omstandigheid dat ten tijde van de vragen van de Inspecteur een strafvervolging tegen belanghebbende was ingesteld, onthief hem niet van de in artikel 47 AWR neergelegde, voor een ieder geldende verplichtingen tot informatieverstrekking ten behoeve van de belastingheffing te zijnen aanzien. De vraag of, en zo ja in hoeverre, van aldus verkregen gegevens gebruik mag worden gemaakt in een strafzaak of bij het opleggen van een verhoging of boete, is in de onderhavige belastingprocedure niet aan de orde. Die vraag komt pas aan de orde bij 'the determination of a criminal charge' in de zin van artikel 6 EVRM tegen de betrokkene. Indien belanghebbende de gevraagde informatie had verstrekt, zou die vraag in de aanhangige strafzaak beantwoord hebben moeten worden. In de onderhavige belastingprocedure is geen sprake noch sprake geweest van een strafsanctie in deze zin - onder de toepasselijke wetgeving kon geen boete worden opgelegd -, terwijl de uit artikel 29 (oud) in verbinding met artikel 47 AWR voortvloeiende omkering en verzwaring van de bewijslast geen strafsanctie vormen, maar een dwangmiddel van administratiefrechtelijke aard dat is gericht op het bevorderen van juiste en volledige aangiften (vgl. HR 8 juli 1998, nr. 32 417, BNB 1998/326) of, in een geval als het onderhavige, op het bevorderen van medewerking van de belastingplichtige bij het onderzoek door de inspecteur naar de feiten die van belang zijn voor een juiste belastingheffing te zijnen aanzien."

De zaak J.B. v Switzerland maakte dat voor uw derde kamer niet anders omdat van J.B., anders dan van de betrokkene, de informatie niet werd gevraagd "met het enkele doel een juiste belastingheffing te verzekeren." Omdat het bij de betrokkene in de litigieuze belastingprocedure uitsluitend om belastingheffing ging (een fiscale boete was niet opgelegd en kon ook niet opgelegd worden), achtte u niet relevant of de gevraagde informatie al dan niet Saunders-materiaal was, hoewel de betrokkene wél strafrechtelijk vervolgd werd ter zake van dezelfde feiten die van belang waren voor de belastingheffing. Uw derde kamer verwierp expliciet de benadering in onderdeel 7.13 van de conclusie (dus geen procedurele garanties voor de betrokkene):

"3.3.5. Aan hetgeen hiervoor is overwogen, doet niet af dat het EHRM in (...) J.B. tegen Zwitserland, BNB 2002/26, heeft geoordeeld dat in die zaak het uit artikel 6 EVRM voortvloeiende recht zichzelf niet te behoeven incrimineren was geschonden doordat 'it appears that the authorities were attempting to compel the applicant to submit documents which would have provided information as to his income in view of the assessment of his taxes', terwijl J.B. 'could not exclude that any additional income which transpired from these documents from untaxed sources could have constituted the offence of tax evasion' (§ 66). In die zaak ging het immers - anders dan in de onderhavige -(mede) om 'the determination of a criminal charge' tegen de betrokkene: volgens het Hof was sprake van een procedure die 'served the various purposes of establishing the taxes due by the applicant and, if the conditions herefor were met, of imposing a supplementary tax and a fine for tax evasion on him' (§ 47) en was niet de

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vraag aan de orde of een staat een belastingplichtige kan verplichten informatie te geven met het enkele doel een juiste belastingheffing te verzekeren (§ 63 slot). Mede gelet op de in de conclusie van de Advocaat-Generaal onder 5.12 vermelde rechtspraak(30) over die bevoegdheid van de staten, wettigen deze overwegingen niet de gevolgtrekking dat de algemene verplichting van belastingplichtigen tot het verstrekken van informatie alleen geldt als aan de betrokkene tevoren de garantie wordt gegeven dat die informatie niet zal worden gebruikt als bewijsmiddel in een strafvervolging tegen hem. Met het opleggen van die verplichting wordt immers geen afbreuk gedaan aan de rechten die de belastingplichtige tegen wie een strafvervolging is of (mogelijk) zal worden ingesteld, aan het EVRM kan ontlenen, met name niet aan het recht om zichzelf niet te behoeven incrimineren. Met het voldoen aan die verplichting wordt geen afstand gedaan van een beroep op dat recht tegenover de rechter die bevoegd is ter zake van de 'criminal charge', indien informatie, verstrekt ter voldoening aan die verplichting, aan die rechter zou worden gepresenteerd.

3.3.6. In de onderhavige zaak kan derhalve in het midden blijven of, zoals het Hof heeft geoordeeld en het middel bestrijdt, de van belanghebbende gevraagde informatie 'onafhankelijk van zijn wil bestond', zoals bedoeld in de zaak Saunders (EHRM 17 december 1996, BNB 1997/254 ). Artikel 6 EVRM verzet zich niet tegen de door het Hof aan de artikelen 29, lid 1 (oud) [omkering bewijslast; PJW], en 47 AWR gegeven toepassing. Het middel kan niet tot cassatie leiden."

6.11 Shannon was voorzitter van de Irish Republican Felons Club. Hij werd door een financieel rechercheur opgeroepen om opheldering te komen geven over de financiën van deze club. Tegen hem werd daarnaast een strafvorderlijk onderzoek ingesteld wegens 'false accounting' en organisatie van fraude. Shannon's advocaat vroeg de autoriteiten om een schriftelijke garantie dat als Shannon zou verschijnen en verklaren, zijn verklaring niet in een strafzaak tegen hem zelf zou worden gebruikt. Die garantie kreeg hij niet, waarop Shannon niet verscheen. Voor dat niet-verschijnen werd hij vervolgens vervolgd en veroordeeld. Voor de 'false accounting' en organisatie van fraude daarentegen volgde geen strafvervolging. Met verwijzing naar Funke (zie 6.2) achtte het Hof deze gang van zaken unaniem in strijd met art. 6 EVRM:(31)

"33. The underlying proceedings in the present case - the prosecution for false accounting and conspiracy to defraud - were never pursued. The Government conclude from this that the right not to incriminate oneself cannot be at issue in the present case because in the event, there were no substantive proceedings in which the evidence could have been used in an incriminating way.

34. The Court recalls that in previous cases it has expressly found that there is no requirement that allegedly incriminating evidence obtained by coercion actually be used in criminal proceedings before the right not to incriminate oneself applies. In particular, in Heaney and McGuinness (cited above; §§ 43-46), it found that the applicants could rely on Article 6 §§ 1 and 2 in respect of their conviction and imprisonment for failing to reply to questions, even though they were subsequently acquitted of the underlying offence. Indeed, in Funke, the Court found a violation of the right not to incriminate oneself even though no underlying proceedings were brought, and by the time of the Strasbourg proceedings none could be (cited above, §§ 39, 40).

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35. It is thus open to the applicant to complain of an interference with his right not to incriminate himself, even though no self-incriminating evidence (or reliance on a failure to provide information) was used in other, substantive criminal proceedings.

(...)

40. Secondly, the Court notes that information obtained from the applicant at interview could have been used at a subsequent criminal trial if he had relied on evidence inconsistent with it. Such use would have deprived the applicant of the right to determine what evidence he wished to put before the trial court, and could have amounted to 'resort to evidence obtained through methods of coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused'. (...). It is true, as the Government note, that the applicant might not have been tried, and that even if he had, it would have been open to the trial judge to exclude the information obtained at interview. Both of those points, however, depend on the evidence actually being used in subsequent proceedings, whereas it is clear from the case-law referred to above that there is no need for proceedings even to be brought for the right not to incriminate oneself to be at issue."

Shannon past dus in het rijtje Funke, Heaney and McGuinnes en J.B. v Switzerland: dreiging met of oplegging van sancties bij niet-meewerken aan een onderzoek dat - al dan niet mede - gericht is op strafvervolging van de gevorderde, is onverenigbaar met een fair hearing. Uit de laatst geciteerde zinsnede blijkt dat deze schending van art. 6 EVRM tijdens een dergelijk (mede) op strafvordering gericht onderzoek niet weggenomen wordt door de bevoegdheid van de trial judge in de eventuele uiteindelijke strafprocedure om zijns inziens unfair afgedwongen bewijsmateriaal alsnog buiten beschouwing te laten. Het doet immers niet ter zake of daadwerkelijk strafvervolging volgt; de dwang tijdens het strafvorderlijke onderzoek is op zichzelf en reeds op dat moment ontoelaatbaar.

6.12 In de Duitse zaak Jalloh(32) oordeelde het EHRM met elf tegen zes dat art. 6(1) EVRM was geschonden door dwanguitoefening jegens de verdachte, hoewel het gedwongen afgestane materiaal als Saunders-materiaal beschouwd zou kunnen worden. Ik meen dat dit de hierboven (6.7) getrokken conclusie steunt dat pas van Saunders-materiaal sprake is als het materiaal niet alleen reeds bestaat op het moment van opvorderen ('real evidence'; zie para. 58 in het citaat hieronder), maar de autoriteiten er ook zonder significante dwang jegens de verdachte (met hoogstens dwangmiddeluitoefening onder duldplicht) de beschikking over kunnen krijgen. De Duitse politie verdacht Jalloh van drugshandel. Toen zij hem wilde vatten, slikte hij iets in. Na zijn aanhouding werd hem tegen zijn wil, terwijl hij door vier man in bedwang moest worden gehouden, door een arts via een slang in zijn neus een eerste braakmiddel en een zoutoplossing toegediend, en vervolgens via injectie een tweede braakmiddel. Jalloh gaf inderdaad een bolletje drugs op. Hij werd veroordeeld tot een half jaar voorwaardelijk. Het bolletje werd tot in hoogste instantie toegelaten als bewijs. Jalloh klaagde dat zijn behandeling, die eerder al tot twee sterfgevallen had geleid, het verbod op gedwongen zelfincriminatie schond. Het EHRM overwoog:

"113. In the Court's view, the (...) drugs hidden in the applicant's body which were obtained by the forcible administration of emetics, could be considered to fall into the category of material having an existence independent of the will of the suspect, the use

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of which is generally not prohibited in criminal proceedings. However, there are several elements which distinguish the present case from the examples listed in Saunders. Firstly, as with the impugned measures in the Funke and J.B. v. Switzerland cases, the administration of emetics was used to retrieve real evidence in defiance of the applicant's will. Conversely, the bodily material listed in the Saunders case concerned material obtained by coercion for forensic examination with a view to detecting, for example, the presence of alcohol or drugs.

114. Secondly, the degree of force used in the present case differs significantly from the degree of compulsion normally required to obtain the types of material referred to in the Saunders case. To obtain such material, a defendant is requested to endure passively a minor interference with his physical integrity (for example when blood or hair samples or bodily tissue are taken). Even if the defendant's active participation is required, it can be seen from Saunders that this concerns material produced by the normal functioning of the body (such as, for example, breath, urine or voice samples). In contrast, compelling the applicant in the instant case to regurgitate the evidence sought required the forcible introduction of a tube through his nose and the administration of a substance so as to provoke a pathological reaction in his body. As noted earlier, this procedure was not without risk to the applicant's health.

115. Thirdly, the evidence in the present case was obtained by means of a procedure which violated Article 3 [folterverbod; PJW]. The procedure used in the applicant's case is in striking contrast to procedures for obtaining, for example, a breath test or a blood sample. Procedures of the latter kind do not, unless in exceptional circumstances, attain the minimum level of severity so as to contravene Article 3. Moreover, though constituting an interference with the suspect's right to respect for private life, these procedures are, in general, justified under Article 8 § 2 as being necessary for the prevention of criminal offences (see, inter alia, Tirado Ortiz and Lozano Martin, cited above).

(...)

117. In order to determine whether the applicant's right not to incriminate himself has been violated, the Court will have regard, in turn, to the following factors: the nature and degree of compulsion used to obtain the evidence; the weight of the public interest in the investigation and punishment of the offence at issue; the existence of any relevant safeguards in the procedure; and the use to which any material so obtained is put.

118. As regards the nature and degree of compulsion used to obtain the evidence (...). This treatment was found to be inhuman and degrading and therefore to violate Article 3.

119. As regards the weight of the public interest in using the evidence to secure the applicant's conviction, (...), the public interest in securing the applicant's conviction could not justify recourse to such a grave interference with his physical and mental integrity.

120. Turning to the existence of relevant safeguards in the procedure, (...). Although it can be said that domestic law did in general provide for safeguards against arbitrary or improper use of the measure, the applicant, relying on his right to remain silent, refused to submit to a prior medical examination. He could only communicate in broken English, which meant that he was subjected to the procedure without a full examination of his physical aptitude to withstand it.

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121. As to the use to which the evidence obtained was put, the Court reiterates that the drugs obtained following the administration of the emetics were the decisive evidence in his conviction for drug-trafficking. It is true that the applicant was given and took the opportunity to oppose the use at his trial of this evidence. However, (...), any possible discretion the national courts may have had to exclude the evidence could not come into play, as they considered the impugned treatment to be authorised by national law."

Na Funke, Heaney and McGuinness, J.B. v Switzerland en Shannon lijkt het Hof wel erg veel tekst nodig te hebben om tot deze beslissing te komen, hoewel duidelijk is dat de tegen Jalloh's wil uitgeoefende dwang veel verder ging (zelfs het folterverbod werd immers overtreden) dan die tegen Funke en J.B., in wier zaken het Hof toch reeds in strijd met art. 6 EVRM achtte een boete-oplegging wegens niet-meewerken aan verkrijging van reeds bestaand bewijsmateriaal (documenten). Dat zit hem kennelijk in de aard van het materiaal in de zaak Jalloh. Bloed, wangslijm, haren én ingeslikte voorwerpen bestaan immers onafhankelijk van de wil van de verdachte ('real evidence'), én de autoriteiten kunnen er in beginsel de hand op leggen zonder de verdachte te dwingen tot actieve medewerking: in beginsel is een dulden (passief ondergaan) van dwangmiddelen voldoende. Als Jalloh een bolletje in zijn maag zou blijken te hebben, zou immers niet aan de betrouwbaarheid en het bestaan van dat bewijsmateriaal getwijfeld kunnen worden en zou dat bestaan en die betrouwbaarheid geheel onafhankelijk van Jalloh's wil vastgesteld kunnen worden. De autoriteiten hadden kunnen wachten tot het bolletje langs natuurlijke weg Jalloh's lichaam zou hebben verlaten(33) en hadden het dus zonder enige, laat staan actieve, medewerking van Jalloh in beslag kunnen nemen. Het bolletje was dus Saunders-materiaal, en de opvordering/verkrijging ervan viel dus - volgens 's Hofs eigen Saunders-regel - in beginsel geheel buiten de reikwijdte van de vrijwaring tegen gedwongen medewerking aan verkrijging van bewijsmateriaal. Dat zou in casu echter een volstrekt onaanvaardbaar resultaat zijn, nu de autoriteiten als gevolg van hun ongeduld of efficiency-denken een volstrekt excessief dwangmiddel gebruikten (Jalloh in wezen een foltering deden ondergaan). Hoewel het dus om Saunders-materiaal ging, was deze dwang tot dulden (in feite een foltering) toch ongeoorloofd (moest deze plicht tot dulden van lichaamsinvasief ingrijpen gelijk gesteld worden met gedwongen actieve medewerking aan verkrijging van belastend bewijs). Zo extreem ver als de Duitse autoriteiten bij Jalloh gingen, strekt de duldplicht van een verdachte bij bewijsverkrijging niet.

6.13 O'Halloran en Francis werden door het VK strafrechtelijk vervolgd nadat politiecamera's snelheidsovertredingen hadden vastgelegd, begaan met hun auto's. De politie vroeg hen de bestuurders bekend te maken. O'Halloran verklaarde dat hij zelf achter het stuur had gezeten, maar verzette zich tegen het gebruik van deze verklaring voor het bewijs van de overtreding. Francis weigerde te zeggen wie de auto had bestuurd. O'Halloran werd veroordeeld voor de snelheidsovertreding en Francis voor de informatieweigering. Het EHRM gaf in hun zaken een opsomming van zijn eerdere rechtspraak en herhaalde dat de aard en intensiteit van de dwang om mee te werken relevant is voor de vraag of het recht op vrijwaring tegen gedwongen zelfincriminatie is geschonden. Het Hof onderscheidde in dat opzicht hun zaken van die van Funke en J.B., jegens wie de dwang aanzienlijk ernstiger geoordeeld werd. Hun zaken hadden met de

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zaak Allen (zie 6.9) gemeen dat de weigering een verklaring af te leggen op zichzelf strafbaar was gesteld (§ 61). Hij achtte (15 tegen 2) art. 6 EVRM niet geschonden:(34)

"56. The nature and degree of the compulsion used to obtain the evidence in the case of Mr O'Halloran, or to attempt to obtain the evidence in the case of Mr Francis, were set out in the Notice of Intended Prosecution each applicant received. They were informed that, as registered keepers of their vehicles, they were required to provide the full name and address of the driver at the time and on the occasion specified. They were each informed that failure to provide the information was a criminal offence under section 172 of the Road Traffic Act 1988. The penalty for failure by the applicants to give information was a fine of up to GBP 1,000, and disqualification from driving or an endorsement of three penalty points on their driving licence.

57. The Court accepts that the compulsion was of a direct nature, as was the compulsion in other cases in which fines were threatened or imposed for failure to provide information. In the present case, the compulsion was imposed in the context of section 172 of the Road Traffic Act, which imposes a specific duty on the registered keeper of a vehicle to give information about the driver of the vehicle in certain circumstances. The Court notes that although both the compulsion and the underlying offences were "criminal" in nature, the compulsion flowed from the fact, (...), that (...) Those who choose to keep and drive motor cars can be taken to have accepted certain responsibilities and obligations as part of the regulatory regime relating to motor vehicles, and in the legal framework of the United Kingdom, these responsibilities include the obligation, in the event of suspected commission of road traffic offences, to inform the authorities of the identity of the driver on that occasion.

58. A further aspect of the compulsion applied in the present cases is the limited nature of the inquiry which the police were authorised to undertake. Section 172 (2)(a) applies only where the driver of the vehicle is alleged to have committed a relevant offence, and authorises the police to require information only "as to the identity of the driver". The information is thus markedly more restricted than in previous cases, in which applicants have been subjected to statutory powers requiring production of "papers and documents of any kind relating to operations of interest to [the] department" (Funke, referred to above, § 30), or of "documents etc. which might be relevant for the assessment of taxes" (J.B v. Switzerland, cited above, § 39). In the case of Heaney and McGuinness the applicants were required to give a "full account of [their] movements and actions during any specified period ..." (...), and in that of Shannon, information could be sought (with only a limited legal professional privilege restriction) on any matter which appeared to the investigator to relate to the investigation (see reference at § 23 of the Shannon judgment referred to above). (...). [The Court] noted that the requirement to state a simple fact - who had been the driver of the car - was not in itself incriminating (...). Further, (...), section 172 does not sanction prolonged questioning about facts alleged to give rise to criminal offences, and the penalty for declining to answer is "moderate and non-custodial".

59. The Court in the case of Jalloh referred to the existence of relevant safeguards in the procedure. (...), the Court notes that (...) no offence is committed under section 172(2)(a) if the keeper of the vehicle shows that he did not know and could not with reasonable diligence have known who the driver of the vehicle was. The offence is thus not one of strict liability, and the risk of unreliable admissions is negligible.

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60. As to the use to which the statements were put, Mr O'Halloran's statement that he was the driver of his car was admissible as evidence of that fact (...), and he was duly convicted of speeding. (...). It remained for the prosecution to prove the offence beyond reasonable doubt in ordinary proceedings, including protection against the use of unreliable evidence and evidence obtained by oppression or other improper means (but not including a challenge to the admissibility of the statement under section 172), and the defendant could give evidence and call witnesses if he wished. (...), the identity of the driver is only one element in the offence of speeding, and there is no question of a conviction arising in the underlying proceedings in respect solely of the information obtained as a result of section 172(2)(a).

61. As Mr Francis refused to make a statement, it could not be used in the underlying proceedings, and indeed the underlying proceedings were never pursued. The question of the use of the statements in criminal proceedings did not arise, as his refusal to make a statement was not used as evidence: it constituted the offence itself (see Allen v. the United Kingdom (dec.), no. 76574/01, ECHR 2002-VIII).

62. Having regard to all the circumstances of the case, including the special nature of the regulatory regime at issue and the limited nature of the information sought by a notice under section 172 of the Road Traffic Act 1988, the Court considers that the essence of the applicants' right to remain silent and their privilege against self-incrimination has not been destroyed.

63. Accordingly, there has been no violation of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention."

6.14 HR BNB 2008/159(35) betrof een KB Lux-zaak waarin voor de belastingheffing van de belastingplichtige opgevraagd materiaal ook gebruikt werd voor diens bestuurlijke beboeting. Uw derde kamer achtte art. 6 EVRM niet geschonden en overwoog daarbij uitdrukkelijk en in afwijking van de conclusie dat daaraan niet afdeed dat de belastingplichtige actief moest meewerken aan de verschaffing van hem belastende documenten door overlegging van stukken:

"3.3.2. (...). Gelet op het arrest Saunders staat artikel 6, lid 1, EVRM niet eraan in de weg dat ook in het kader van de beoordeling van de boete-oplegging rekening wordt gehouden met (...) door de inspecteur ten behoeve van de vaststelling van de belastingschuld opgevraagde bescheiden, indien deze door de belastingplichtige zijn verstrekt. Hieraan doet niet af dat enige actieve participatie van de belastingplichtige - in het onderwerpelijke geval in de vorm van toezending van de stukken - is vereist (vgl. ook EHRM 11 juli 2006, Jalloh v. Duitsland, NJ 2007, 226, onderdeel 59).

3.3.3. Opmerking verdient voorts dat bij de beoordeling of het recht van belanghebbende om zich niet te incrimineren is geëerbiedigd, ook de aard en mate van uitgeoefende dwang een rol spelen (zie EHRM 5 november 2002, Allan v. VK, NJ 2004, 262, de eerdergenoemde uitspraak Jalloh v. Duitsland, en EHRM 29 juni 2007, O'Halloran en Francis v. VK, NJ 2008, 25). In het onderhavige geval zijn de stukken met gegevens feitelijk verstrekt nadat de Inspecteur in correspondentie had gewezen op de gevolgen die de wet verbindt aan het niet verschaffen van inlichtingen in het kader van de heffing van belastingen. De Inspecteur behoefde geen gehoor te geven aan de eenzijdige mededeling van belanghebbende dat de gegevens alleen in dat kader werden verstrekt. Zelfs indien ervan zou worden uitgegaan dat gebruikmaking van die gegevens voor de

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boeteoplegging meebrengt dat de mededeling van de Inspecteur omtrent de gevolgen van weigering mede moet worden opgevat als uitgeoefende dwang in het kader van mogelijke boeteoplegging, kan immers nog niet worden gezegd dat de enkele verwijzing naar mogelijk op te leggen wettelijke sancties neerkomt op een 'coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused' in de zin van de rechtspraak van het EHRM."

Ik meen(36) dat deze beslissing op gespannen voet staat met de oordelen van het EHRM in de zaken Funke, Saunders, J.B. v. Zwitserland en Shannon en inmiddels ook Chambaz (zie onderdeel 7 hieronder).

6.15 De Fin Marttinen ging failliet en werd verdacht van crediteursbenadeling en bedrieglijke bankbreuk. Terwijl een strafrechtelijk vooronderzoek gaande was, werd hem in een tegelijk lopende schuldverhaalsprocedure door de Finse autoriteiten gelast informatie over zijn vermogen te geven. Hij weigerde, omdat beide procedures dezelfde feiten betroffen en medewerking zijn zwijgrecht in de strafzaak illusoir zou maken. Daarop werd hem een bestuurlijke boete ad FIM 200.000 (€ 33.638) opgelegd wegens informatieweigering,(37) waartegen hij vergeefs verweer voerde. Terwijl de schuldverhaalsprocedure aanhangig was in hoger beroep, kwamen Marttinen en zijn schuldeisers tot een akkoord. Dat deed echter niet af aan de opgelegde boete. Voor het EHRM was onduidelijk of het tot een strafvervolging wegens crediteursbenadeling was gekomen, maar dat achtte het EHRM niet relevant, evenmin als het akkoord, nu aan Marttinen wel een gehandhaafde 'criminal' boete was opgelegd wegens niet-meewerken. Hij oordeelde vervolgens unaniem dat art. 6 EVRM geschonden was, hoewel financiële informatieverstrekkingsverplichtingen, bijvoorbeeld voor fiscale doeleinden, op zichzelf een normaal en noodzakelijk onderdeel zijn van de rechtsorde van de lidstaten:(38)

"67. The applicable principles have been outlined in, for example, the case of O'Halloran and Francis v. the United Kingdom (...).

68. Obligations to inform the authorities are a common feature of the Contracting States' legal orders and may concern a wide range of issues (see for instance, regarding the obligation to reveal one's identity to the police in certain situations, Vasileva v. Denmark, no. 52792/99, § 34, 25 September 2003) or to produce information for the purposes of taxation (see Allen v. the United Kingdom, cited above). The obligation to disclose income and capital for the purposes of the calculation and assessment of tax, for example, is a common feature of the taxation systems of Contracting States and it would be difficult to envisage them functioning effectively without it.

69. As to a justification for the coercive measures imposed on the applicant in the debt recovery procedure, the Court points out that not all coercive measures give rise to the conclusion of an unjustified interference with the right not to incriminate oneself. In Saunders, for example, the Court listed types of material which exist independently of the will of a suspect and which fall outside the scope of the right (such as documents acquired pursuant to a warrant, breath, blood, DNA and urine samples (...)). In other cases, where no proceedings (other than the "coercive" proceedings) were pending or anticipated, the Court found no violation of the right not to incriminate oneself (see the Weh judgment and the Allen decision, both cited above).

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(...).

71. (...) While it is not for the Court to speculate about whether or not the applicant's assets were the same at the material time as during the period from 1994 to 1997, the applicant could not rule out that, if it transpired from his declaration that he had assets which had not been declared in the previous enforcement inquiries and bankruptcy proceedings, he might be charged with the offence of debtor's fraud (compare J.B. v. Switzerland, no. 31827/96, § 66, ECHR 2001-III).

72. The Government pointed out that the obligation to provide information in the enforcement inquiry should be considered against the background of the protection by the provisions on confidentiality of any incriminating information received. The Court notes that it is true that the Bailiff was bound by professional secrecy. However, it is not apparent that the creditors applying for enforcement were prohibited from using any information received to their personal benefit in the pending criminal proceedings. Thus, the application of the Openness of Government Activities Act could not change the choice presented by Chapter 3, section 34(d), of the Enforcement Act: either the applicant provided the information requested or he faced the imposition of an administrative fine. The Court also notes that the Government did not refer to any domestic case-law which would have authoritatively excluded the later admission in evidence against the applicant of any statements made by him in the enforcement inquiry.

73. Accordingly, the Court finds that the "degree of compulsion" imposed on the applicant by the application of Chapter 3, section 34(d), of the Enforcement Act with a view to compelling him to provide information in the enforcement inquiry destroyed the very essence of his privilege against self-incrimination and his right to remain silent as a pre-trial investigation had been opened against him and both the enforcement procedure and the pre-trial investigation concerned the same facts (compare Shannon v. United Kingdom, cited above, § 41)."

De schending kon niet gerechtvaardigd worden door de noodzaak van een effectieve schuldverhaalsprocedure; een wetswijziging die voorzag in uitsluiting van gebruik van onder dwang verkregen verklaringen in een (parallelle) strafprocedure kwam voor Martinnen te laat:

"75. The Court (...) finds that the concerns for the effective functioning of the debt recovery procedure relied on by the Finnish Government cannot justify a provision which extinguishes the very essence of the applicant's rights to silence and against self-incrimination guaranteed by the Convention. This was the situation in the applicant's case at the material time. The mechanism introduced by a subsequent amendment to the legislation prohibiting the use of incriminating information in order to circumvent provisions on testimony or in order to have the debtor charged with a criminal offence, came too late for the applicant (...).

76. The Court concludes, therefore, that there has been a violation of the applicant's right to silence and his right not to incriminate himself guaranteed by Article 6 § 1 of the Convention."

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Mijn ambtgenoot Niessen wijst er in een momenteel bij uw derde kamer aanhangige KB Lux-zaak(39) dan ook terecht op dat noch "the effective functioning of the debt recovery procedure" (§ 75) noch "the complexity of corporate fraud and the vital public interest in the investigation of such fraud and the punishment of those responsible" (§ 74 Saunders) een rechtvaardiging is voor een essentiële inbreuk op het verbod van gedwongen zelfincriminatie.

6.16 U heeft reeds geoordeeld over de oplegging van een dwangsom tot realisering van de fiscale meewerkplicht ex art. 47 AWR in verhouding tot het strafvorderlijke zwijgrecht ex art. 6 EVRM, in het kader van de KBLux-affaire, in HR NJ 2009, 566, BNB 2010/21.(40) De eiser tot cassatie had in 2007 tegenover de fiscus desgevorderd verklaard dat hij in 1993 een rekening had geopend bij een bank in Luxemburg en dat het saldo nihil bedroeg. Hij verstrekte echter niet de overige van hem gevraagde gegevens. De voorzieningenrechter veroordeelde hem die gegevens alsnog te verstrekken op straffe van verbeurte van een dwangsom, welke veroordeling door het Hof Amsterdam werd bekrachtigd. De eiser klaagde (ook) in cassatie onder meer, net als de eiser in de thans te beoordelen zaak, dat de dwangsom zijn rechten ex art. 6 EVRM ontoelaatbaar schond. U verwierp zijn beroep:

"3.4.4. Voor zover het middel ertoe strekt erover te klagen dat het hof ten onrechte heeft geoordeeld dat het verbod op zelfincriminatie hier niet is geschonden, faalt het. Het oordeel van het hof is juist. Het gaat in de onderhavige zaak niet om het vergaren van gegevens ten behoeve van strafvervolging of bestuurlijke boete-oplegging, maar om het verkrijgen van bestaande bankgegevens ten behoeve van een juiste belastingheffing, tot het verschaffen van welke gegevens [eiser] wettelijk is verplicht. De mogelijkheid van toekomstig gebruik van de langs de weg van de onderhavige vordering verkregen gegevens ten dienste van bestuurlijke beboeting of strafvervolging, staat niet eraan in de weg dat door middel van een dwangsom nakoming van [eisers] verplichting tot het verstrekken van de onderhavige - onafhankelijk van zijn wil bestaande - gegevens wordt afgedwongen. De vraag of, en zo ja in hoeverre, van de aldus verkregen gegevens later gebruik mag worden gemaakt in een strafzaak of bij het opleggen van een verhoging of boete, is in de onderhavige civiele kort-geding-procedure niet aan de orde. Die vraag komt pas aan de orde in een strafrechtelijke of fiscale procedure waarin de 'determination of a criminal charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM tegen [eiser] moet worden beoordeeld. Anders dan [eiser] in de toelichting op het middel heeft aangevoerd, kan dus de enkele omstandigheid dat hij zich reeds als verdachte beschouwde van het in art. 69 AWR strafbaar gestelde feit van het doen van een onjuiste aangifte en dat hij de redelijke verwachting meende te kunnen koesteren dat hem een strafrechtelijke sanctie of fiscale boete zou worden opgelegd, niet meebrengen dat hij '[g]elet op de implicaties van het beginsel van nemo tenetur dan ook gerechtigd [was] niet te voldoen aan het verzoek van de Belastingdienst om de informatie en bescheiden vermeld in het formulier 'Opgaaf in het buitenland aangehouden bankrekening(en)' te verstrekken'."

6.17 De vraag is of er aanleiding bestaat in casu anders te oordelen. Twee mogelijke aanleidingen dienen zich aan: (i) de door de eiser tot cassatie benadrukte feitelijke en procedurele verschillen tussen zijn zaak en de in onderdeel 6.16 geciteerde zaak (onder meer zijn aan hem reeds vergrijpboeten tot aanzienlijke bedragen opgelegd), en (ii) een

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andere interpretatie van de boven geciteerde EHRM-rechtspraak in het licht van het nadien gewezen EHRM-arrest in de zaak Chambaz.

7. Chambaz v Switzerland(41)

7.1 De Zwitser Chambaz, later woonachtig in Bermuda, werd betrokken in diverse Zwitserse procedures inzake belastingontduiking, ook in verband met enige ondernemingen waar hij bij betrokken was, nadat hij in zijn aangifte inkomstenbelasting aftrek had gevraagd van kosten van vermogensbeheer. In 1991 legden de belastingautoriteiten hem een aanslag op in afwijking van zijn aangifte vanwege de groei van zijn vermogen, die niet verklaard kon worden door de door hem verstrekte gegevens. Chambaz maakte bezwaar. Tijdens de bezwaarprocedure werd hem om informatie over zijn vermogen en de herkomst gevraagd, met name over zijn rekeningen bij de S.-bank, die hij weigerde te geven. De belastingautoriteiten legden hem tweemaal een bestuurlijke geldboete op (ad CHF 2.000 (€ 1.440) resp. CHF 3.000 (€ 2.159) om hem te bewegen wél mee te werken. Op het moment van vragen van de informatie was er nog geen sprake van enige procedure wegens belastingontduiking. De procedure bij de bestuursrechter tegen de aanslag en de boeten werd in hoger beroep geschorst om strafrechtelijk onderzoek inzake belastingontduiking in te stellen. Chambaz verzocht om inzage in zijn dossier om zijn verdediging te kunnen voorbereiden, welk verzoek werd afgewezen.(42) Vier jaar nadat hem de geldboetes wegens niet-meewerken waren opgelegd, werd tegen hem daadwerkelijk een procedure wegens belastingontduiking ingezet, die leidde tot navordering van belasting met boete wegens belastingontduiking van meer dan CHF 1 mio. Chambaz klaagde bij het EHRM dat de boete-oplegging wegens niet-meewerken verboden dwang tot zelfincriminatie opleverde. Het EHRM overwoog ook in deze zaak dat de belastingplichtige/verdachte niet kon uitsluiten dat de gevraagde fiscale informatie strafvorderlijk tegen hem zou worden gebruikt. Dat de strafvorderlijke procedure pas vier jaar na de boete-oplegging was ingeleid, deed daar niet aan af omdat de bestuurlijke procedure pas - voor de klager ongunstig - werd afgesloten drie jaar na de opening van de strafprocedure. Verwijzend naar J.B. v Switzerland oordeelde het Hof vijf tegen twee dat art. 6 EVRM was geschonden:

"53. En l'espèce, la Cour relève qu'en infligeant des amendes au requérant, les autorités ont fait pression sur lui pour qu'il leur soumette des documents qui auraient fourni des informations sur son revenu et sa fortune en vue de son imposition, plus particulièrement en ce qui concerne ses comptes auprès de la Banque S. (voir paragraphe 8 ci-dessus). S'il n'appartient pas à la Cour de spéculer sur la nature de ces informations, elle constate que celles-ci sont également mentionnées dans le rapport établi à l'issue de l'enquête pour soustraction d'impôt (voir paragraphe 31 ci-dessus).

54. La Cour observe, par ailleurs, que le requérant ne pouvait exclure que toute information relative à des revenus supplémentaires de sources non imposées l'exposait à être accusé d'avoir commis l'infraction de soustraction d'impôt (J.B. c. Suisse, précité, § 65)(43) et était de nature à compromettre sa position dans l'enquête pour soustraction d'impôts.

55. Le fait que celle-ci ait été ouverte quatre ans plus tard n'est, aux yeux de la Cour, pas déterminant, car au moment où le tribunal administratif a confirmé les décisions

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litigieuses, l'enquête était déjà ouverte depuis un peu moins de trois ans. Dès lors, les décisions des juridictions internes, confirmant les amendes infligées précédemment au requérant, ont eu pour résultat d'obliger le requérant à contribuer à sa propre incrimination."

7.2 Het EHRM overwoog dat de Zwitserse wetgeving pas sinds 1 januari 2008 voorziet in waarborgen dat door belastingplichtigen onder dwang ten behoeve van de heffing verstrekte informatie niet tevens in een strafvorderlijke procedure tegen hen zal worden gebruikt:

"56. De surcroît, la Cour constate que l' article 183 de la loi fédérale sur l 'impôt fédéral direct a été modifié au 1 er janvier 2008, de manière à donner aux personnes faisant l'objet d'une enquête fiscale des garanties suffisantes, dont la garantie que les informations fournies lors d'une procédure purement fiscale ne seront pas utilisées au cours de l'enquête pour soustraction d'impôts."

Het EHRM wees nadrukkelijk op het verschil tussen Chambaz en Allen, vermoedelijk omdat daarover - gezien de inhoud van de twee dissenting opinions (zie hieronder) - binnen de zetel uitgebreid gediscussieerd was:

"57. Finalement, la Cour estime que la situation du requérant se distingue de celle d'un contribuable qui avoue spontanément avoir fraudé le fisc dans l'espoir d'être moins sévèrement puni. A la différence de l'affaire Allen c. Royaume-Uni invoquée, le requérant n'a, en effet, jamais reconnu avoir eu un comportement illégal et s'est prévalu à tous les stades de la procédure de son droit au silence."

7.3 De Sloveense rechter Zupancic week af van de meerderheid. Hij meende dat het verbod op gedwongen zelfincriminatie niet voor de belastingheffing sec behoorde te gelden omdat anders ook de gewone jaarlijkse aangifte als zelfbelastend materiaal zou kunnen worden aangemerkt en een volledige scheiding tussen de heffingsprocedure en de belastingontduiking-beboetingsprocedure niet realistisch is. Ook de Ierse rechter Power-Forde week af van de meerderheid. Volgens haar was de jurisprudentie van het EHRM tot Chambaz niet eenduidig, en zou het aan de Grand Chamber van het Hof moeten zijn om duidelijkheid te scheppen. Kennelijk heeft Zwitserland zich niet tot de Grote Kamer, (mijns inziens terecht) oordelende dat het niet om een 'exceptional case' ging (of het 5-panel van die Kamer heeft het verzoek verworpen),(44) zodat het 7-Kamer-arrest ingevolge art. 43(1) EVRM op 5 juli 2012 definitief is geworden.

7.4 Ik leid uit de omvang van de zetel, de niet-verwijzing naar de Grote Kamer, de inhoud van de meerderheidsbeslissing en de inhoud van de twee dissenting opinions af dat (i) de meerderheid geen inconsistentie met eerdere rechtspraak zag, (ii) de meerderheid het als inmiddels vaste EHRM-rechtspraak beschouwt dat weliswaar het niet-voldoen aan normale verplichtingen ten dienste van de belastingheffing (zoals boekhouding ter inzage geven, aangifte doen en antwoorden op vragen van de inspecteur) met straf bedreigd en vervolgd mag worden, maar dat zodra de om

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medewerking gevraagde belastingplichtige niet kan uitsluiten dat zijn medewerking (mede) strekt tot bewijsverwerving ten dienste van een mogelijke strafvervolging ter zake van dezelfde feiten, zijn weigering om mee te werken niet bestraft mag worden met een hogere geldsanctie dan £ 300 (Allen) à £ 1.000 (O'Halloran and Francis), laat staan een vrijheidsbenemende (custodial) straf, (iii) als de Staten dat onwenselijk vinden (omdat de vermoedelijke belastingontduiker dan straffeloos zou kunnen weigeren zijn wettelijke fiscale verplichtingen na te komen waar de oppassende burger wél onder sanctiedreiging moet meewerken), zij procedurele garanties moeten inbouwen dat de afgedwongen heffingsinformatie niet gebruikt wordt voor substantiëring van een criminal charge ter zake van dezelfde feiten en (iv) dat de meerderheid dit, anders dan de Sloveense rechter, niet onrealistisch of uiterst bezwaarlijk acht voor de uitvoering van de belastingwetgeving. Ik merk ook op dat het arrest niet in het engels beschikbaar is, maar alleen in de taal van de klager (Frans), zodat het EHRM kennelijk een routinezaak, althans geen bijzondere uitspraak zag in zijn arrest.

7.5 Het ziet er niet naar uit dat de soort informatie waar Chambaz naar gevraagd werd, wezenlijk verschilt van de informatie waarnaar de eiser in cassatie gevraagd wordt: Chambaz werd immers gevraagd naar (zie r.o. 53): "ses comptes auprès de la Banque S".

7.6 Ik merk op dat het niet antwoorden op vragen van de Nederlandse belastinginspecteur bedreigd wordt met niet alleen geschatte aanslagen met omkering en verzwaring van de bewijslast in de belastingprocedure (artt. 25(3) en 27(1) AWR), maar ook met een gevangenisstraf van maximaal vier (of zes) jaar en een geldboete (art. 69 AWR), en ook, naar blijkt uit de sub 6.16 geciteerde zaak en de thans te beoordelen zaak, met een dwangsom ad € 2.500 per dag(deel) oplopend tot maximaal € 500.000. Ik merk ten slotte op dat de Nederlandse wetgeving of rechtspraak geen garanties bevat - zoals blijkt uit uw in 6.16 geciteerde arrest en het in 6.10 geciteerde arrest van uw derde kamer - tegen gebruik van onder sanctiedreiging verkregen heffingsinformatie voor beboetings- of strafvervolgingsdoeleinden, althans niet als het om Saunders-materiaal gaat, waaronder u, anders dan kennelijk het EHRM, ook documentary evidence begrijpt, ongeacht de toegankelijkheid, achterhaalbaarheid of inbeslagneembaarheid ervan voor de autoriteiten.

8. Nederlandse rechtspraak na Chambaz

8.1 Diverse Nederlandse rechters hebben zich sindsdien uitgelaten over de boven gestelde vraag of Chambaz ertoe noopt terug te komen op uw en uw derde kamers 'doorschuif'-leer, inhoudende dat in de civiele en de fiscale procedure - kort gezegd - niet geklaagd kan worden over nemo tenetur, omdat eventueel strafvorderlijk gebruik van het afgedwongen controlemateriaal niet ter beoordeling staat van de rechter die gaat over de nakoming van de meewerkverplichtingen of de hoogte van de aanslag, maar alleen van de rechter die over de beboeting of vervolging van de vermoede fiscale fraude gaat.

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8.2 Het Hof Den Haag(45) moest onlangs oordelen over het volgende: de Belastingdienst had van een tipgever gegevens verkregen over een groot aantal buitenlandse bankrekeningen van Nederlandse belastingplichtigen. Die dienst startte daarop een project "Derde Categorie", dat onder meer leidde tot identificatie van 69 belastingplichtigen met vermoedelijk een verzwegen rekening bij Rabobank Luxembourg. De fiscus vorderde ex art. 47 AWR van hen informatie over de buitenlandse bankrekeningen. Ter zake van 61 van hen kwam vast te staan dat de informatie van de tipgever klopte. De overige acht weigerden, ondanks informatiebeschikkingen ex art. 52a AWR waarbij hen omkering en verzwaring van de bewijslast werd aangezegd, informatie te verstrekken, of zij ontkenden een rekening (gehad) te hebben. De fiscus legde navorderingsaanslagen en fiscaal-bestuurlijke boeten op, deels gebaseerd op een schatting. Hiertegen gingen de aangeslagenen in bezwaar. De bezwaarprocedures lopen nog, voor zover ik kan nagaan. Daarnaast vorderden de aangeslagenen voor de voorzieningenrechter op straffe van verbeurte van een dwangsom overlegging door de Staat van de op hun zaak betrekking hebbende stukken waarvan de geheimhoudingskamer van de Rechtbank Arnhem al had geoordeeld dat zich geen zwaarwegende redenen voor geheimhouding voordeden. In reconventie eiste de Staat op zijn beurt nakoming van hun meewerkverplichtingen ex art. 47 AWR, eveneens op straffe van een dwangsom. Op het hoger beroep tegen het voor de aangeslagenen negatieve vonnis van de voorzieningenrechter overwoog het Hof Den Haag dat Chambaz niet afdoet aan uw in 8.1 samengevatte rechtspraak, zodat de gevorderden zonder meer moesten meewerken aan de verkrijging van de voor de belastingheffing relevante bankgegevens:

"17. (...), gaat het bij de onderhavige vordering van de Staat niet om het vergaren van gegevens ten behoeve van strafvervolging of bestuurlijke boete-oplegging, maar om het verkrijgen van bankgegevens - de Belastingdienst vermoedt terecht dat deze bestaan - ten behoeve van een juiste belastingheffing, tot het verschaffen van welke gegevens [de belanghebbenden] wettelijk verplicht zijn. De mogelijkheid van toekomstig gebruik van de langs de weg van de onderhavige vordering verkregen gegevens ten dienste van strafvervolging of bestuurlijke boete-oplegging, staat niet eraan in de weg dat door middel van een dwangsom nakoming van de verplichting van [de belanghebbenden] tot het verstrekken van de onderhavige informatie wordt afgedwongen. De vraag of, en zo ja in hoeverre, van de aldus verkregen gegevens later gebruik mag worden gemaakt in een strafzaak of bij het opleggen van een bestuurlijke boete, is in de onderhavige civiele kort-geding-procedure niet aan de orde. Die vraag komt pas aan de orde in een strafrechtelijke of fiscale procedure waarin de 'determination of a criminal charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM tegen [de belanghebbenden] moet worden beoordeeld. Het beroep op EHRM 5 april 2012 (Chambaz v. Zwitserland, no. 11663/04) dat [de belanghebbenden] in dit verband doen en wat de Staat gemotiveerd heeft bestreden, maakt dit naar het voorlopig oordeel van het hof niet anders.

18. Er is kortom in deze zaak geen wettelijk beletsel dat verhindert dat de inspecteur naast de fiscale informatiebeschikking ook de burgerlijke rechter benadert. De stelling dat de informatiebeschikking daartoe eerst onherroepelijk moet zijn, vindt naar voorlopig oordeel geen steun in het recht."

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Tegen dit arrest is bij dagvaarding van 12 juni 2012 cassatieberoep ingesteld, bij u bekend onder rolnr. 12/03379. De eisers in die zaak klagen over schending van art. 52a AWR en art. 6 EVRM, en wat art. 6 EVRM betreft niet alleen over schending van het nemo tenetur beginsel, maar ook over het andere aspect van de zaak Chambaz, nl. schending van de equality of arms, nu het Hof Den Haag hun grieven heeft verworpen over de weigering van de Staat de op hun zaak betrekking hebbende stukken aan hen over te leggen.

8.3 Of ook uw derde kamer in Chambaz geen reden ziet om af te wijken van zijn eerder in onder meer HR BNB 2004/225 (zie 6.10) en HR BNB 2008/159 (zie 6.14) uitgezette lijn is minder duidelijk. Weliswaar heeft zij in november 2012 nog onder antwoordplicht verstrekte documenten tot bewijs toegelaten omdat zij onafhankelijk van de wil van de belastingplichtige zouden bestaan, maar in die zaak werd geen beroep op Chambaz gedaan (de processtukken in cassatie stamden van vóór het wijzen van Chambaz) en het ging bovendien om stukken die de Inspecteur al had. De zaak betrof een hercassatie in een inkomstenbelastingzaak na cassatie en verwijzing naar de feitenrechter in HR BNB 2011/206.(46) De belastingplichtige verzette zich bij het verwijzingshof tegen inbreng in de inkomstenbelastingprocedure van documenten uit een andere procedure (de vermogensbelastingprocedure). Uw derde kamer overwoog in hercassatie:(47)

"4.8.3. Voor zover belanghebbende betoogt dat deze gegevens buiten beschouwing moeten blijven in verband met het door artikel 6 EVRM gewaarborgde verbod op gedwongen zelfincriminatie, faalt dit betoog omdat geen sprake is van (bewijs)materiaal dat zijn bestaan dankt aan de wil van de beschuldigde (vgl. HR 21 maart 2008, nr. 43050, LJN BA8179, BNB 2008/159, onderdeel 3.3.2)."

Hiermee is wellicht niet méér gezegd dan dat er geen rechtsregel is die zich verzet tegen overlegging in de ene procedure van materiaal uit een andere procedure van dezelfde belastingplichtige, nu uw derde kamer niet inging op de vraag of de Inspecteur het materiaal in die andere procedure mogelijk 'in defiance of the will of the accused' had verkregen.

8.4 De Centrale Raad van Beroep (CRvB)(48) zag in Chambaz aanleiding om te oordelen dat overtreding van de meldingsplicht in de WW-wetgeving niet beboet kan worden als de belanghebbende niet kan uitsluiten dat zijn onder die meldingsplicht verstrekte informatie gebruikt zak worden om hem een boete op te leggen. De zaak betrof A, die een WW-uitkering genoot en zich ziek meldde bij het Uwv. De WW-uitkering werd nog dertien weken doorbetaald, waarna A in aanmerking kwam voor een ZW-uitkering. Het Uwv begon een onderzoek naar A. Een fraude-inspecteur van het Uwv riep hem op voor een gesprek, tijdens hetwelk hij op zijn meewerkplicht werd gewezen, waarna hij een verklaring aflegde waaruit bleek dat hij gewerkt had in het autobedrijf van zijn neef. Het Uwv vorderde zowel de WW-uitkering ad € 6.651,80 als de ZW-uitkering ad € 4.923,39 terug en legde A bovendien een boete ad € 1.040 op wegens niet-nakoming van zijn mededelingsplicht. De boete werd na bezwaar verlaagd tot € 670. De Rechtbank Zwolle-Leystad verklaarde A's beroep ongegrond ter zake van zowel de terugvordering als de boete-oplegging. In hoger beroep stelde A dat de boete gebaseerd was op zijn verklaring

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en dat hij ex art. 6 EVRM een zwijgrecht had waar hij op gewezen had moeten worden. De CRvB overwoog:

"6.7.1. (...). Op 20 november 2008 is appellant [A; PJW] opgeroepen om op 21 november 2008 op het kantoor van het Uwv te Zwolle te verschijnen voor een gesprek met een fraude-inspecteur. Tijdens het gesprek heeft appellant de (...) verklaring afgelegd. Volgens de rapportage van de fraude-inspecteur is de reden voor het gesprek uitgelegd en is aangegeven dat appellant verplicht is te antwoorden op gestelde vragen. Ter zitting hebben partijen desgevraagd bevestigd dat voorafgaand aan dat gesprek appellant uitdrukkelijk is gewezen op de verplichting om antwoord te geven op de gestelde vragen. Appellant heeft daaraan nog toegevoegd dat gezegd werd dat zijn uitkering gestopt zou worden als hij geen antwoord zou geven en dat in dat gesprek, dat volgens hem zonder onderbreking drieënhalf uur heeft geduurd, ook over een boete is gesproken. Aan het slot van zijn rapport heeft de fraude-inspecteur het Uwv onder meer geadviseerd appellant te beboeten wegens schending van de inlichtingenplicht.

6.7.2. Artikel 25 van de WW verplicht de werknemer op verzoek of onverwijld uit eigen beweging aan het Uwv alle feiten en omstandigheden mede te delen, waarvan hem redelijkerwijs duidelijk moet zijn dat zij van invloed kunnen zijn op het recht op uitkering, het geldend maken van het recht op uitkering, de hoogte of de duur van de uitkering, of op het bedrag van de uitkering dat aan de werknemer wordt betaald. De inlichtingenverplichting is voor het Uwv een noodzakelijk instrument om de rechtmatigheid van de uitkering te kunnen vaststellen. Voor zover de werknemer is verzocht om inlichtingen te verstrekken ter vaststelling van de rechtmatigheid van de uitkering, kan deze zich niet met een beroep op de waarborgen van het Verdrag tot bescherming van de rechten van de mens en de fundamentele vrijheden (EVRM) of het Internationaal Verdrag inzake Burgerrechten en Politieke Rechten aan zijn inlichtingenverplichting onttrekken. Voor zover het een op grond van artikel 27a van de WW op te leggen boete betreft wegens schending van de inlichtingenverplichting dienen de vaststelling, het boetebesluit en de toetsing daarvan te voldoen aan de eisen die artikel 6, eerste lid, van het EVRM stelt in geval van een "criminal charge". Daartoe behoren de eerbiediging van het recht van de beschuldigde om te zwijgen en van diens recht om zichzelf niet te behoeven incrimineren [vgl. Hoge Raad 27 juni 2001, LJN AB2314, en 6 juni 2008, LJN BD3163, en de arresten van het Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens 17 december 1996 (Saunders tegen Verenigd Koninkrijk, BNB 1997, 254), 3 mei 2001 (J.B. tegen Zwitserland, EHRC 2001, 45 en BNB 2002, 26) en 5 april 2012 (Chambaz tegen Zwitserland, EHRC 2012, 135 en FED 2012,77)].

6.7.3. Appellant kon niet uitsluiten dat van de door hem aan de fraude-inspecteur verstrekte informatie ook gebruik zou kunnen worden gemaakt voor het opleggen van een boete. Met name gelet op de in 6.7.2 genoemde arresten in de zaken J.B. (rechtsoverweging 64) en Chambaz (rechtsoverwegingen 52 tot en met 54) tegen Zwitserland, heeft appellant zich terecht gekeerd tegen het gebruik van de door hem op 21 november 2008 afgelegde verklaring waar het de vaststelling en de toetsing van de opgelegde boete betreft. Alvorens appellant deze verklaring aflegde heeft de fraude-inspecteur appellant er immers uitdrukkelijk op gewezen dat hij verplicht was de gestelde vragen te beantwoorden. Het bewijsmateriaal in die verklaring is daarmee onder druk en niet onafhankelijk van de wil van appellant verkregen en moet daarom buiten beschouwing blijven.

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6.7.4. Het Uwv heeft ter zitting erkend dat de boete in overwegende mate op de verklaring van 21 november 2008 is gebaseerd. Bij de toetsing van de boete dienen (...) alleen de (...) overige onderzoeksgegevens in aanmerking te worden genomen, omdat deze niet in strijd met artikel 6, eerste lid, van het EVRM zijn verkregen. Uit die gegevens volgt slechts dat appellant op 16 oktober 2008 en op 12 november 2008 werkend in het bedrijf van zijn neef is gezien. Van het niet onverwijld eigener beweging aan het Uwv melding maken van de werkzaamheden op die dagen is appellant niet alleen objectief maar ook subjectief een verwijt te maken. Het Uwv was daarom op grond van artikel 27a van de WW wel gehouden appellant een boete op te leggen maar de met het bestreden besluit opgelegde boete is geen evenredige sanctie. Voor de nadere vaststelling van de hoogte van de boete is van belang dat appellant niet eerder een boete is opgelegd en dat het niet melden van werkzaamheden op twee dagen appellant kan worden verweten. Gelet op de omstandigheden waaronder de overtreding is begaan en op de overige ten aanzien van appellant gebleken omstandigheden acht de Raad een appellant op te leggen boete ter hoogte van het in artikel 2, eerste lid, van het Boetebesluit socialezekerheidswetten genoemde bedrag van € 52,- evenredig.

6.8. Uit 6.1 tot en met 6.7.4 volgt dat het hoger beroep alleen slaagt voor zover het gaat om de intrekking van ZW-uitkering, de terugvordering van ZW-uitkering en de boete. De aangevallen uitspraak moet dan ook worden vernietigd. (...)."

Nu A's inlichtingenplicht geen documenten maar een verklaring betrof en ook de tijdens het gesprek gevorderde medewerking bestond uit het afleggen van een verklaring (evident testimonial evidence opleverende), zegt deze uitspraak weinig over de vraag wat de CRvB rechtens zou hebben geacht indien het om documenten zou zijn gegaan waar het Uwv niet aan had kunnen komen zonder A's medewerking. Ik merk overigens op dat ging om een boete ad € 1.040 die in bezwaar verlaagd werd tot € 670 en dat uit de boven (6.9 en 6.13) geciteerde zaken Allen en O'Halloran and Francis lijkt te volgen dat bij een dergelijke bescheiden dreiging geen vragen rijzen ter zake van schending van de very essence van het recht op vrijwaring tegen gedwongen zelfincriminatie zodat de CRvB het beroep op art. 6 EVRM in casu wellicht zelfs had kunnen passeren.(49) De redactie van Fiscaal up to Date annoteerde (FutD 2012/51):

"De Centrale Raad beperkte de Chambaz-leer dus niet tot de vraag of informatie moet worden verstrekt, maar paste de leer ook toe in de situatie waarin de informatie al onder dwang was verstrekt. Dat laatste betekent dat de Chambaz-doctrine niet alleen kan worden ingeroepen bij een verzoek om informatie van een bestuursorgaan en de bevraagde niet kan uitsluiten dat zijn informatie zal worden gebruikt in een boete- of strafzaak, maar ook dat die doctrine een boetevernietigend of boetematigend effect heeft als de bestuurlijke boete al is opgelegd."

8.5 Hof Arnhem-Leeuwarden(50) oordeelde begin dit jaar over een belastingplichtige (A) die in gebruikte auto's en onroerend goed deed. Ter zake van een gefingeerde onroerendgoedtransactie ontving A als waarborgsom € 650.000 cash die hij op zijn bankrekening stortte en niet opgaf voor de inkomstenbelasting. De fiscus en vervolgens de FIOD verdachten hem van belastingontduiking en witwassen. Naar aanleiding van een dalende omzet van de autohandel stelde de fiscus een (boeken)onderzoek in naar de

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aanvaardbaarheid van de aangiften inkomsten- en omzetbelasting voor de jaren 2000 t/m 2004. Daarbij vroeg de fiscus de belanghebbende inzicht te geven in de totstandkoming en afwikkeling van de onroerendgoedtransacties. Van dit onderzoek is een rapport opgemaakt op grond waarvan aan A een navorderingsaanslag inkomstenbelasting werd opgelegd mede ter zake van het genoemde bedrag, alsmede een vergrijpboete ad 100% van de nagevorderde belasting. A betoogde voor de belastingrechter met een beroep op Chambaz dat:

"4.25. (...) de informatie die is verkregen met een beroep op artikel 47 AWR (...) niet mag worden gebruikt voor de boeteoplegging, nu voorafgaand aan het informatieverzoek niet de garantie is gegeven dat de te verstrekken informatie niet zal worden gebruikt voor een eventuele boete."

Het Hof Arnhem-Leeuwarden verwierp dat betoog en bleef bij uw 'oude' leer:

"4.25. (...). Dit betoog kan niet slagen. In het onderhavige geval is geen informatie verstrekt onder de aan belanghebbende geuite dreiging van een boete- of strafprocedure. Daarbij zij opgemerkt dat de dreiging van een omkering en verzwaring van de bewijslast bij het niet verstrekken van de gevraagde informatie, niet als een zodanige dreiging kan worden aangemerkt. Dat belanghebbende op voorhand rekening moest houden met de kans op mogelijke strafvervolging - bijvoorbeeld op grond van het bepaalde in artikel 68 en 69 AWR - acht het Hof geen reden om de verkregen informatie niet te gebruiken voor een latere boeteprocedure. Bovendien is gesteld noch gebleken dat de door belanghebbende verstrekte informatie (bewijs)materiaal vormt dat zijn bestaan dankt aan de wil van belanghebbende (vgl. HR 21 maart 2008, nr. 43.050, LJN BA8179, BNB 2008/159, onderdeel 3.3.2, en HR 16 november 2012, nr. 12/00967, LJN BY3272, onderdeel 4.8.3 [zie 8.3; PJW]). Artikel 6, lid 1, EVRM staat derhalve niet eraan in de weg dat ook in het kader van de beoordeling van de boeteoplegging rekening wordt gehouden met de door de Inspecteur ten behoeve van de vaststelling van de belastingschuld bij belanghebbende opgevraagde informatie."

9. Recente literatuur

9.1 De Nederlandse literatuur betwijfelt naar aanleiding van Chambaz of uw jurisprudentie strookt met die van het EHRM. Asbreuk meent dat een strikte scheiding van het heffings- en boetesysteem onvermijdelijk is.(51) Ook Pechler lijkt die conclusie te trekken, maar wijst erop dat er dissenters waren in de EHRM-zetel die Chambaz wees, en verwacht niet dat u terug zult komen van uw boven in onderdeel 6 geciteerde rechtspraak.(52)

Haas en Jansen(53) concluderen (i) dat niet alleen verklaringen, maar ook documenten waar de autoriteiten zonder medewerking van de verdachte/belastingplichtige niet de hand op kunnen leggen buiten de Saunders-uitzondering op art. 6 EVRM vallen, (ii) dat de belastingrechter en de civiele rechter de vraag of art. 6 EVRM door dwang tijdens het controle-onderzoek geschonden is (doordat de onderzochte niet kon uitsluiten dat zijn afgedwongen medewerking mede tegen hem gebruikt zou worden in een punitieve

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procedure) niet meer kunnen 'doorschuiven' naar de boeterechter c.q. de strafrechter maar meteen zelf moet beoordelen (en in geval van dwang die de very essence van het privilege ontluistert, boeten of dwangsommen wegens niet-medewerking moet uitsluiten en, indien wél is meegewerkt, het afgedwongen bewijs verboden moet verklaren voor bestraffingsdoeleinden), (iii) dat een zaak zoals de thans door u te berechten zaak 'een (...) grote gelijkenis met de zaken Funke, J.B. en Chambaz' vertoont, en (iv) dat - zolang de wetgever niet ingrijpt - de rechter authoritatively (zie § 53 Heaney en McGuinness) zal moeten voorzien in waarborgen dat in strijd met art. 6 EVRM voor de belastingheffing afgedwongen materiaal niet in een punitieve procedure tegen de meewerker gebruikt zal worden. Zij achten HR BNB 2002/27 (zie 6.8) onjuist.

Barkhuysen en Emmerik (AB 2012/323) zijn met Niessen (ECHR 2012/135) eens dat Chambaz niet duidelijk is over de precieze reikwijdte van het zwijgrecht bij informatieverstrekking op grond van een meewerkplicht in een niet-punitieve bestuursrechtelijke procedure die later gebruikt wordt in een 'criminal' procedure, maar zij achten 'in elk geval veilig' wetgeving zoals de Zwitserse, op grond waarvan de door een belastingplichtige in een heffingsprocedure verstrekte informatie niet mag worden gebruikt in een daarop volgende 'criminal' procedure inzake belastingontduiking. Hendriks(54) merkt op dat Chambaz ondanks de op hem uitgeoefende boetedruk geen verklaring heeft afgelegd en dat wij dus niet weten welk gebruik van dergelijke verklaringen het EHRM al dan niet toegestaan zou hebben, maar dat als wél meegewerkt zou zijn, de oplossing vermoedelijk bewijsuitsluiting zou zijn, zoals de CRvB deed in de boven (8.4) geciteerde zaak en zoals de Zwitsers thans in hun wetgeving hebben opgenomen, alsmede dat een dergelijke garantie voor de verdachte/belastingplichtige vooraf duidelijk moet zijn:

"Een garantie vooraf echter bij het inroepen van de inlichtingenverplichting dat gevraagde informatie niet zal worden gebruikt ter onderbouwing van een eventuele boete of strafrechtelijke vervolging is mijns inziens vereist voor het effectief kunnen afdwingen van de informatieverplichting ervan. De Hoge Raad zou daarom nog eens goed moeten kijken naar zijn vaste lijn in de rechtspraak (o.a. BNB 1992/243 [zie 6.1; PJW]) dat zo'n garantie vooraf niet aan de orde kan zijn bij de toepassing van art. 47 AWR. Ook denk ik de laatste tijd nog regelmatig met enige weemoed aan de figuur van de boete-inspecteur."

Ik opinieerde in een Vooraf in NJB 2012/36, p. 2527:

"(...) het ziet er naar uit dat de Hoge Raad Saunders te ruim uitlegt. Het huidige Nederlandse recht lijkt dus niet EVRM-conform. Twee benaderingen dienen zich aan:

- niet meer dwingen maar overstappen op art. 6 EVRM-regie zodra de betrokkene er redelijkerwijs vanuit kan gaan dat hij (ook) verdacht is of een beboetingsvoornemen bestaat;

- wél blijven dwingen (voor heffingsdoeleinden), maar de onder dwang verkregen resultaten niet gebruiken voor straf(achtige) doeleinden, tenzij de betrokkene daarmee zonder dwang instemt (scheiding van procedures).

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Wil men niet dat een verdachte belastingplichtige niet aan zijn aanslag hoeft mee te werken terwijl een onverdachte belastingplichtige dat wél moet, dan lijkt alleen de tweede weg begaanbaar."

9.2 Baker(55) benadrukt dat het EHRM in Chambaz geen onderscheid maakt tussen het afleggen van een verklaring en overlegging van de gevorderde (bank)bescheiden. Hij maakt vervolgens onderscheid tussen documenten waar de autoriteiten de hand op kunnen leggen zonder medewerking van de verdachte/belastingplichtige en documenten waar zij zonder zijn medewerking geen kennis van kunnen nemen:

"Assuming that the documentation was physically present in the country concerned (or in another country with which there were arrangements for the exchange of information), then the documentation was potentially accessible for the tax authorities by, for example, a search warrant. To require the taxpayer to hand over the document (as opposed to the tax authorities obtaining a warrant and taking possession of the document themselves) hardly seemed sufficiently serious to be regarded as an infringement of the freedom from self-incrimination."

Hij voorziet daarom een toename van het aantal inbeslagnemingen en doorzoekingen in het binnenland. Uitoefening van dergelijke dwangmiddelen is echter niet mogelijk als de documenten zich bevinden in een Staat die geen lid is van de EU(56) en waarmee evenmin een belastingverdrag met inlichtingenuitwisseling is overeengekomen (zoals in het geval van de eiser tot cassatie(57)):

"The interesting issue is if the documentation is in a third country with which there is no arrangement for exchange of information. In those circumstances, a taxpayer who relies upon his right of silence and refuses to hand over the documents may effectively block the investigation (and clearly cannot be penalized for relying upon the right of silence)."

9.2 Koops(58) publiceerde onlangs de resultaten van een door hem in opdracht van het WODC uitgevoerd (vervolg)onderzoek naar de grondrechtelijke houdbaarheid van een decryptiebevel, i.e. een bevel om toegang te geven tot versleutelde bestanden op computerschijf of andere digitale gegevensdrager. Hij concludeert (blz. 103):

"Een decryptiebevel voor verdachten maakt daarom, net als in 2000, nog steeds inbreuk op het nemo-teneturbeginsel. Deze inbreuk kan echter gerechtvaardigd zijn als wordt voldaan aan de eisen die het Europees Hof stelt. Het Hof kijkt naar vier factoren die in gezamenlijkheid bepalen of een afgedwongen medewerking een schending oplevert van het nemo-teneturbeginsel:

1. de aard en mate van dwang;

2. het gewicht van het publiek belang;

3. de aanwezigheid van relevante waarborgen in de procedure;

4. de manier waarop het afgedwongen materiaal wordt gebruikt.

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Hierbij fungeren de factoren 1 en 4 enerzijds en de factoren 2 en 3 anderzijds als communicerende vaten. Naarmate de dwang om mee te werken groter is, en naarmate het afgedwongen materiaal een zwaardere rol heeft bij het bewijs, zal het publiek belang van afgedwongen medewerking des te groter moeten zijn en zullen er meer waarborgen moeten zijn voor rechtsbescherming. Bij een lagere mate van dwang of een ondergeschikte rol van afgedwongen bewijsmateriaal zal een ontsleutelplicht echter eerder de toets van artikel 6 EVRM kunnen doorstaan."

En (blz. 95):

"Al met al betekent dit dat een substantiële strafdreiging die enigermate effectief zou kunnen zijn om verdachten tot medewerking te prikkelen (waarbij gedacht kan worden aan 2-3 jaar gevangenisstraf als maximum) alleen verenigbaar is met het nemo-teneturbeginsel als de hoge mate van dwang in sterke mate wordt gecompenseerd door andere waarborgen. De wettelijke regeling en de toepassing daarvan zullen zich moeten beperken tot ernstige gevallen (in abstracto en in concreto), er zal een afgewogen stelsel van procedurele waarborgen moeten zijn, en de rechter zal terughoudend moeten zijn bij het daadwerkelijk opleggen van straf voor de weigering of het daadwerkelijk gebruiken van ontsleuteld materiaal als bewijs.

Dat is een zware opgave, maar het lijkt mij niet ondoenlijk. Juist omdat het Europees Hof geen wetgeving in het algemeen beoordeelt, maar alleen de toepassing daarvan in individuele gevallen, is er ruimte om een wettelijke bevoegdheid in te voeren die inbreuk maakt op nemo tenetur, waarbij de grenzen van de uitoefening van de bevoegdheid vervolgens casuïstisch kunnen worden bepaald. Een hoog strafmaximum voor decryptieweigering hoeft niet te betekenen dat verdachten die weigeren in de praktijk ook steeds twee jaar gevangenis opgelegd krijgen, en er zijn extreme gevallen denkbaar waarin een hoge straf op decryptieweigering toch aanvaardbaar zou kunnen zijn."

Van Toor bespreekt Koops' rapport kritisch in het NJB.(59)

10. Synthese en evaluatie

10.1 Ik acht de Straatsburgse rechtspraak over de litigieuze kwestie niet onduidelijk: een ieder is gehouden zijn wettelijke verplichtingen ten dienst van het (fiscaal-)bestuurlijke toezicht na te komen, óók zijn informatieverstrekkingsplichten, en hij kan zonder grondrechtelijk bezwaar bestraft worden als hij dat niet of onjuist doet. Art. 6 EVRM is niet bedoeld om normale fiscale verplichtingen en effectief toezicht door de autoriteiten te kunnen frustreren (Abas, Allen, I.J.L., G.M.R. en A.K.P. v UK). Als echter sprake is van een criminal charge, en ook als dat (nog) niet het geval is (en zelfs als er nooit een charge blijkt te volgen (Shannon, § 40)) maar de betrokkene kan niet uitsluiten dat de van hem in de toezichtsfeer onder dwang gevorderde informatie ook strafvorderlijk tegen hem gebruikt zal worden, dan kan hij niet zonder schending van art. 6 EVRM bestraft of met straf of boete bedreigd worden voor niet-verklaren of niet-overhandigen van testimonial or communicative evidence, waaronder begrepen documenten waarop de

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autoriteiten zonder zijn actieve medewerking (minstens een wilsbesluit) niet de hand kunnen leggen (Funke, Heaney and McGuinness, J.B., Marttinen, Shannon, Chambaz), tenzij:

(i) het gaat om boeten of druk waarvan onder de gegeven omstandigheden niemand wakker hoeft te liggen en de sanctie in elk geval non-custodial is (O'halloran and Francis; Allen) of

(ii) er procedurele waarborgen bestaan dat de in de toezichtsfeer afgedwongen informatie of documenten niet strafvorderlijk gebruikt zullen worden (Marttinen; Chambaz).

10.2 Gaat het om passieve medewerking aan (dulden van; ondergaan van) dwangmiddeluitoefening - tot verkrijging van non-testimonial physical evidence - dan is geen sprake van coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused en rijst dus geen nemo tenetur-kwestie (Saunders, Jalloh), tenzij dat passief doen ondergaan van dwangmiddelen ontaardt in inhuman and degrading treatment (Jalloh).

10.3 Dat de strafrechter of de boeterechter bevoegd is om in een eventuele (latere) punitieve procedure het in de toezichtsfeer onder dwang verstrekte testimonial or communicative materiaal ontoelaatbaar te verklaren, neemt de strijd met art. 6 EVRM niet weg (Shannon, met name § 40). Er moeten procedurele waarborgen bestaan dat afgedwongen materiaal niet strafvorderlijk gebruikt wordt (Marttinen, Chambaz), onder meer omdat op het moment waarop de strafrechter oordeelt, de verklaringsvrijheid al in de kern kan zijn aangetast (Saunders). Dat betekent dat - zolang de wet het niet regelt - de belastingrechter in de aanslagprocedure c.q. de civiele rechter in de dwangsomprocedure zélf moet bepalen dat het materiaal dat onder antwoordplicht met (significante) sanctiedreiging is verkregen en tegen het strafvorderlijke gebruik waarvan de belastingplichtige zich verzet, niet bruikbaar is voor punitieve doeleinden.

10.4 Voor het probleem dat voorkomen moet worden dat een onverdachte belastingplichtige aan verder gaande controlebevoegdhedenuitoefening en dwang onderworpen wordt dan een vermoedelijke fraudeur, ziet het EHRM dus kennelijk als oplossing dat een waarborg moet bestaan voor bewijsuitsluiting voor punitieve doeleinden. Het Hof verwijst in Marttinen (§ 75) en Chambaz (§ 56) met kennelijke instemming naar de recente Finse en Zwitserse wetswijzigingen, die bewerkstelligen dat de onder dwang in een schuldverhaals- of belastingprocedure verstrekte informatie niet voor punitieve doeleinden gebruikt wordt.

10.5 Mijn Fins is niet wat het geweest had kunnen zijn, maar over de Zwitserse wetswijziging merk ik het volgende op.(60) De praktijk was dat als de navorderingsprocedure en de ontduikingsboeteprocedure cumuleerden en de belastingplichtige tegen beide bezwaar maakte, de navorderingsprocedure met voorrang werd afgehandeld en pas daarna de fiscale boeteprocedure werd hervat (p. 3846 - 3847):

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"Comme c'est le cas dans la pratique, les deux procédures peuvent être menées conjointement. Il ne faut cependant pas perdre de vue qu'il s'agit de deux procédures distinctes. Lorsqu'un contribuable dépose un recours contre la décision en matière du rappel d'impôt et contre l'amende pour soustraction fiscale, la procédure de rappel d'impôt est traitée en premier. Ce n'est qu'ensuite que l'amende est traitée."

De wetswijziging behelsde dat (i) als een boeteprocedure wordt gestart, de verdachte belastingplichtige op zijn zwijgrecht wordt gewezen; (ii) in de boeteprocedure onbruikbaar is bewijsmateriaal dat tot dat moment in de navorderingsprocedure is vergaard met behulp van bewijslastomkering of onder dreiging van boeteoplegging. Wordt de navorderingsprocedure eerder ingeleid dan de boeteprocedure, dan moeten de autoriteiten de belastingplichtige bij aanvang van de navorderingsprocedure waarschuwen dat later nog een boeteprocedure kan worden ingeleid. Daarom moeten zij in beginsel ook dan de belastingplichtige op zijn zwijgrecht wijzen, tenzij aanstonds duidelijk is dat geen boeteprocedure zal volgen (p. 3852):

"La disposition doit être modifiée en ce sens que, au moment de l'ouverture d'une procédure pénale pour soustraction d'impôt, le contribuable doit être informé qu'il n'est pas tenu de présenter des faits qui l'incrimineraient. Il faut prévoir en outre que les moyens de preuve rassemblés dans le cadre d'une procédure de rappel d'impôt ne peuvent être réutilisés dans le cadre d'une procédure en soustraction d'impôt que lorsque ces moyens de preuve n'ont été rassemblés ni dans le cadre d'une taxation d'office avec inversion du fardeau de la preuve ni sous la menace d'une amende en cas de violation d'obligations de procédure. Cette modification permet d'établir la parfaite conformité avec les droits procéduraux garantis par la CEDH.

Lorsqu'une procédure de rappel d'impôt n'est pas introduite conjointement avec une procédure en soustraction d'impôt, l'art. 153, al. 1bis doit obliger l'Administration fiscale à avertir le contribuable concerné du risque d'introduction d'une procedure en soustraction ultérieure. Par conséquent, l'Administration doit également lui expliquer ses droits découlant de l'art. 183, al. 1 modifié, en vertu duquel il n'est pas tenu de présenter des faits qui l'incrimineraient dans le cadre de la procédure en soustraction d'impôt.

Pour les cas dans lesquels il est évident dès le départ qu'aucune procédure en soustraction d'impôt ne sera introduite, par exemple dans le cas des héritiers, il va de soi qu'il n'est pas nécessaire de donner ces informations au contribuable."

Anders dan uw derde kamer (HR BNB 2002/27, r.o. 3.4 en HR BNB 2008/165(61)), acht de Zwitserse wetgever ook elk punitief gebruik van enig resultaat van omkering van de bewijslast in de navorderingsprocedure in strijd met art. 6 EVRM (p. 3852):

"Les informations que le contribuable incriminé a fournies dans le cadre d'une procédure de rappel d'impôt sous la menace d'une amende en cas de violation d'obligations de procédure ou d'une taxation d'office avec inversion du fardeau de la preuve ne peuvent pas être utilisées ensuite dans le cadre d'une procedure en soustraction d'impôt. L'utilisation de telles informations constituerait, d'une part, une violation de l'art. 6 § 1 CEDH (Droit à un procès équitable) et, d'autre part, une violation de l'art. 6 § 2 CEDH (Présomption d'innocence). Par ailleurs, une taxation d'office oblige le contribuable

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concerné de fournir lui-même les preuves que la taxation n'est pas correcte (inversion du fardeau de la preuve)."

Het gewijzigde artikel 183(1) en (1bis) van de Zwitserse Loi fédérale sur l'impôt fédéral direct (LFID) luidt thans:

"1. L'ouverture d'une procédure pénale pour soustraction d'impôt est communiquée par écrit à la personne concernée. Celle-ci est invitée à s'exprimer sur les griefs retenus à son encontre et informée de son droit de refuser de déposer et de collaborer.

1bis. Les moyens de preuve rassemblés dans le cadre de la procédure en rappel d'impôt ne peuvent être utilisés dans la procédure pénale pour soustraction d'impôt que s'ils n'ont été rassemblés ni sous la menace d'une taxation d'office (art. 130, al. 2) avec inversion du fardeau de la preuve au sens de l'art. 132, al. 3, ni sous la menace d'une amende en cas de violation d'une obligation de procédure."

10.6 In Nederland werd eind 1993 wetsvoorstel 23 470 ingediend, dat onder meer voorzag in een aparte boete-inspecteur. De Memorie van Toelichting vermeldde:

"De Commissie-Van Slooten doet de aanbeveling het opleggen van een vergrijpboete in handen te leggen van een van de inspecteur onafhankelijke boete-inspecteur. Deze functionaris met bijzondere bevoegdheden, zal in hiërarchie op hetzelfde niveau opereren als de inspecteur en aldus het administratieve boeterecht zelfstandig kunnen toepassen. De Commissie doet dit voorstel - naar ons oordeel terecht - niet omdat dit op grond van de mensenrechtenverdragen noodzakelijk zou zijn, maar meent dat de oplegging van (vergrijp)boeten behoort te geschieden door een andere autoriteit dan de aanslagregelende ambtenaar. Door de verantwoordelijkheid voor het opleggen van boeten op te dragen aan een afzonderlijke autoriteit, kan worden bereikt dat de waarborgen waarmee de boete-oplegging is omkleed - met name bij die van vergrijpboeten - beter gestalte krijgen. Bovendien wordt door het aanbrengen van een scheiding tussen aanslagregelende ambtenaren en boete-inspecteurs beter tot uitdrukking gebracht dat de "verdachte" belastingplichtige aanspraak kan maken op een bij die status passende rechtsbescherming. Wij kunnen ons in deze aanbeveling van de Commissie geheel vinden. De specifieke verantwoordelijkheid van de boete-inspecteur voor het bepalen van de hoogte van de administratieve boete en voor het nakomen van de bij het opleggen van de boete in acht te nemen voorschriften, schept niet alleen een zekere afstandelijkheid ten opzichte van de aanslagregeling doch bewerkstelligt tevens dat partijen in een gelijkwaardiger positie ten opzichte van elkaar staan dan thans het geval is. De boete-inspecteur vervult op deze wijze in de voorfase als het ware de functie van onafhankelijke derde, die enigszins is te vergelijken met de belastingrechter in de beroepsfase."

De Eerste Kamer had echter bedenkingen bij de separate boete-inspecteur: verhoogde werkdruk bij de fiscus; de belastingplichtige zou niet zitten te wachten op een extra functionaris waar hij mee te maken kon krijgen; onpraktisch en inefficiënt. Bij de

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behandeling van de Invoeringswet bestuurlijke boeten in mei 1997 verdween de boete-inspecteur en werd de bestaande praktijk op dit punt gehandhaafd.(62)

10.7 De Nederlandse wetgeving voorziet dus niet in de procedurele waarborgen waartoe de Straatsburgse rechtspraak lijkt te nopen indien men wil voorkomen dat een verdachte belastingplichtige ongestraft medewerking aan belastingheffing te zijnen laste kan weigeren waar een onverdachte belastingplichtige dat niet kan. Zolang dat niet zo is, zullen die waarborgen dus van de rechter moeten komen.

10.8 Ik merk volledigheidshalve het volgende op: het normale 'dwangmiddel' van de fiscus ten behoeve van de correcte belastingheffing is de redelijk - maar wel veilig - geschatte aanslag met omkering van de bewijslast. Vanwege de eis van een redelijke schatting is die bewijslastomkering, anders dan een dwangsom of boete wegens niet-meewerken - die immers in 'defiance of the will of the accused' wordt opgelegd - gericht op het vermoedelijke belastingbedrag en daarom mijns inziens geen method of coercion or oppression. De vraag of enigerlei doorwerking van die bewijslastomkering naar de boetegrondslagbepaling toelaatbaar is, door u bevestigend en door de Zwitserse federale wetgever ontkennend beantwoord, laat ik hier rusten.

11. Bespreking van het middel

11.1 Van de eiser tot cassatie wordt door de Inspecteur onder antwoordplicht met strafbedreiging en dwangsomdreiging testimonial or communicative evidence geëist, óók indien men bestaande bank- of Stiftungsdocumenten - ondanks J.B. en Chambaz - als Saunders-materiaal zou beschouwen, nu van hem immers verdergaande informatieverstrekking wordt gevorderd dan simpele overlegging van enige min of meer nauwkeurig aangeduide bestaande bescheiden. Hij kon voorts geenszins uitsluiten dat tegen hem een criminal charge zou worden ingesteld. Integendeel: de Inspecteur had hem immers al twee vergrijpboeten van 100% van de nagevorderde belasting opgelegd toen hem de litigieuze gegevens en inlichtingen werden gevraagd. Hij was dus al charged. Een dwangsom van € 2.500 per dag(deel) met een plafond van € 500.000 ten slotte, kan niet moderate genoemd worden in de zin van Allen en O'Halloran and Francis; zelfs als men daar anders over denkt, blijft staan dat de eiser bedreigd wordt met een gevangenisstraf van maximaal vier jaar en een geldboete (art. 69(1) AWR). Een omkering en verzwaring van de bewijslast in de navorderingsprocedure heeft hij hoe dan ook al te pakken.

11.2 Indien men wil vermijden dat deze belastingplichtige straffeloos zou kunnen weigeren mee te werken aan zijn eigen belastingheffing, dan moet er volgens het Straatsburgse beslisschema (zie 10.1 hierboven) een procedurele garantie komen dat de onder dwangsomdreiging verstrekte inlichtingen en gegevens niet voor punitieve doeleinden (fiscaal-bestuurlijke beboeting of strafvervolging) worden gebruikt.

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11.3 Ik meen daarom dat het middel doel treft, maar mijns inziens niet het beoogde doel, omdat het niet tot cassatie leidt: ik acht oplegging van de dwangsom toelaatbaar, mits door de eiser aan de Inspecteur onder dwang verstrekte gegevens en inlichtingen niet voor punitieve doeleinden gebruikt zullen worden. Ik geef u daarom in overweging aldus uitdrukkelijk te bepalen in uw arrest.

11.4 Dat het menselijkerwijs wellicht onmogelijk is voor een rechter om te doen alsof hij iets niet weet (voor boetebeoordelingsdoeleinden) wat hij wél weet (voor aanslagbeoordelingsdoeleinden), moge zo zijn, evenals het gegeven dat Nobelprijswinnaar Daniel Kahneman (Thinking fast and slow) schrikbarende onderzoeksresultaten rapporteerde ter zake van beïnvloedbaarheid van overtuigingen van - niet alleen - rechters door informatiemanipulatie, maar dát probleem lijkt mij in deze procedure wél 'doorgeschoven' te kunnen worden naar de rechter die over een bestuurlijke boete of strafvervolging moet oordelen (die het op zijn beurt naar de wetgever zou kunnen doorschuiven).

12. Conclusie

12.1 Ik geef u in overweging het cassatieberoep te verwerpen, maar uitdrukkelijk te verstaan dat door de eiser in cassatie aan de gedaagde onder dwangsomdreiging te verstrekken gegevens, inlichtingen of documenten rechtens niet kunnen dienen tot onderbouwing van bestuurlijke boete-oplegging of strafvervolging.

12.2 Nu het om een tamelijk ver reikende rechtseenheidsvraag gaat die ook uw tweede en derde kamer aangaan, en ook het rechtseenheidsoverleg tussen ABRvS, CRvB, CBB, en belastingkamer raakt, zou u kunnen overwegen een zetel samen te stellen uit de samenstelling waarvan voor de rechtsgemeenschap blijkt dat uw in deze zaak te wijzen arrest breed gedragen wordt.

De Procureur-Generaal bij de

Hoge Raad der Nederlanden

Advocaat-Generaal

1 Richtlijn 77/799/EEG van de Raad van 19 december 1977 betreffende de wederzijdse bijstand van de bevoegde autoriteiten van de Lid-Staten op het gebied van de directe belastingen. Zie de dagvaarding in kort geding van 25 februari 2012, p. 2.

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2 Zie daarover: R.J. Roerink, De Liechtensteinse Stiftung, WFR 2012/1265. Voor een - kennelijk niet officiële of wetenschappelijke - uiteenzetting over 'Die Leichtensteinische Stiftung': http://www.marxerpartner.com/fileadmin/user_upload/marxerpartner/pdf-downloads/Die_Stiftung_Broschuere_de.pdf.

3 Zie productie 4 bij de dagvaarding in kort geding. Over wat volgens die brief van 9 juni 1997 moest worden gewijzigd bevat het dossier geen informatie.

4 Belastingdienst/Oost-Brabant/'s-Hertogenbosch.

5 Rechtbank 's-Hertogenbosch (voorzieningenrechter) 5 april 2011, nr. 226447/KG ZA 11-107, LJN BQ1594. Het vonnis is een dag later betekend.

6 Hof 's-Hertogenbosch 31 januari 2012, nr. HD 200.086.811, LJN BV2696.

7 Gezien de desbetreffende navorderingsaanslagen (productie 7 bij de kortgedingdagvaarding) heeft de eiser in punt 4.1 principaal appel abusievelijk het euro-teken in plaats van het gulden-teken gebruikt. Het Hof heeft deze fout overgenomen.

8 Noot PJW: grief 5 richt zich tegen de afwijzing van eiser's reconventionele vordering in eerste aanleg, grief 6 tegen de uitvoerbaarheid bij voorraad, en grief 7 tegen de kostenveroordeling. Het Hof verwerpt hier mijns inziens dus grieven 5 en 7 maar niet, althans niet expliciet, grief 6.

9 Zo de Rechtbank Breda uitspraak heeft gedaan is deze voor zover ik na kon gaan niet gepubliceerd.

10 De Staat verwijst naar r.o. 3.3.5 van het arrest van Uw derde kamer HR BNB 2004/225.

11 HR 15 februari 1977, nr. 68 586, na conclusie Remmelink, LJN AC3994, NJ 1977, 557 met noot Mulder.

12 HR 11 december 1991, nr. 27 345, LJN ZC4814 (en AW5744; dit arrest heeft opmerkelijkerwijs twee LJN-nummers), BNB 1992/243 met noot Scheltens, V-N 1992/199.

13 EHRM 25 februari 1993 (Funke vs. Frankrijk), nr. 82/1991/334/407, LJN AW2060, BNB 1993/350 met noot Wattel, V-N 1993/3158, FED 1993/628 met aantekening Feteris, NJ 1993/485 met noot Knigge, Ars Aequi 1993, p. 672, met commentaar Swart, NJCM-Bulletin 1993, p. 584 met noot Myjer.

14 EHRM 17 december 1996 (Saunders vs. Verenigd Koninkrijk), nr. 43/1994/490/572, LJN ZB6862, BNB 1997/254 met noot Feteris, V-N 1997/722, NJ 1997, 699 met noot Knigge.

15 E.E.V. Lenos, 'De sociale en fiscale inlichtingenplicht en het zwijgrecht sinds Saunders', NJB 1997, p. 796. Zie ook Lenos' proefschrift, 'Bestuurlijke sanctietoepassing en strafrechtelijke waarborgen in de sociale zekerheid', Lelystad: Vermande 1998, p. 211-261.

16 Noot PJW: ik vermoed dat Lenos het oog had op Schmerber v. California, 20 juni 1966, 384 U.S. 757 (1966), p. 761.

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17 ECRM 26 februari 1997 (Abas vs. Nederland), nr. 27943/95. De ECRM fungeerde als zaakfilter voor het EHRM door binnengekomen verzoeken op ontvankelijkheid te beoordelen en te bezien of een minnelijke schikking mogelijk was. Per 1 november 1998 zijn de ECRM en EHRM opgegaan in een 'nieuw' EHRM dat permanent zetelt in Straatsburg. Belangrijkste reden voor deze fusie was dat de doorlooptijden bleven oplopen. Zie over de ECRM ook G. Corstens en J. Pradel, 'Het Europese strafrecht', Deventer: Kluwer 2003, p. 248-256.

18 HR 22 november 1994, nr. 97 777, na conclusie Van Dorst, LJN ZC9869, NJ 1995, 240 met noot Schalken.

19 ECHR, no. 10862/84, Schenk v. Switzerland, judgment of 12 July 1988, Series A no. 140, p. 29, para. 46.

20 EHRM 19 september 2000 (I.J.L., G.M.R. en A.K.P. vs. Verenigd Koninkrijk), nrs. 29522/95, 30056/96, 30574/96, LJN AP0787, EHRC 2000/81 met noot Garé.

21 EHRM 21 december 2000 (Heaney en McGuinness v. Ierland), nr. 34720/97.

22 EHRM 3 mei 2001 (J.B. v. Zwitserland), nr. 31827/96, LJN AN6999, EHRC 2001/45, met noot Albers, NJCM-Bulletin 2002/606, met noot Lenos, NJ 2003, 354, met noot Schalken, BNB 2002/26 met noot Feteris, V-N 2002/4.4, AB 2002/343, met noot Jansen.

23 Zie het citaat van Lenos (onderdeel 6.3 hierboven) en US Supreme Court, 20 June 1966, 384 U.S. 757 (Schmerber v California).

24 'coercion in defiance of the will'/ 'la contrainte, au mépris de la volonté'/ 'dwang tegen de wil' lijkt mij overigens een pleonasme.

25 HR 27 juni 2001, nr. 35 889, na conclusie Wattel, LJN AB2314, BNB 2002/27 met noot Feteris, V-N 2001/37.3, NTFR 2001/985 met commentaar Van Hassel.

26 Onderdelen 4.14 t/m 4.18 van de conclusie voor HR 21 maart 2008, nr. 43 050, LJN BA8179, BNB 2008/159 met noot Albert.

27 EHRM 10 september 2002 (Allen v. UK), nr. 76574/01, LJN BI9566, FED 2002/589 met aantekening Thomas.

28 HR 27 februari 2004, nr. 37 465, na conclusie Wattel, LJN AF5556, BNB 2004/225 met noot Zwemmer, V-N 2004/14.3, NTFR 2004/316 met commentaar Thomas.

29 Hof Amsterdam 10 augustus 2001, nr. 01/0211, LJN AD4476, V-N 2001/56.6.

30 Noot PJW: mijn conclusie vermeldde in dat onderdeel 5.12 de EHRM-arresten Passet v. France van 30 maart 1999, nr. 38434/97, LJN AV2316, BNB 2002/25, met noot Feteris, Västberga Taxi Aktiebolag en Vulic v. Sweden van 23 juli 2002, BNB 2003/2, met noot Feteris, en Salabiaku v. France, nr. 10519/83, LJN AB9983, NJ 1991, 351, met noot Alkema, FED 1990/420, met noot Feteris, over - kort gezegd - bewijsvermoedens.

31 EHRM 4 oktober 2005 (Shannon vs. Verenigd Koninkrijk), nr. 6563/03.

32 EHRM 11 juli 2006 (Jalloh v. Germany), nr. 54810/00, LJN AY9133, NJ 2007/226, met noot Schalken.

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33 Het lijkt dus opmerkelijk dat het EHRM de gevolgde handelwijze niet meteen afdeed als volstrekt disproportioneel, maar dat wordt wellicht verklaard door het gegeven dat bolletjes kunnen scheuren, hetgeen nog bedreigender zou zijn geweest voor de gezondheid en het leven van de verdachte. Het arrest zegt daarover echter niets. Het zegt wel het volgende:

"70. Even where it is not motivated by reasons of medical necessity, Articles 3 and 8 of the Convention do not as such prohibit recourse to a medical procedure in defiance of the will of a suspect in order to obtain from him evidence of his involvement in the commission of a criminal offence. Thus, the Convention institutions have found on several occasions that the taking of blood or saliva samples against a suspect's will in order to investigate an offence did not breach these Articles in the circumstances of the cases examined by them (see, inter alia, X v. the Netherlands, no. 8239/78, Commission decision of 4 December 1978, Decisions and Reports (DR) 16, pp. 187-89, and Schmidt v. Germany (dec.), no. 32352/02, 5 January 2006)."

34 EHRM 29 juni 2007 (O'Halloran en Francis v. UK), nrs. 15809/02 en 25624/02, LJN BB3173, NJ 2008, 25 met noot Alkema, V-N 2008/25.4, NTFR 2008/763 met commentaar Kors, FED 2008/81 met aantekening Thomas, AB 2008/234 met noot Barkhuysen.

35 HR 21 maart 2008, nr. 43 050, na conclusie Wattel, LJN BA8179, BNB 2008/159 met noot Albert, V-N 2008/16.5.

36 Zie mijn conclusie in die zaak.

37 Hoe een failliet - of iemand die failliet wil lijken - moet of zal betalen, ontgaat mij.

38 EHRM 21 april 2009 (Martinnen v. Finland), nr. 19235/03, LJN BJ3599, NJ 2009, 557 met noot Schalken.

39 Onderdeel 4.12, conclusie van 22 november 2012, zaak 12/00097, LJN BY6057.

40 HR 18 september 2009, nr. 08/01490, na conclusie Wattel, LJN BI5906, NJ 2009, 566 met noot Zwemmer, BNB 2010/21 met noot Van Eijsden, V-N 2009/48.6, NTFR 2009/2048 met commentaar Van der Voort Maarschalk, Gemeentestem 2010/5 met commentaar Huisman.

41 EHRM 5 april 2012, nr. 11663/04 Chambaz vs. Zwitserland), LJN BW5997, EHRC 2012/135, met noot Niessen, AB 2012/323, met noot Barkhuysen en Emmerik, NTFR 2012/1225, met commentaar Hendriks, FED 2012/77, met aantekening Thomas, FutD 2012/16. Zie ook E.B. Pechler, Chambaz en het verbod op gedwongen zelfincriminatie, NTFR 2012/1608, en J.H. Asbreuk, Informatieverstrekking en art. 6 EVRM, NTFR Beschouwingen 2012/27.

42 Ook daarover klaagde Chambaz in Straatsburg en ook op dat punt kreeg hij gelijk: de 'equality of arms' was geschonden door de weigering van de fiscale autoriteiten om hem de op zijn strafzaak betrekking hebbende gegevens ter beschikking te stellen. Ik laat dit punt verder buiten beschouwing nu het in deze procedure niet aan de orde wordt gesteld. Dat is wél het geval in de bij u aanhangige zaak met rolnr. 12/03379 (zie 8.2 hieronder).

43 Noot PJW: bedoeld zal zijn § 66.

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44 Art. 43 EVRM luidt:

"Referral to the Grand Chamber

1. Within a period of three months from the date of the judgment of the Chamber, any party to the case may, in exceptional cases, request that the case be referred to the Grand Chamber.

2. A panel of five judges of the Grand Chamber shall accept the request if the case raises a serious question affecting the interpretation or application of the Convention or the Protocols thereto, or a serious issue of general importance.

3. If the panel accepts the request, the Grand Chamber shall decide the case by means of a judgment."

45 Hof 's-Gravenhage 24 april 2012, nr. 200.108.848/01, LJN BW4595.

46 HR 15 april 2011, nr. 09/03075, na conclusie Van Ballegooijen, LJN BN6324, BNB 2011/206 met noot Albert, V-N 2011/23.24.5, NTFR 2011/945 met commentaar Jansen.

47 HR 16 november 2012, nr. 12/00967, LJN BY3272, BNB 2013/29 met noot Albert, V-N 2012/60.9, NTFR 2012/2707 met commentaar Hendriks.

48 CRvB 21 november 2012, nr. 11/00554 WW, LJN BY3772, AB 2013/27 met noot Stijnen, USZ 2013/8 met aantekening Koolhoven, NTFR 2012/2854 met commentaar Hendriks, FutD 2012/51 met commentaar van de redactie.

49 Maar de maximum-gevangenisstraf op het opzettelijk niet-inlichten van het Uwv beloopt ingevolge thans art. 227b Wetboek van Strafrecht (Sr) maximaal vier jaar. Met ingang van 1 juli 2000 zijn art. 133 en 134 WW, die de strafmaat ter zake van misdrijven in de sfeer van de WW bepaalden, vervallen. Sinds die datum valt uitkeringsfraude in het algemeen onder art. 227a en 227b Sr; zie de Wet van 20 januari 2000 (Wet concentratie strafbaarstelling frauduleuze gedragingen), Stb. 2000, 40.

50 Hof Arnhem-Leeuwarden 8 januari 2013, nr. 11/00397, LJN BY8848. In deze zaak is beroep in cassatie ingesteld door de belastingplichtige, bij u bekend onder nummer 13/00802.

51 J.H. Asbreuk, Informatieverstrekking en art. 6 EVRM, NTFR Beschouwingen 2012/27.

52 E.B. Pechler, Chambaz en het verbod op gedwongen zelfincriminatie, NTFR 2012/1608.

53 F.J.P.M. Haas en D.N.N. Jansen, Het 'privilege against self-incrimination' nader beschouwd, (TFB) Tijdschrift voor Formeel Belastingrecht 2013, nr. 1, p. 8-16.

54 Noot bij CRvB 21 november 2012 (zie onderdeel 8.4 hierboven), NTFR 2012/2854.

55 Philip Baker: Recent Tax Cases of the European Court of Human Rights, European Taxation, December 2012, p. 584-585.

56 Binnen de EU geldt de recent herziene EU-bijstandsrichtlijn (Richtlijn 2010/24/EU van de Raad van 16 maart 2010 betreffende de wederzijdse bijstand inzake de invordering

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van schuldvorderingen die voortvloeien uit belastingen, rechten en andere maatregelen), die inmiddels ook geen bankgeheim meer erkent.

57 Inmiddels is met Liechtenstein een TIEA (tax information exchange agreement) gesloten (Verdrag tussen het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden en de Regering van het Vorstendom Liechtenstein inzake de uitwisseling van informatie betreffende belastingen, met Protocol; Brussel, 10 november 2009, Trb. 2010, 14 en Trb. 2010, 107. Zie voor de toelichtende nota de brief van de Minister van Buitenlandse Zaken van 13 september 2010 aan de Voorzitters van de Eerste en van de Tweede Kamer der Staten-Generaal, vergaderjaar 2009-2010, 32 498, nr. 1, p. 9.). Dat verdrag ziet echter alleen (zie art. 14 Verdrag en art. 5 Protocol) op belastingtijdvakken beginnend op of na 1 januari 2010 of bij ontbreken van een belastingtijdvak op alle belastingvorderingen die op of na die datum ontstaan" en kan in casu dus niet toegepast worden. Tussen Nederland en Liechtenstein schijnt overigens verschil van mening te bestaan over eventuele terugwerkende kracht, zie:

http://www.telegraaf.nl/overgeld/belastingen/20517230/__Zwartspaarder_Liechtenstein_snapt__t_niet_meer__.html.

Met Zwitserland (Trb. 2010, 98) is inmiddels een nieuw belastingverdrag gesloten dat in inlichtingenuitwisseling voorziet, maar of het ook het bankgeheim doorbreekt, is minder duidelijk. Leden 3 en 5 van art. 26 en onderdeel XVI van het Protocol zijn daar niet duidelijk over. Ook de MvT (Kamerstukken 32 536, nr. 3, p. 3-5) maakt niet duidelijk of het Zwitsers bankgeheim is doorbroken. De indruk rijst dat Zwitserland slechts in zeer specifieke gevallen gegevens van een bank of rekeninghouder bij een bank zal opvragen en overleggen.

58 B-J. Koops, 'Het decryptiebevel en het nemo-teneturbeginsel. Nopen ontwikkelingen sinds 2000 tot invoering van een ontsleutelplicht voor verdachten?', Tilburg: Universiteit van Tilburg 2012, p. 103. In 2000 publiceerde Koops al een proefschrift met de titel: 'Verdachte en ontsleutelplicht: hoe ver reikt nemo tenetur?' ITeR-reeks nr. 31, Deventer: Kluwer 2000.

59 D. van Toor, Het decryptiebevel en het nemo-teneturbeginsel, NJB 2013/8, p. 477-479.

60 De Zwitserse federale wetgevingsgeschiedenis is via http://www.admin.ch/ch/f/ff te vinden. De wetswijziging is in 2006 besproken, en is te vinden op p. 3843 - 3864. De tekst van het huidige artikel 183 van de Loi fédérale sur l'impot fédéreal direct is te vinden via: http://www.admin.ch/ch/f/rs/642_11/a183.html

61 HR 18 januari 2008, nr. 41 832, LJN BC1962, BNB 2008/165 met noot De Bont, V-N 2008/6.4, NTFR 2008/157 met commentaar Van Elk, FED 2008/36 met aantekening Vetter.

62 Kamerstukken II, 1996-1997, 24 800, nr. 5 (Tweede nota van wijziging), p. 12-14.

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NJ 1977, 557

Instantie: Hoge Raad (Strafkamer) Datum: 15 februari 1977

Magistraten:

Moons, Fikkert, Bronkhorst, Royer, Van Den Blink

Zaaknr: 68586

Conclusie: - LJN: AC3994

Noot: G.E. Mulder Roepnaam: -

Wetingang: Sr art. 1; Sv art. 341; Sv art. 344; Sv art. 358; Sv art. 359; Sv art. 423; WVW art. 33a; EVRM art. 6

Snel naar: EssentieSamenvattingVoorgaande uitspraakConclusieNoot

EssentieNaar boven

Ambtsedig proces-verbaal van elkaar in hoger beroep tegensprekende getuigen.

In cassatie kan niet met vrucht worden opgekomen tegen een feitelijke uitlegging van requirants woorden in een ambtsedig proces-verbaal, nu deze met die woorden niet onverenigbaar is.

Art. 33a, derde lid, WVW is niet onverbindend.

Geen beslissing op een verweer op grond van art. 33a, vierde lid, WVW.

Schending van het gelijkheidsbeginsel ten aanzien van de strafoplegging?

SamenvattingNaar boven

De waardering van de overtuigende kracht van een bewijsmiddel is voorbehouden aan de feitenrechter.

In het Nederlands recht is niet verankerd een onvoorwaardelijk recht of beginsel dat een verdachte op generlei wijze kan worden verplicht tot het verlenen van medewerking aan het verkrijgen van bezwarend bewijsmateriaal.

Art. 33a, derde lid, WVW is niet in strijd met het Europees Verdrag, met name niet met art. 6, tweede lid, omdat die verplichtingen niet van dien aard zijn, dat de regeling van die bepaling zou moeten worden gezegd te berusten op een door art. 6, tweede lid, Verdrag verboden veronderstelling van schuld.

‘Dat hij de bloedproef niet wilde ondergaan omdat toen hem tijdens zijn militaire diensttijd bloed werd afgenomen, hij daarvan veel last heeft gehad’ is een verweer waaromtrent de rechter bepaaldelijk een beslissing had behoren te geven.

Advocaat-Generaal Remmelink: Hieraan kan niet afdoen, dat dat verweer ook voor het Hof is gevoerd en daar is onderzocht en verworpen.

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De grief dat in een soortgelijke zaak een veel lichtere straf zou zijn opgelegd kan niet tot cassatie leiden omdat de feitelijke gegevens ontbreken, nog daargelaten, of vergelijking mogelijk zou zijn.*

* Zie de noot onder het arrest. (Red.)

Voorgaande uitspraakNaar boven

Op het beroep van Johannes Cornelis K., geboren te St. Maartensdijk op 8 mei 1924, van beroep landbouwer, wonende te St. Annaland (gem. Tholen), req. van cassatie tegen een arrest van het Hof te 's-Hertogenbosch van 15 sept. 1976, houdende in hoger beroep vernietiging ten aanzien van de strafoplegging, doch bevestiging voor het overige van een vonnis van de PR in de Rb. te Breda van 3 maart 1976, waarbij de req. ter zake van 'handelen in strijd met art. 33a, derde lid, WVW (motorrijtuig)' tot straffen is veroordeeld, hebbende het Hof de req. veroordeeld tot een gevangenisstraf voor de tijd van twee weken, met ontzegging van de bevoegdheid motorrijtuigen te besturen voor de tijd van een jaar, voorwaardelijk met een proeftijd van twee jaren.

De Hoge Raad, enz.;

Gelet op de middelen van cassatie, namens de req. door Mr. P.W.H.M. Haans, adv. te Bergen op Zoom, voorgedragen bij pleidooi, luidende:

'I.

Schending of verkeerde toepassing van het Nederlandse Recht en niet-inachtneming van op straffe van nietigheid voorgeschreven vormen, doordat de strafbaarstelling van het niet gevolg geven aan een bevel tot het zich onderwerpen aan een bloedonderzoek en het weigeren zijn medewerking te verlenen aan een bloedonderzoek, zoals bepaald in art. 33a, lid 3, WVW, inbreuk maakt op een beginsel van het Nederlandse strafprocesrecht namelijk, dat de verdachte wel verplicht kan worden tot het dulden van handelingen die de Justitie onvermijdelijk acht bij het zoeken naar de ware toedracht der feiten, doch dat de verdachte niet gestraft kan worden als hij de verlangde medewerking weigert.

Art. 33a, lid 3, WVW jo. art. 35, lid 1, WVW is in strijd met het beginsel, dat de verdachte niet gestraft wordt wegens het geen medewerking verlenen bij — c.q. de tegenwerking van — het verzamelen van bewijsmateriaal tegen de verdachte.

Zowel de PR in eerste aanleg als het Hof te 's-Hertogenbosch gaan er vanuit, dat art. 33a, lid 3, jo. art. 35, lid 1, WVW rechtskracht hebben, zulks ten onrechte, gezien de strijdigheid met het voormelde algemeen geldende rechtsbeginsel dat een verdachte niet verplicht is mede te werken aan het bijbrengen van aanwijzingen of bewijs, dat het feit, waarvan hij wordt verdacht, door hem is begaan.

II.

Schending of verkeerde toepassing van het Nederlandse Recht en niet-inachtneming van op straffe van nietigheid voorgeschreven vormen, doordat het Hof te 's-Hertogenbosch het vonnis van de PR in eerste instantie heeft bevestigd en heeft overwogen, dat de door req. als verdachte ter terechtzitting in hoger beroep aangevoerde omstandigheden voor het weigeren van de bloedproef, een weigering zonder meer niet vermogen te

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rechtvaardigen en het Hof te 's-Hertogenbosch het verweer van req. op dit punt van de hand heeft gewezen.

III.

Schending of verkeerde toepassing van het Nederlandse Recht en niet-inachtneming van op straffe van nietigheid voorgeschreven vormen, doordat het Hof te 's-Hertogenbosch het vonnis van de PR in de Rb. te Breda heeft bevestigd, o.a. overwegende, dat de behandeling van de zaak in hoger beroep — ook na het aldaar gehouden getuigenverhoor — het Hof tot geen andere beschouwingen dan die van de eerste Rechter heeft geleid, zulks terwijl het Hof met name uitgaat van het relaas en de bevindingen van de verbalisanten Wilhelmus Johannes Rijsdijk, hoofdagent van gemeentepolitie te Bergen op Zoom en van Leon Theodorus Heijmans, hoofdagent van de gemeentepolitie te Bergen op Zoom, welke verbalisanten, als getuigen in hoger beroep gehoord, elkaar in feite tegenspreken, zodat het Hof redelijkerwijs de bevindingen c.q. verklaringen van deze verbalisanten niet als bewijs kan doen gelden.

IV.

Schending of verkeerde toepassing van het Nederlandse Recht en niet-inachtneming van op straffe van nietigheid voorgeschreven vormen, doordat het Hof te 's-Hertogenbosch het vonnis in eerste aanleg heeft bevestigd, zulks mede op grond van het relaas van de verbalisant Snelders, welk relaas het Hof aanvult en wijzigt, zoals omschreven in de tweede overweging op pagina 2 van het arrest van het Hof sub 2, welke aanvulling en wijziging door het Hof redelijkerwijze niet in de zin zoals door het Hof gesteld, kan worden aangevoerd.

Req. heeft uitdrukkelijk ter terechtzitting van de strafzaak in hoger beroep verklaard — welke verklaring overigens niet in het p.-v. is gerelateerd — dat hij fout was in het weigeren van het verlenen van medewerking aan een bloedonderzoek, doch dat hij op de gronden zoals uiteengezet, desalniettemin deze medewerking weigerde te verlenen.

Alleen in die zin kan, redelijkerwijze gesproken, de uitlating van req. tegenover de verbalisant Snelders worden verstaan. De aantekening door de verbalisant Snelders van deze uitlating gemaakt, is door de req., in de zin zoals door het Hof opgevat, betwist. De verbalisant Snelders is niet als getuige ter terechtzitting in hoger beroep gehoord.

Het Hof negeert de verklaring van de req. omtrent diens uitlating, ter terechtzitting in hoger beroep afgelegd en onderstreept de uitlating zoals gerelateerd in het p.-v. opgemaakt door de gemeentepolitie te Bergen op Zoom, welk bewijsmiddel door het Hof redelijkerwijze niet in die zin mag worden gebezigd.

De uitlating kan redelijkerwijze ook niet worden verstaan in de zin, zoals door het Hof opgevat, gezien de hoeveelheid drank welke door de req. alvorens hij ging rijden, was genuttigd, alsmede gezien de constateringen door de verbalisanten Rijsdijk en Heijmans, die beiden stellen dat er geen termen waren om terzake van overtreding van art. 26, lid 1, WVW p.-v. tegen de req. op te maken.

V.

Schending of verkeerde toepassing van het Nederlandse Recht en niet-inachtneming van op straffe van nietigheid voorgeschreven vormen, doordat de door de PR in de Rb. te Breda opgelegde en door het Hof te 's-Hertogenbosch bevestigde straf, indien het aan de

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req. bij de inleidende dagvaarding telastegelegde terecht bewezen verklaard zou zijn, geenszins in overeenstemming is met de ernst van het gepleegde feit;'

Gehoord de Adv.-Gen. Remmelink, enz.;

O. dat bij het in zoverre in hoger beroep bevestigde vonnis van de PR ten laste van de req. is bewezen verklaard:

'dat hij op 17 mei 1975 in de gemeente Bergen op Zoom — nadat hem als bestuurder van een voertuig, die ervan werd verdacht te hebben gehandeld in strijd met art. 26 WVW, door de Brigadier van de gemeentepolitie G.J. Snelders zijnde een daartoe door de minister van Justitie aangewezen ambtenaar van gemeentepolitie overeenkomstig art. 33a, lid 2, van genoemde wet was bevolen zich aan een bloedonderzoek als bedoeld in art. 26, lid 2, van die wet te onderwerpen — aan dit bevel geen gevolg heeft gegeven en aan dat onderzoek zijn medewerking niet heeft verleend;'

O. dat het Hof deze bewezenverklaring heeft doen steunen op de volgende bewijsmiddelen:

1

een ambtsedig p.-v. no. 310 van 24 mei 1975, opgemaakt door Johannes Wilhelminus Rijsdijk, Leon Theodorus Heijmans, beiden hoofdagent van gemeentepolitie te Bergen op Zoom, en Gerardus Johannes Snelders, brigadier van gemeentepolitie te Bergen op Zoom, voor zover inhoudende, zakelijk weergegeven:

a.

als relaas van waarnemingen en bevindingen van verbalisanten Rijsdijk en Heijmans, ieder voor zich en eensluidend:

dat hij op 17 mei 1975 te omstreeks 1 uur heeft gezien, dat een persoon optrad als bestuurder van een personenauto en daarmee reed op de voor het openbaar verkeer openstaande weg, de Halsterseweg, te Bergenop Zoom;

dat deze bestuurder hem opgaf te zijn: Johannes Cornelis K. geboren te Sint Maartensdijk op 8 mei 1924, van beroep landbouwer, wonende te Sint Annaland (Tholen), Joanna Mariapolder ...;

dat hij als onmiddellijk herkenbare en sprekende symptomen van overmatig alcoholgebruik heeft geconstateerd, dat de adem van genoemde bestuurder sterk rook naar het gebruik van alcoholhoudende drank en dat zijn gang enigszins onvast was;

b.

als relaas van waarnemingen en bevindingen van verbalisant Snelders:

dat hij op 17 mei 1975 om 1.15 uur met inachtneming van het bepaalde in art. 33a, tweede lid, WVW verdachte K. heeft bevolen zich te onderwerpen aan een bloedonderzoek als bedoeld in art. 26, tweede lid, WVW;

dat verdachte K. toen aan dat bevel geen gevolg heeft gegeven en aan dat onderzoek zijn medewerking niet heeft verleend, zeggende: 'Ik weiger mij te onderwerpen aan een bloedonderzoek. Ik ben toch fout';

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2

de verklaring van req. ter terechtzitting, voor zover, zakelijk weergegeven, luidende:

'dat hij op 17 mei 1975 met zijn auto in Bergen op Zoom heeft gereden;

dat hij toen tevoren bier had gedronken;

dat hij toen heeft geweigerd zijn medewerking te verlenen aan een bloedproef;'

O. omtrent het derde middel:

dat daarmede kennelijk betoogd wil zijn, dat het Hof het hierboven onder 1 vermelde ambtsedig p.-v. voorzover inhoudende het onder a weergegeven relaas van de verbalisanten Rijsdijk en Heijmans, niet tot bewijs had mogen bezigen nu die verbalisanten, als getuigen in hoger beroep gehoord, elkaar hebben tegengesproken, doch het middel — aldus verstaan — reeds hierop afstuit, dat de waardering van de overtuigende kracht van een wettig bewijsmiddel is voorbehouden aan de rechter die over de feiten oordeelt;

O. omtrent het vierde middel:

dat het Hof de in het hierboven onder 1 vermelde ambtsedig p.-v. gerelateerde woorden van req. 'Ik ben toch fout' kennelijk aldus heeft verstaan, dat daarmede door req. tot uitdrukking werd gebracht, dat hij teveel alcoholhoudende drank gedronken had;

dat tegen deze — met die woorden niet onverenigbare — uitlegging van feitelijke aard in cassatie niet met vrucht kan worden opgekomen, zodat het middel geen doel treft;

O. omtrent het eerste middel:

dat art. 33a, derde lid, WVW de bestuurder van een motorrijtuig of een ander voertuig, tegen wie verdenking is gerezen dat hij heeft gehandeld in strijd met art. 26 van die wet en door wie toestemming tot het verrichten van een bloedonderzoek is geweigerd, verplicht gevolg te geven aan een bevel van de daarbedoelde ambtenaren zich aan een bloedonderzoek te onderwerpen en zijn medewerking te verlenen, terwijl het handelen in strijd met die bepaling bij art. 35 van die wet wordt bedreigd met een gevangenisstraf van ten hoogste drie maanden;

dat de wetgever aldus — in afwijking van de in het Wetboek van Strafvordering neergelegde regeling van de procesrechtelijke positie van de verdachte — bedoelde verdachte bestuurder verplicht mee te werken aan het verkrijgen van voor hem mogelijk bezwarend bewijsmateriaal;

dat voor de — kennelijk aan het middel ten grondslag liggende — opvatting, dat het de verkeerswetgever niet vrij gestaan zou hebben aldus te bepalen, geen grondslag is te vinden in het Nederlandse recht, waarin niet is verankerd een onvoorwaardelijk recht of beginsel dat een verdacht op generlei wijze kan worden verplicht tot het verlenen van medewerking aan het verkrijgen van voor hem mogelijk bezwarend bewijsmateriaal;

dat het de wetgever dan ook vrijstond de in art. 33a derde lid, WVW bedoelde verplichtingen in het leven te roepen en het handelen in strijd met die bepaling strafbaar te stellen, in aanmerking genomen, dat daardoor geen inbreuk werd gemaakt op het Europese Verdrag tot bescherming van de rechten van de mens en de fundamentele

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vrijheden, immers de in voormelde artt. 33a, derde lid, en 35 vervatte regeling niet in strijd is met enige bepaling van dat Verdrag en met name niet met het in art. 6, tweede lid, van dat Verdrag bepaalde, omdat de in voormeld art. 33a, lid 3, bedoelde verplichtingen niet van dien aard zijn, dat de regeling van die bepaling zou moeten worden gezegd te berusten op een door art. 6, tweede lid, van het Verdrag verboden veronderstelling van schuld;

dat het middel derhalve faalt;

O. naar aanleiding van het tweede middel en ambtshalve:

dat het p.-v. der terechtzitting in eerste aanleg inhoudt, dat req. aldaar o.m. heeft verklaard:

'dat hij de bloedproef niet wilde ondergaan, omdat toen hem tijdens zijn militaire diensttijd bloed werd afgenomen, hij daarvan veel last heeft gehad;'

dat req. aldus kennelijk heeft willen aanvoeren, dat afname van bloed bij hem om bijzondere geneeskundige redenen onwenselijk is, en aldus — waar ingeval van aannemelijkheid dier verklaring ingevolge art. 33a, vierde lid, WVW voor hem niet de verplichting gold aan het hem gegeven bevel zich aan een bloedonderzoek te onderwerpen gevolg te geven en zijn medewerking te verlenen — een verweer heeft gevoerd, waaromtrent de PR bepaaldelijk een beslissing had behoren te geven;

dat de PR evenwel heeft nagelaten een dergelijke beslissing te geven, zodat het in eerste aanleg gewezen vonnis aan nietigheid leed en het Hof dit niet, behoudens ten aanzien van de strafoplegging, had mogen bevestigen, zodat de beroepen uitspraak niet in stand kan blijven;

O. dat in verband hiermede een bespreking van het vijfde middel achterwege kan blijven;

Vernietigt de uitspraak, waarvan beroep;

Verwijst de zaak naar het Hof te Arnhem, ten einde op het bestaande hoger beroep opnieuw te worden berecht en afgedaan.

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NJ 1997, 232: Bewijsmateriaal dat is verkregen naar aanleiding van aan verdachte gedane vordering cfm. 81 AWR mocht tot bewijs worden gebezigd; nog...

Instantie: Hoge Raad (Strafkamer) Datum: 29 oktober 1996

Magistraten:

Hermans, Bleichrodt, Koster, Schipper, Aaftink, Van Dorst

Zaaknr: 102966

Conclusie: - LJN: ZD0562

Noot: T.M. Schalken Roepnaam: -

Wetingang: Sv art. 29; Sv art. 107; Sv art. 338; Sv art. 551; WED art. 18; EVRM art. 6 lid 1; WWM art. 52; WVW 1994 art. 8; WVW 1994 art. 163

Snel naar: EssentieVoorgaande uitspraakConclusieNoot

EssentieNaar boven

Bewijsmateriaal dat is verkregen naar aanleiding van een aan verdachte gedane vordering cfm. art. 81 AWR mocht tot het bewijs worden gebezigd; nog geen ‘criminal charge’.

Voorgaande uitspraakNaar boven

Arrest op het beroep in cassatie tegen een arrest van het Gerechtshof te Amsterdam van 28 april 1994 in de strafzaak tegen R.J., te Willemstad, Curaçao (Nederlandse Antillen), adv. mr. G. Spong te 's-Gravenhage.

Hof:

Bewezenverklaring

Ten laste van de verdachte is bewezenverklaard dat:

hij op tijdstippen in de periode van 1 april 1985 tot en met 1 april 1988 te Utrecht meermalen telkens opzettelijk een bij de belastingwet voorziene aangifte voor de inkomstenbelasting/premies volksverzekeringen onjuist en/of onvolledig heeft gedaan in een telkens door of vanwege de Inspecteur der Directe Belastingen te Utrecht gezonden, en telkens door hem, verdachte, ondertekend en telkens wederom aan die inspecteur gezonden aangiftebiljet inkomstenbelasting/premies volksverzekeringen, zulks terwijl daarvan telkens het gevolg zou hebben kunnen zijn dat te weinig belasting zou kunnen worden geheven, immers heeft hij, verdachte, telkens aldaar:

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op of omstreeks 1 april 1985 opzettelijk onjuist en/of onvolledig in het aangiftebiljet inkomstenbelasting/premies volksverzekeringen 1984 opgegeven dat het belastbaar inkomen ƒ 108 387 heeft bedragen, terwijl in werkelijkheid het belastbaar inkomen meer heeft bedragen dan het aangegeven bedrag, zulks terwijl daarvan het gevolg zou hebben kunnen zijn dat te weinig belasting zou kunnen worden geheven.

en (enz.; red.)

Verweer

De raadsman heeft ter terechtzitting in hoger beroep aangevoerd dat in deze zaak de bewijsgaring onrechtmatig heeft plaatsgevonden in dier voege dat op 30 november 1989 vorderingen tot uitlevering als bedoeld in art. 81 Algemene wet inzake rijksbelastingen (AWR) juncto art. 94 WvSv tegen verdachte zijn gedaan, strekkende tot directe uitlevering van de administratie van O. BV en van bankafschriften van een aantal bankrekeningen, onderscheidenlijk van arbeidscontracten, specificaties van effecten en van een aantal bankafschriften van een aantal bankrekeningen, welke vorderingen niet hadden mogen worden gedaan aangezien verdachte toen reeds als verdachte werd aangemerkt en zodanige vorderingen niet mogen worden gericht tot een persoon die reeds als verdachte valt aan te merken.

Ter staving van dat standpunt heeft de raadsman aangevoerd dat enerzijds de vraag of de in art. 81 AWR bedoelde vordering kan worden gedaan in het door de raadsman bedoelde geval in de wet is opengelaten, en anderzijds het arrest van het EHRM van 25 februari 1993, NJ 1993, 485 (Funke v Frankrijk), analoge toepassing van de artt. 107 lid 1, 125m lid 1 en 126alid 2 Sv, de door de Commissie herijking van het Wetboek van Strafvordering (Commissie Moons) geventileerde opvattingen, de arresten van de Hoge Raad van onderscheidenlijk 28 april 1988, NJ 1989, 390 en 16 januari 1928, NJ 1928, 233, het standpunt van de wetgever, zoals daarvan blijkt uit de MvT bij het wetsvoorstel tot herziening van het administratieve boetestelsel (Hand. Tweede Kamer 1993/1994, 23.470, p. 14–17 en p. 52), alsmede in het algemeen het 'nemo tenetur'-beginsel, nopen tot ontkennende beantwoording van die vraag, zulks anders dan is geoordeeld door de Rechtbank in het aangevallen vonnis.

Daaromtrent overweegt het Hof als volgt. Voorop dient te worden gesteld dat art. 81 AWR naar zijn bewoordingen aan de in dat artikel bedoelde opsporingsambtenaren een onbegrensd recht tot het doen van de in dat artikel bedoelde vordering verleent. De wetsgeschiedenis bevat geen aanwijzing dat aan die bevoegdheid beperkingen zijn gesteld, ook niet de beperking waarmee de Rechter-Commissaris in het gerechtelijk vooronderzoek zich ingevolge art. 107 lid 1 Sv geconfronteerd weet.

In het licht van de voortschrijdende rechtsontwikkeling zijn echter voor de beantwoording van de hier aan de orde zijnde vraag de bewoordingen der wet en de geschiedenis van haar totstandkoming evenwel niet, althans niet zonder meer doorslaggevend te achten, zoals de raadsman op zichzelf terecht heeft betoogd.

In aansluiting aan de overwegingen en beslissingen van de Hoge Raad in diens arrest van 26 oktober 1993, nr. 94.871, betrekking hebbende op de strafrechtelijke regelgeving van de artt. 40 en 41 Wegenverkeerswet (WVW), die zien op het geval dat een verkeersdelict is begaan door een bij de ontdekking van het feit onbekend gebleven bestuurder, is het Hof van oordeel dat in de eerste plaats heeft te gelden dat het niet in strijd met enige regel van geschreven of ongeschreven recht noch met enige verdragsrechtelijke bepaling

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— in welk verband in het bijzonder art. 6 Europees Verdrag tot bescherming van de rechten van de mens en de fundamentele vrijheden (EVRM) in aanmerking is te nemen — is te achten dat een vordering als bedoeld in art. 81 AWR wordt gedaan in het geval dat jegens degene tot wie die vordering zich richt niet sprake is van een verdenking een in verband met de belastingheffing strafbaar feit te hebben gepleegd, ook niet indien voldoen aan die vordering tot het verschaffen van gegevens zou leiden die grondslag zouden kunnen vormen voor het ontstaan van zodanige verdenking.

Anders is zulks ingeval degene tot wie de vordering zich richt reeds is 'charged with a criminal offence' in de zin van voormelde verdragsbepaling, hetgeen aldus is te verstaan dat jegens deze tevoren vanwege de Staat reeds een handeling is verricht waarin deze in redelijkheid de gevolgtrekking heeft kunnen verbinden dat tegen hem terzake van enig strafbaar feit van voormelde aard een strafvervolging zal worden ingesteld. In zulk een geval vormt het doen van de vordering als bedoeld in art. 81 AWR tot uitlevering van bescheiden een niet gerechtvaardigde inbreuk op het 'fair trial' beginsel, voor zover dat meebrengt dat hij niet gehouden is onder dwang informatie te verschaffen welke als bewijs van dat strafbaar feit tegen hem kan worden gebruikt. Alsdan dient art. 81 AWR buiten toepassing te worden gelaten, omdat toepassing van het in dat artikel bepaalde in strijd zou komen met voormelde verdragsbepaling.

In het onderhavige geval is echter gesteld noch gebleken, noch anderszins aannemelijk geworden dat verdachte reeds was 'charged with a criminal offence' in vorenbedoelde zin. De enkele omstandigheid dat verdachte op die datum reeds door de opsporingsambtenaren van de FIOD als verdachte was aangemerkt en hem bij verhoren was medegedeeld dat hij niet tot antwoorden verplicht was, leidt niet tot de slotsom dat tegen verdachte een 'criminal charge' in meergenoemde zin was uitgebracht.

Met betrekking tot de vraag of de vordering als bedoeld in art. 81 AWR kan worden gedaan jegens een persoon die reeds, doch vooralsnog slechts, ervan wordt verdacht een strafbaar feit (in verband met een belastingaangifte) te hebben gepleegd geldt het volgende.

Enerzijds is in het Nederlands recht niet verankerd een onvoorwaardelijk recht of beginsel dat een verdachte op generlei wijze kan worden verplicht tot het verlenen van medewerking aan het verkrijgen van voor hem mogelijk bezwarend bewijsmateriaal, anderzijds echter ligt aan art. 29 Sv het beginsel ten grondslag dat een verdachte niet kan worden verplicht tot het afleggen van een verklaring naar aanleiding van vragen of het verschaffen van stukken — het onderscheid tussen het mondeling of schriftelijk verschaffen van informatie acht het Hof in dit verband slechts gradueel van aard — waarvan niet kan worden gezegd dat zij in vrijheid is afgelegd onderscheidenlijk zijn verschaft.

Uit de wetsgeschiedenis met betrekking tot art. 81 AWR blijkt niet dat dat artikel heeft beoogd op evengenoemd beginsel een inbreuk te maken.

Redelijke uitleg nu van art. 81 AWR in verbinding met art. 184 Sr brengt naar het oordeel van het Hof mee dat in een geval als het onderhavige de vordering als bedoeld in art. 81 AWR weliswaar kon worden gedaan jegens verdachte, doch dat hij, nu hij op de dag waarop die vordering is gedaan reeds als verdachte werd aangemerkt, niet de verplichting had aan die vordering te voldoen en daaraan dus geen gevolg had behoeven

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te geven, alsmede dat het niet voldoen daaraan of gevolg geven daaraan niet kan worden geoordeeld een strafbaar feit op te leveren.

Voor het verdergaande standpunt van de raadsman dat het bevel in een geval als het onderhavige niet gegeven had mogen worden, en dat daarom het na het gegeven zijn van dat bevel verkregen materiaal niet voor het bewijs mag worden gebezigd, is in de door de raadsman aangedragen bronnen geen steun te vinden. Wat het arrest van de Hoge Raad van 16 januari 1928 betreft ziet de raadsman over het hoofd dat daarin — slechts — de vraag aan de orde was of aan opsporingsambtenaren een niet in de wet voorziene bevoegdheid diende te worden toegekend, in welk verband werd overwogen dat toekenning daarvan zou leiden tot een niet te aanvaarden verplichting van een verdachte aan zijn eigen veroordeling mede te werken — in zoverre wijkt 's Hofs hiervoren uiteengezette oordeel van de beslissing in dit arrest niet af — en, wat het arrest van de Hoge Raad van 26 april 1988 betreft, heeft te gelden dat weliswaar enerzijds juist is het betoog van de raadsman dat daarin niet méér is beslist dan dat de werkingssfeer van art. 81 AWR niet is beperkt tot een vordering tot uitlevering tegen de verdachte zelf, doch dat anderzijds in het in dat arrest behandelde geval het andersluidende betoog nu juist was gebaseerd op het uitgangspunt — anders dan door het Hof in dezen aangenomen — dat die vordering en de verplichting tot gevolg geven daaraan wel, zij het bij uitsluiting, de verdachte regardeerde.

Wat het beroep van de raadsman op art. 107 lid 1 Sv betreft overweegt het Hof nog dat het op zichzelf juist is dat art. 81 AWR aan opsporingsambtenaren bevoegdheden toekent die niet toekomen aan de Rechter-Commissaris, hetgeen opmerkelijk en niet voor de hand liggend is te achten, doch dat moet worden vastgesteld dat deze stand van zaken, door de annotator Van Veen (onder HR 20 maart 1984, NJ 1984, 547) kernachtig samengevat in de opmerking dat art. 107 Sv nu een zondags pak is uit een kostuummuseum, eveneens het gevolg is van de hoger genoemde rechtsontwikkeling na het tot stand komen van het Wetboek van Strafvordering.

Het Hof overweegt tenslotte nog dat zijn hiervoren weergegeven oordeel strookt met de gedachtengang, neergelegd in het voorstel van wet, houdende wijziging van de Algemene wet inzake rijksbelastingen en van de Invorderingswet 1990 in verband met de herziening van het stelsel van administratieve boeten en van het fiscale strafrecht (Tweede Kamer der Staten-Generaal nr. 23.470). In de — gewijzigde — Memorie van Toelichting (kamerstuk 23.470 A) wordt immers enerzijds bevestigd dat de verplichting bestaat tot het verschaffen van inlichtingen met het oog op richtige belastingheffing, doch wordt anderzijds het standpunt betrokken dat geen verplichting bestaat tot het verschaffen van inlichtingen voor degene, ten aanzien van wie, naar objectieve maatstaven beoordeeld, ernstig moet worden gerekend met de oplegging van een fiscale boete, welk onderscheid mede tot uitdrukking wordt gebracht doordien, als de belastingplichtige wordt benaderd in verband met onderzoek naar de vraag of al dan niet een boete moet worden opgelegd, zulks geschiedt door de in te stellen boete-inspecteur, in welk geval voor de belastingplichtige de in verdragen en in artikel 29 van het Wetboek van Strafvordering neergelegde waarborgen gaan gelden.

Uitspraak

Het Hof heeft in hoger beroep de verdachte ter zake van 'opzettelijk een bij de belastingwet voorziene aangifte onjuist doen, terwijl daarvan het gevolg zou kunnen zijn dat te weinig belasting zou kunnen worden geheven, meermalen gepleegd' veroordeeld

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tot het verrichten van onbetaalde arbeid ten algemenen nutte voor de duur van tweehonderdenveertig uren, in plaats van zes maanden gevangenisstraf alsmede tot een geldboete van tachtigduizend gulden, subsidiair zes maanden hechtenis.

Cassatiemiddelen:

Middel I

Het recht is geschonden en/of er zijn vormen verzuimd waarvan niet naleving nietigheid medebrengt.

In het bijzonder zijn de artt. 6 EVRM, 14 Internationaal Verdrag inzake burgerrechten en politieke rechten (IVBP) geschonden, doordien sinds het instellen van het beroep in cassatie op 10 mei 1994 en de eerste behandeling in cassatie op 27 februari 1996 een zodanig lange termijn (20½ maand) is verstreken welke termijn gelet op de totale duur van de procedure (verzoeker werd op 30 november 1989 als verdachte aangemerkt, vonnis rechtbank Utrecht d.d. 3 november 1992), die inmiddels 5 jaar en 3 maanden bedraagt, als een onredelijke termijn in de zin van de artt. 6 EVRM, 14 IVBP dient te worden beschouwd. Primair dient zulks vanwege de recidive in vertraging tot niet-ontvankelijkverklaring van het openbaar ministerie en subsidiair tot een aanmerkelijke strafvermindering te leiden.

Middel II

Het recht is geschonden en/of er zijn vormen verzuimd waarvan niet naleving nietigheid medebrengt.

In het bijzonder zijn de artt. 6 EVRM, 14 IVBP, 359, 415 Sv. geschonden, doordien het hof het door de raadsman van verzoeker gevoerd verweer inhoudende dat de bewijsgaring onrechtmatig heeft plaatsgevonden in dier voege dat op 30 november 1989 vorderingen tot uitlevering als bedoeld in art. 81 AWR juncto art. 94 WvSv tegen verdachte zijn gedaan, strekkende tot directe uitlevering van de administratie van O. BV en van bankafschriften van een aantal bankrekeningen, onderscheidenlijk van arbeidscontracten, specificaties van effecten en van een aantal bankafschriften van een aantal bankrekeningen, welke vorderingen niet hadden mogen worden gedaan aangezien verzoeker toen reeds als verdachte werd aangemerkt en zodanige vorderingen niet mogen worden gericht tot een persoon die reeds als verdachte valt aan te merken, aangezien één en ander in strijd is met het 'nemo tenetur-beginsel', heeft verworpen op gronden die deze verwerping niet kunnen dragen. De bewezenverklaring is op grond hiervan niet naar de eis der wet met redenen omkleed.

Toelichting

1

Het hof heeft op voormeld verweer als volgt, zakelijk weergegeven beslist: (enz.; zie onder Hof; red.)

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2

Vorenweergegeven weerlegging is ontoereikend en geeft blijk van een onjuiste rechtsopvatting nopens het begrip 'criminal charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM, 14 IVBP en het nemo tenetur-beginsel.

3

's Hofs oordeel dat niet aannemelijk is geworden dat verzoeker reeds op 30 november 1989 'charged with a criminal offence' was en de enkele omstandigheid dat verzoeker op die datum reeds door opsporingsambtenaren als verdachte was aangemerkt en hem bij verhoren was meegedeeld dat hij niet tot antwoorden verplicht was niet leidt tot de slotsom dat tegen verzoeker een 'criminal charge' in meergenoemde zin was uitgebracht, miskent dat het 'uitbrengen' van een 'charge' niet beslissend is.

4

Blijkens EHRM (Foti 3 en anderen vgl. ook inzake Corygliano) NJ 1987, 828 ECHR series A, vol. 56 is er sprake van een 'criminal charge' vanaf 'the official notification given to an individu by the competent authority of an allegation that he has committed a criminal offence; it may in some instances take the form of other measures which carry the implication of such an allegation and which likewise substantially affect the situation of the suspect'.

Uw Raad vertaalt dit als het moment waarop vanwege de Staat jegens de betrokkene een handeling wordt verricht waaruit deze heeft opgemaakt, en in redelijkheid heeft kunnen opmaken dat het OM het ernstige voornemen heeft een vervolging in te stellen (zie onder meer HR 22 mei 1979, NJ 1979, 301 en HR 6 januari 1981, NJ 1981, 207). Uit deze formulering blijkt dat het referentiepunt hierbij de verwachting van de verdachte in kwestie is, zij het dat dit subjectieve criterium in zoverre wel weer geobjectiveerd wordt dat diens verwachting redelijk geacht moet kunnen worden. De geobjectiveerde vraag of bijvoorbeeld een verhoor, een inverzekeringstelling of een aanvang gerechtelijk vooronderzoek zelf als aanvangsmoment gehanteerd mag worden, kan daarom niet eenduidig beantwoord worden; de vaststelling van dit aanvangsmoment is geen rechtskwestie, maar een oordeel van feitelijke aard. Opmerking verdient dat Corstens (Handboek, pg. 470) stelt dat verdedigd kan worden dat het materiële criterium van het Europees Hof voor de rechten van de mens (EHRM) 'measures which likewise substantially affect the situation of the suspect' ruimer is dan dat van de Hoge Raad, doordat het niet de door de Hoge Raad aangewezen geobjectiveerde maatstaf 'en in redelijkheid heeft kunnen opmaken' bevat en doordat het niet verwijst naar het risico van vervolging van het OM. Het criterium van het EHRM laat meer ruimte voor subjectivering, in die zin, dat het erom gaat dat bij de verdachte onzekerheid is ontstaan als gevolg van strafvorderlijk optreden, waarbij het er niet toe doet of deze berust op een verkeerde taxatie van het vervolgingsrisico.

5

Van een 'charge' in fiscale boetezaken is sprake wanneer de fiscus jegens de belastingplichtige een handeling onderneemt waaruit deze in redelijkheid de verwachting kan ontlenen dat de inspecteur hem een boete zal opleggen. Vgl.:

'—

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HR 23 juni 1993, BNB 1993/271.'

'Het aanzeggen of uitvoeren van de gewone periodieke controle is', aldus Wattel, 'niet zo'n handeling, al kan uiteraard een controle onder omstandigheden wel op een verdenking en vervolgens op een charge uitlopen. Vgl.:

'Wattel, NJCM Bulletin, 45 jaar Europees Verdrag voor de rechten van de mens, pg. 196.'

6

Zowel uit voormeld Foti-arrest als uit de rechtspraak van Uw Raad volgt mitsdien, dat het 'uitbrengen' van een charge geenszins beslissend is, maar een in concreto verrichte handeling waaruit de justitiabele een redelijke verwachting omtrent een vervolging kan ontlenen. In deze lijn past dan ook de aanvaarding van een politieverhoor als een criminal charge in de zin van art. 6 EVRM. Vgl.:

'—

HR NJ 1986, 494.'

In zijn arrest van 6 mei 1985, NJ 1985, 911 nam het hof Amsterdam ook aan, dat het moment waarop de verdachte werd gehoord door de FIOD gold als het moment waarop de redelijke termijn aanving. Zie ook:

'—

HR NJ 1985, 273.'

Op grond van het voorgaande dient derhalve aangenomen te worden dat het 'uitbrengen' van een criminal charge een te beperkte opvatting inhoudt nopens het begrip 'charge'. Voldoende is dat de verdachte merkt, dat sprake is van een charge. Vgl.:

'—

Wattel, o.c., pg. 197.'

7

Nu het hof met juistheid heeft overwogen dat art. 81 AWR buiten toepassing dient te worden gelaten, zodra er sprake is van 'charged with a criminal offence' dient het voorgaande tot de slotsom te leiden, dat reeds op deze grond 's hofs arrest niet in stand kan blijven. Opmerking verdient in dit verband nog, dat sprake is van een klein terminologisch verschil tussen art. 6 lid 1 en lid 2 EVRM. In lid 1 wordt gerept over een 'criminal charge', terwijl in lid 2 het voltooide deelwoord 'charged' gebruikt wordt. Aangezien het bepaalde in art. 6 lid 2 voor het strafproces een nadere uitwerking behelst van het in art. 6 lid 1 besloten recht op een eerlijk proces (vgl. EHRM 26 maart 1982 inzake Adolf en 21 februari 1984 inzake Öztürk) zal aan dit verschil in terminologie geen enkel gevolg verbonden kunnen worden.

8

In HR NJ 1988, 563 besliste Uw Raad echter, dat niet elk politieverhoor een 'charge' behelst. Het kan verschil uitmaken of iemand bekent of ontkent. Uit het op 1 december 1990 gehouden verhoor van verzoeker blijkt dat hij in ieder geval bekend heeft de

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opbrengsten van obligaties niet te hebben aangegeven. In zoverre is 's hofs oordeel te dezer zake onbegrijpelijk. De onbegrijpelijkheid van dit oordeel wordt voorts versterkt doordien, bij doorbreking van de zogeheten papieren muur — voor zover die nog bestaat — blijkt dat de vordering tot uitlevering op 30 november 1989 plaatsvond tijdens een tweede bezoek op het bedrijfadres van Norgips BV. Het eerste bezoek vond één dag eerder op 29 november 1989 plaats. Voorts dient hierbij ook in aanmerking genomen te worden dat de vordering tot uitlevering betrekking had op de navolgende bescheiden. (enz.; red.)

9

De vordering tot uitlevering ter gelegenheid van een tweede bezoek van verbalisanten, de aard van de gevorderde bescheiden en de uitvoerigheid daarvan, brengen tot uitdrukking dat op dat moment sprake was van een 'charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM. In combinatie met het aansluitende verhoor één dag later op 1 december 1989, waarbij aan verzoeker de cautie is gegeven, kan in redelijkheid de conclusie geen andere zijn dan dat er alstoen niet alleen sprake was van een aanmerken van verzoeker als verdachte, zoals het hof overweegt, maar tevens sprake was van een 'charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM, 14 IVBP die voor verzoeker merkbaar moet zijn geweest. Je moet onder de gegeven omstandigheden wel een heel grote sukkel zijn om niet te merken dat je verdachte bent. Tegen de achtergrond van twee rechterlijke uitspraken (HR NJ 1985, 273 en Hof Amsterdam NJ 1985, 911) waarin een verhoor bij de FIOD als 'charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM is aangemerkt valt het moeilijk te verkopen, dat nu ineens niet meer te aanvaarden. In alle gevallen staat een misdrijf van dezelfde ernst (een belastingontduiking) centraal. In het licht van deze jurisprudentie is 's hofs oordeel als hiervoren weergegeven en gewraakt derhalve onbegrijpelijk.

10

Ook in het geval echter waarin zou moeten worden aangenomen, dat in het onderhavige geval nog geen sprake is van een 'charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM had het hof geen gebruik mogen maken van de resultaten van een in die situatie op zich zelf rechtmatig (op basis van art. 81 AWR) gegeven vordering tot uitlevering, aangezien gelet op de hiervoren vermelde omstandigheden waaronder de vordering tot uitlevering is gedaan sprake is geweest van 'incriminating evidence obtained from him (verzoeker) under compulsory powers' zoals de Europese Commissie voor de rechten van de mens (ECRM) in haar rapport d.d. 10 mei 1994 (Sanders tegen het VK), FED 1995/2, overwoog. In dit verband overwoog de Commissie:

'...the applicant was required by law to answer the questions put to him by the DTI inspectors in the course of their investigation, whether or not they tended to incriminate him. A refusal to answer could have been punished, on reference to the court by a penalty of up to two years imprisonment of by a fine (…) (…) The Commission finds that the use at the applicant's trial of incriminating evidence obtained from him under compulsory powers was oppressive and substantially impaired his ability to defend himself against the criminal charge against him. He was therefore deprived for a fair hearing (…)'.'

11

's Hofs oordeel, dat de vordering als bedoeld in art. 81 AWR jegens verzoeker gedaan mocht worden, doch dat hij, nu hij op de dag waarop die vordering is gedaan, reeds als

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verdachte was aangemerkt, niet de verplichting had aan die vordering te voldoen en daaraan dus geen gevolg had behoeven te geven, miskent het voorgaande. Overigens ligt in deze overweging een détournement de pouvoir besloten. De bevoegdheid tot het doen van een vordering bestaat slechts indien daartegenover een verplichting bestaat daaraan te voldoen. Iets anders is het doen van een verzoek. Door het doen van een vordering in een geval waar geen verplichting tot naleving bestaat wordt de burger op ontoelaatbare wijze misleid. Beginselen van een behoorlijke procesorde verzetten zich ertegen de resultaten van een vordering, die onder die omstandigheden is gegeven, voor het bewijs te bezigen. Het gezag dat politie c.q. justitiële ambtenaren verdienen te hebben brengt immers mee, dat de burger er op moet kunnen vertrouwen dat bevoegdheden niet misbruikt worden en derhalve uitsluitend aangewend worden in gevallen of omstandigheden waarin de betrokken opsporingsambtenaren de litigieuze bevoegdheid rechtens mogen gebruiken.

12

Met Corstens meent verzoeker in dit verband dat een dwangmiddel een species van het genus bevoegdheid is. 'Het begrip bevoegdheid, aldus Corstens, duidt op het met een zekere exclusiviteit tot iets gerechtigd zijn en dit desnoods door feitelijke dwang of door een ander machtsmiddel kracht bijzetten.' Vgl.:

'G.J.M. Corstens, Handboek, pg. 337.'

13

Corstens is in dit verband van mening dat het met uitdrukkelijke toestemming van de bewoner diens huis binnengaan, terwijl de bewoner niet weet dat de bewoner de opsporingsambtenaar de toegang had mogen beletten, onjuist optreden van die opsporingsambtenaar (curs. G.S.) oplevert. Dit binnentreden is onrechtmatig aldus Corstens.

Corstens, o.c., pg. 339.

14

Met dezelfde redenering dient aangenomen te worden, dat het hanteren van de bevoegdheid uitlevering van voorwerpen te vorderen ex art. 81 AWR in een geval, waarin een zodanige bevoegdheid vanwege het feit dat de betrokkene reeds als verdachte is aangemerkt rechtens niet (meer) bestaat, eveneens onjuist optreden van de opsporingsambtenaren oplevert. Die vordering is, gelijk als in het voorbeeld van binnentreden, onrechtmatig. Aldus beschouwd zijn er mitsdien ook vanuit deze optiek, de straffeloosheid terzake van art. 184 Sr. daargelaten, bewijsbeletselen voor het bezigen van de resultaten van de vordering tot uitlevering d.d. 30 november 1989.

15

's Hofs oordeel, dat voor het standpunt van de raadsman inhoudende dat het bevel in een geval als het onderhavige niet gegeven had mogen worden, en dat daarom het na het gegeven zijn van dat bevel verkregen materiaal niet voor het bewijs mag worden gebezigd in de door de raadsman aangedragen bronnen geen steun te vinden is, is mitsdien onjuist.

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16

De slotsom luidt dan ook dat de vordering tot uitlevering onder de gegeven omstandigheden en het verhoor van verzoeker door de FIOD beschouwd moeten worden als een 'charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM, 14 IVBP, subsidiair dat de vordering tot uitlevering onrechtmatig is, nu verzoeker zoals het hof heeft vastgesteld ten tijde daarvan als verdachte werd aangemerkt. In dat laatste geval is een verbod op het bezigen voor het bewijs van de vruchten van die uitlevering te steunen op het nationaal strafvorderlijk gegeven dat evenbedoelde vordering als onrechtmatig dient te worden beschouwd (zie nr. 12 t/m 15) alsook op grond van ECRM d.d. 10 mei 1994 inzake Saunders. Door het doen van een onrechtmatige vordering, althans een vordering tegen een als verdachte aangemerkte persoon is er sprake van 'incriminating evidence obtained ... under compulsory powers', welk bewijs 'oppressive and substantially impaired his ability to defend himself against the criminal charge against him' te achten is. Op grond van al het vorenstaande berust de verwerping van het gevoerde bewijsverweer op ontoereikende gronden, zodat 's hofs arrest niet in stand kan blijven.

Hoge Raad:

5. Beoordeling van het eerste middel

5.1

Uit de desbetreffende akte blijkt dat het cassatieberoep op 10 mei 1994 is ingesteld, terwijl uit een op de met de gedingstukken meegestuurde begeleidende brief geplaatst stempel blijkt dat die stukken op 24 november 1995 ter griffie van de Hoge Raad zijn ingekomen. De Hoge Raad heeft de zaak voor de eerste maal behandeld ter terechtzitting van 27 februari 1996.

5.2

In aanmerking genomen:

a.

dat tussen de datum waarop het cassatieberoep is ingesteld en de datum waarop de stukken van het geding ter griffie van de Hoge Raad zijn ontvangen meer dan achttien maanden zijn verstreken, waardoor de eerste behandeling door de Hoge Raad meer dan eenentwintig maanden na het instellen van dat beroep heeft plaatsgevonden;

b.

dat niet is gebleken van bijzondere omstandigheden die het onder (a) bedoelde tijdsverloop zouden kunnen rechtvaardigen,

moet worden geoordeeld dat de behandeling van de onderhavige zaak in cassatie niet heeft plaatsgevonden binnen een redelijke termijn als bedoeld in art. 6 EVRM.

5.3

Voorzover het middel klaagt over de schending van genoemde verdragsbepaling is het dus terecht voorgesteld.

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6. Beoordeling van het tweede middel

6.1

In cassatie moet van het volgende worden uitgegaan. In het kader van een opsporingsonderzoek hebben opsporingsambtenaren van de FIOD op 30 november 1989 van J. de uitlevering ter inbeslagneming gevorderd van bepaalde, in de desbetreffende vorderingen omschreven, administratieve bescheiden, aan welke vorderingen J. heeft voldaan. Hetgeen is in beslag genomen heeft bijgedragen tot het bewijs. Die vorderingen waren gebaseerd op art. 81 Algemene wet inzake rijksbelastingen (AWR) en toen zij werden gedaan beschouwden die opsporingsambtenaren J. reeds als verdachte. Tegen hem was echter nog geen vervolging ingesteld en evenmin was hij reeds als verdachte door de opsporingsambtenaren gehoord.

6.2

Art. 81 AWR houdt in dat de daar bedoelde opsporingsambtenaren te allen tijde bevoegd zijn tot inbeslagneming van de ingevolge het Wetboek van Strafvordering voor inbeslagneming vatbare voorwerpen en bepaalt voorts dat die opsporingsambtenaren daartoe de uitlevering van zodanige voorwerpen kunnen vorderen.

6.3

Het ter terechtzitting in hoger beroep gevoerde verweer strekt ten betoge dat vorderingen als de onderhavige niet mogen worden gericht tegen een verdachte en dat derhalve hetgeen ter voldoening aan genoemde vorderingen is uitgeleverd en in beslag genomen als onrechtmatig verkregen niet tot het bewijs mag worden gebezigd. Daarbij is onder meer aangevoerd dat door de gang van zaken art. 6, eerste lid, EVRM is geschonden voorzover die bepaling aan een ieder 'in the determination ... of any criminal charge against him' aanspraak geeft op een 'fair trial'.

6.4

Het Hof heeft dat verweer verworpen. In de eerste plaats heeft het Hof geoordeeld dat toen de vorderingen werden gedaan nog geen sprake was van een 'criminal charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM. Was dat al wel het geval geweest dan zou, aldus het Hof, een tot de verdachte gerichte vordering als bedoeld in art. 81 AWR tot uitlevering van bescheiden een niet gerechtvaardigde inbreuk vormen op het 'fair trial' beginsel. Het Hof heeft voorts geoordeeld dat hetgeen in deze zaak is in beslag genomen nadat aan de desbetreffende vorderingen tot uitlevering was voldaan, tot het bewijs mag worden gebezigd. In het middel wordt aangevoerd dat het Hof het verweer op ontoereikende gronden heeft verworpen en dat derhalve de bewezenverklaring niet naar de eis der wet met redenen is omkleed.

6.5

De primaire klacht van het middel richt zich tegen het oordeel van het Hof dat ten tijde dat de op art. 81 AWR gebaseerde vorderingen werden gedaan nog geen sprake was van een 'criminal charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM.

6.6

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Van een 'criminal charge' in de zin van die verdragsbepaling is sprake indien vanwege de Staat jegens de betrokkene een handeling is verricht waaraan deze in redelijkheid de gevolgtrekking heeft kunnen verbinden dat tegen hem een strafvervolging zal worden ingesteld.

Voorzover de primaire klacht van het middel blijkens de toelichting tot uitgangspunt neemt dat het Hof door te spreken van het 'niet uitgebracht zijn van een criminal charge in de zin van art. 6 EVRM' iets anders tot uitdrukking heeft gebracht dan dat er ten tijde van die vorderingen nog geen sprake was van een 'criminal charge' in de zin van die verdragsbepaling en aldus van een te beperkte opvatting omtrent dat begrip is uitgegaan, berust het op een verkeerde lezing van 's Hofs overwegingen en mist het derhalve feitelijke grondslag.

Ook overigens is die klacht tevergeefs voorgesteld. 's Hofs oordeel, hierop neerkomend dat onder de omstandigheden als hiervoor onder 6.1 weergegeven ten tijde van het doen van die vorderingen nog geen sprake was van een 'criminal charge' als bedoeld in art. 6 EVRM, geeft niet blijk van een verkeerde rechtsopvatting en is niet onbegrijpelijk.

6.7

De subsidiaire klacht van het middel keert zich tegen het oordeel van het Hof dat de omstandigheid dat een betrokkene ten tijde dat een op art. 81 AWR gebaseerde vordering wordt gedaan reeds als verdachte wordt aangemerkt er niet aan in de weg staat om het op grond van die vordering verkregen materiaal tot het bewijs te bezigen.

Bij de beoordeling van die klacht moet het volgende worden vooropgesteld. In het Nederlandse recht is niet verankerd een onvoorwaardelijk recht of beginsel dat een verdachte op generlei wijze kan worden verplicht tot het verlenen van medewerking aan het verkrijgen van voor hem mogelijk bezwarend bewijsmateriaal. Wel brengt het aan art. 29 Sv ten grondslag liggende beginsel mee dat een verdachte niet kan worden verplicht tot het afleggen van een verklaring waarvan niet kan worden gezegd dat zij in vrijheid is afgelegd. In het onderhavige geval gaat het echter niet om het afleggen van een verklaring of het desgevorderd verschaffen van schriftelijke inlichtingen door de verdachte omtrent zijn mogelijke betrokkenheid bij een strafbaar feit, maar om het afgeven van administratieve bescheiden.

6.8

Bepalingen met een soortgelijke strekking als art. 81 AWR komen voor in art. 551 Sv en in verschillende bijzondere wetten, zoals de WED (art. 18) en de Wet wapens en munitie (art. 52). In geen van die bepalingen wordt onderscheid gemaakt al naar gelang de vordering is gericht tot de verdachte of tot een derde, zoals dat bijvoorbeeld wel is geschied in art. 107 Sv voor vorderingen gedaan in het kader van een gerechtelijk vooronderzoek. De wetsgeschiedenis biedt evenmin aanknopingspunten voor de stelling dat bij de handhaving van die bijzondere wetten opsporingsambtenaren zodanige vordering niet tot de verdachte mogen richten. Aangenomen moet worden dat de wetgever zich op het standpunt heeft gesteld dat een vorm van medewerking van de verdachte als waarvan in die bepalingen sprake is, gelet op de bij de handhaving van de desbetreffende strafbepalingen betrokken belangen en de specifieke eisen en problemen van de waarheidsvinding in zodanige zaken kon en moest worden verlangd, zoals ook van degene die verdacht wordt van overtreding van art. 8 WVW 1994 ingevolge art. 163

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van die wet kan worden gevorderd dat hij zijn medewerking verleent aan een ademonderzoek.

6.9

In dit verband verdient opmerking dat in het wetsvoorstel 23 251, tot Partiële wijziging van het Wetboek van Strafvordering (herziening van het gerechtelijk vooronderzoek) in het voorgestelde art. 96a voor bepaalde gevallen is voorzien in een bevoegdheid van de opsporingsambtenaar tot het bevelen van de uitlevering van voor inbeslagneming vatbare voorwerpen, hoedanig bevel echter niet kan worden gegeven aan de verdachte. Voorts behelst dat wetsvoorstel een wijziging van art. 551 Sv, inhoudende dat in de daarin voorziene gevallen een vordering tot uitlevering door de opsporingsambtenaar alleen kan worden gedaan — doch dan ook jegens de verdachte — voorzover die vordering strekt om de verbeurdverklaring of onttrekking aan het verkeer van de daarin bedoelde voorwerpen mogelijk te maken en dus niet met het oog op de inbeslagneming van voorwerpen die kunnen dienen om de waarheid aan de dag te brengen. Dat wetsvoorstel voorziet voorts niet in wijzigingen in bovengenoemde bepalingen in bijzondere wetten. Uit de memorie van antwoord (Kamerstukken II 1993/94, 23 251, nr. 6, blz. 2 en 5) kan worden afgeleid dat daarbij onder ogen is gezien dat in afwijking van het voor het Wetboek van Strafvordering voorgestelde systeem in bepaalde bijzondere wetten een bevel tot uitlevering wel tot de verdachte kan worden gericht alsmede dat 'de bijzondere wetgever altijd de mogelijkheid zal moeten hebben op het delict toegesneden bevoegdheden te creëren'.

6.10

Uit het voorgaande volgt dat het in de subsidiaire klacht aangevallen oordeel van het Hof juist is wat er zij van de overwegingen die het Hof aan dat oordeel ten grondslag heeft gelegd. De klacht faalt dus.

6.11

Het middel is dus tevergeefs voorgesteld.

7. Slotsom

De Hoge Raad oordeelt geen grond aanwezig waarop de bestreden uitspraak ambtshalve zou behoren te worden vernietigd. Hetgeen hiervoor onder 5 is overwogen dient te leiden tot een vermindering van de straf als hieronder te bepalen, aangezien bij afweging van enerzijds het belang dat de gemeenschap ook na overschrijding van de redelijke termijn als bedoeld in art. 6 EVRM behoudt bij normhandhaving door berechting en anderzijds het belang dat de verdachte heeft bij verval van het recht tot strafvervolging nadat die termijn is overschreden, eerstgenoemd belang te dezen prevaleert en derhalve geen grond aanwezig is voor niet-ontvankelijkverklaring van het Openbaar Ministerie in zijn vervolging.

8. Beslissing

De Hoge Raad:

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Vernietigt de bestreden uitspraak, doch uitsluitend voor wat betreft de duur van de in plaats van zes maanden gevangenisstraf opgelegde straf van het verrichten van onbetaalde arbeid ten algemenen nutte;

Vermindert die duur tot tweehonderdtwintig uren in plaats van vijf maanden gevangenisstraf;

Verwerpt het beroep voor het overige.

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NJ 1998, 173: Nemo tenetur-beginsel / vordering ex 19 WED tot inzage in bescheiden niet in strijd met 6 lid 1 EVRM, ook al zou sprake zijn geweest ...

Instantie: Hoge Raad (Strafkamer) Datum: 21 oktober 1997

Magistraten:

Hermans, Bleichrodt, Corstens

Zaaknr: 105652E

Conclusie:

A-G Machielse

LJN: ZD0834

Noot: - Roepnaam: -

Wetingang: Sv art. 29; EVRM art. 6 lid 1; EVRM art. 6 lid 2; WED art. 19

Snel naar: EssentieVoorgaande uitspraakConclusie

EssentieNaar boven

Nemo tenetur-beginsel. De vordering ex art. 19 WED tot inzage in bescheiden is niet in strijd met art. 6 lid 1 EVRM, ook al zou er sprake zijn geweest van een verdenking. Art. 29 Sv ziet niet op afgeven van administratieve bescheiden.

Voorgaande uitspraakNaar boven

Arrest op het beroep in cassatie tegen een arrest van het Gerechtshof te 's-Gravenhage, Economische Kamer, van 12 september 1996 in de strafzaak tegen C.T.K., te Hellevoetsluis, adv. mr. J.B. Vallenduuk te Haarlem.

Hof:

Bewezenverklaring

Ten laste van de verdachte is bewezenverklaard dat hij op 16 mei 1994 te Vlaardingen opzettelijk niet heeft voldaan aan een krachtens artikel 19, eerste lid van de Wet op de economische delicten door de opsporingsambtenaar A. Lingen, Rijkscontroleur van het verkeer bij de Rijksverkeersinspectie, tevens onbezoldigd ambtenaar van het Korps Rijkspolitie, bij een controle op de naleving van de bepalingen van het Rijtijdenbesluit, gedane vordering om de door bij H. BV in dienstbetrekking zijnde bemanningsleden in de periode van 8 november 1993 tot en met 19 december 1993 gebezigde registratiebladen, waarvan naar het redelijk oordeel van die opsporingsambtenaar inzage voor de vervulling van zijn taak nodig was, ter inzage te geven.

Verweer

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De raadsman van verdachte heeft gesteld dat de vordering ex artikel 19 Wet op de economische delicten (WED) onrechtmatig was, aangezien deze strijdig was met artikel 6 lid 1 van het Europees Verdrag tot bescherming van de rechten van de mens en de fundamentele vrijheden (EVRM).

Het hof verwerpt dit verweer.

Immers op het moment dat de vordering ex artikel 19 WED werd gedaan, was er tegen verdachte nog geen verdenking van een strafbaar feit en was er dus nog geen sprake van een 'criminal charge' tegen verdachte in de zin van artikel 6 lid 1 EVRM.

De raadsman heeft nog gesteld, dat verdachte verdacht werd van een strafbaar feit, omdat hij weigerde, na een aankondiging van een bedrijfsonderzoek, aan een verzoek om bescheiden klaar te leggen en ter inzage af te geven te voldoen. Echter, het na een aankondiging van een bedrijfsonderzoek weigeren aan een verzoek om bescheiden klaar te leggen en ter inzage af te geven te voldoen, levert, voordat de vordering ex artikel 19 WED is gedaan, geen strafbaar feit op.

Uitspraak

Het Hof heeft in hoger beroep — met vernietiging van een vonnis van de Economische Politierechter in de Arrondissementsrechtbank te Rotterdam van 25 januari 1995 — de verdachte ter zake van 'opzettelijk niet voldoen aan een vordering krachtens enig voorschrift van de Wet op de economische delicten gedaan door een opsporingsambtenaar' veroordeeld tot een geldboete van twintigduizend gulden, subsidiair éénhonderdtwintig dagen hechtenis, waarvan tienduizend gulden, subsidiair vijftig dagen hechtenis voorwaardelijk met een proeftijd van twee jaren.

Cassatiemiddel:

Het Hof heeft het recht geschonden en/of vormen verzuimd, waarvan de niet-naleving nietigheid meebrengt. In het bijzonder is artikel 6 lid 1 EVRM en artikel 29 Wetboek van Strafvordering geschonden en wel op grond van het navolgende.

Ten onrechte heeft het Hof in het arrest het verweer namens requirant gepasseerd dat de vordering ex artikel 19 WED strijdig is met het beginsel van een 'fair trial' in de zin van artikel 6 lid 1 EVRM. Het Gerechtshof heeft geoordeeld dat geen omstandigheid aannemelijk is geworden die de ontvankelijkheid van het Openbaar Ministerie aantast, dan wel strafbaarheid van de verdachte uitsluit.

Toelichting

1

De vordering van de opsporingsambtenaar ex artikel 19 lid 1 WED is onrechtmatig aangezien deze strijdig is met het in artikel 6 lid 1 EVRM belichaamde recht van de verdachte om niet mee te hoeven werken aan zijn eigen veroordeling zijnde onderdeel van het recht op een 'fair trial'. Artikel 26 WED stelt straf op het opzettelijk niet voldoen

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aan een vordering van een opsporingsambtenaar. Bij arrest van 9 oktober 1984 heeft uw Raad zich uitgelaten over dezelfde vraag die ik nu voorleg; nl. kan een verdachte zich in dit geval beroepen op het 'nemo tenetur'-beginsel? In uw arrest van 1984 kwam naar voren dat:

'In het Nederlands recht niet verankerd is een onvoorwaardelijk recht of beginsel dat een verdachte op generlei wijze kan worden verplicht tot het verlenen van medewerking aan het verkrijgen van voor hem mogelijk bezwarend bewijsmateriaal.'

2

In het Funke-arrest (EHRM 25 februari 1993) heeft het Europese Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens het nemo tenetur-beginsel onder het in artikel 6 lid 1 neergelegde beginsel van het recht op een 'fair trial' gebracht. Dit beginsel geldt overigens niet slechts na de 'criminal charge' maar al vanaf het moment van de verdenking tot het moment van onherroepelijke einduitspraak[1]. Ook in de zaak Funke is er een eis onder bedreiging van straf tot het verstrekken van inzage in bescheiden (bankafschriften) die zouden aantonen dat Funke een strafbaar feit had begaan. Uiteindelijk legde de Franse rechtbank een boete van FF 1200 op met het bevel de douane inzage te verstrekken. Voor elke dag dat Funke te laat was werd een boete van FF 20 opgelegd. Artikel 65 van de Franse douanewet hield in, dat de douane 'inzage mocht vorderen in alle papieren en documenten die betrekking hebben op handelingen die voor hun dienst van belang zijn'. Op weigering stond boete en/of gevangenisstraf.

3

Het Hof stelde:

'Being unable or unwilling to procure them by some other means, they (de douane) attempted to compel the applicant himself to provide evidence of offences he had allegedly committed. The special features of customs law cannot justify such an infringement of the right of anyone 'charged with a criminal offence', within the autonomous meaning of this expression in Art. 6 to remain silent and not to contribute to incriminating himself.'

Het Hof oordeelt dat er een inbreuk op artikel 6 lid 1 EVRM, waarbij het nemo tenetur-beginsel als onderdeel van het recht op een fair hearing wordt gezien. Ik wijs in dit verband op de uitvoerige noot van Knigge onder het Funke-arrest en citeer daar uit:

'Een verplichting tot zelfbeschuldiging vormt een ontoelaatbare beknotting van de vrijheid die de verdachte als procespartij heeft.'

en:

'Het punt is zo gezien niet dat Funke werd veroordeeld, maar dat hij werd veroordeeld met het doel ('in order to') het bewijsmateriaal in handen te krijgen. Het is het gebruik van de veroordeling als een drukmiddel om Funke te dwingen ('to compel') bewijs tegen zich zelf te leveren, die maakt dat het verdrag geschonden is.'

4

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In 1994 is bij uw Raad al een beroep gedaan op het Funke-arrest tot het getuigenverhoor ingevolge artikel 66 Faillissementswet (HR 11–2–1994, NJ 1994, 336). Uw Raad heeft daar al onder verwijzing van het Funke-arrest erkend:

'het in artikel 6 EVRM besloten liggende beginsel dat niemand verplicht is tot medewerking aan het leveren van bewijs dat kan bijdragen tot zijn strafrechtelijke veroordeling'.'

Het lijkt mij dat uw Raad daar al is om gegaan ten opzichte van het arrest uit 1984 ter zake artikel 19 WED.

5

In chronologische volgorde kan daar nog aan worden toegevoegd de consequenties van het Murray-arrest (EHRM 8 februari 1996) uitvoerig besproken in het Advocatenblad van 10 mei 1996. Die uitspraak versterkt het nemo tenetur-beginsel:

'the privilege against self-incrimination are generally recognised international standards which lie at the heart of the notion of a fair procedure under Article 6 ... (volgt verwijz. naar Funke).'

6

Het Hof Den Haag heeft in de onderhavige zaak het beroep van verdachte op het beginsel van een 'fair trial' afgewezen, omdat naar haar bevinden op het moment dat de vordering ex artikel 19 WED werd gedaan, er nog geen verdenking van een strafbaar feit bestond. Dit is van feitelijke aard en onttrekt zich aan toetsing door uw Raad. Deze benadering zal er echter toe leiden, dat het in het Nederlandse strafrecht onderscheiden optreden van opsporingsinstanties in de sfeer van toezicht op de naleving en/of controle (versus opsporingsonderzoek) zich kan onttrekken aan de toetsing van het 'fair trial-beginsel' ex artikel 6 lid 1 EVRM. In geval men weigert te voldoen aan een vordering ex artikel 19 WED blijft de toetsing aan het nemo tenetur-beginsel achterwege. Immers zal het rechtssubject, tegen welk controlebevoegdheden op grond van de Rijtijdenwet en de WED worden uitgeoefend, tot aan de eis om te voldoen aan de vordering ex artikel 19 WED, in het Nederlandse stelsel kunnen worden beschouwd, als iemand waartegen geen vermoeden van een strafbaar feit bestaat. Die status van onverdacht rechtssubject baseert het Openbaar Ministerie dan uitsluitend en alleen op de uitgeoefende bevoegdheden. Die vallen nog niet in de opsporingsfase. Er is dan dus op grond van deze visie nog geen 'criminal charge'. Een dergelijke benadering past evenmin in het 'fair trial'-beginsel, omdat het rechtssubject onder dwang moet kiezen uit twee kwaden. Of hij geeft inzage in de bescheiden op grond van artikel 19 WED en dan zal blijken dat hij strafbare feiten heeft begaan. In relatie tot deze verdachte waren er gebaseerd op artikel 4 van de Rijtijdenwet in het dossier overigens voldoende aanwijzingen, doch zouden zeker vast komen staan bij een onderzoek van tachoschijven over een periode van 6 weken. Hij mocht er op grond van eerdere ervaringen van uitgaan dat strafbaarstelling zou plaatsvinden op grond van een of meer economische delicten. Of hij weigert en wordt zoals hier gebeurde vervolgd voor het misdrijf van artikel 26 WED. Deze keuze plaatst het rechtssubject in een ongelijke procespositie ten opzichte van het Openbaar Ministerie. De kunstmatigheid waarmee het rechtssubject tot aan de 'criminal charge' door de aanzegging van artikel 19 WED, wordt beschouwd als een uiterst integere vervoerondernemer, staat in schril contrast met de verbetenheid waarmee de Rijksverkeersinspectie op verdachte afging. De benadering van het Hof legt op deze wijze

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ook de status van verdachte bij uitsluiting in handen van de opsporingsambtenaar. Als het deze belieft om geen cautie te geven, of anderszins de overgang van de status van rechtssubject in die verdachte te markeren, wordt hem het recht op een 'fair trial' ontnomen. Het kan niet zo zijn dat het aanspraak maken op een grondrecht afhankelijk is van de wijze waarop opsporingsambtenaren al dan niet gekunsteld bevoegdheden uitoefenen c.q. nalaten uit te oefenen.

7

De Rijksverkeersinspectie oefent ook ongeoorloofde pressie uit, waarbij het rechtssubject vooraf niet vrij is om zijn positie te bepalen. Er was immers sprake van dwang gericht op afgifte van bescheiden, die ertoe zouden kunnen leiden dat cliënt van strafbare feiten zou worden beticht. Bij een weigering afgifte te doen wordt, met name nu de weigering zelf strafbaar is gesteld, wel degelijk dwang uitgeoefend en bovendien is bij overtredingen van de Rijtijdenwet het bewijs voornamelijk gebaseerd op het door verdachte, onder dwang verstrekte bewijsmateriaal. Volgens Schalken[2] gaat het Europese Hof er van uit dat er geen plicht tot uitlevering bestaat en mogen burgers in het algemeen weigeren schriftelijke informatie te verstrekken of documenten uit te leveren indien zij daardoor een verdenking op zich laadt of reeds verdacht is. Schalken haalt daarbij Swart aan in AA 1993/9, p. 679. Schalken zegt zelfs dat het rechterlijk dwangbevel bij Funke de 'criminal charge' was, dit in relatie tot het gronddelict 'belastingfraude'. Schalken zegt in zijn noot wel (over het nemo tenetur-principe):

'Uitzonderingen zijn toegelaten, doch die mogen de kern van het eerlijk proces — en dus de mogelijkheid om de gevolgen voor de besluitvorming op de zitting te beïnvloeden — niet aantasten. Dit betekent dat de ruimte waarbinnen een uitzondering toelaatbaar is, kleiner wordt naarmate de aard van de door de overheid gevorderde medewerking een verhoogd risico in zich bergt om die beïnvloedingsmogelijkheid prijs te geven.'

8

Het recht om te weigeren medewerking te verlenen moet als een absoluut recht worden beschouwd en dit recht prevaleert boven een wettelijke informatieplicht indien de betrokkene zichzelf door het geven van die informatie zou belasten. Vaststaat dat het nemo tenetur-beginsel opzij gezet kan worden, echter alleen indien er zwaarwegende belangen zijn die dit vorderen. Deze moeten uitstijgen boven het belang van degene die zich op het beginsel beroept. Alleen in uitzonderingsgevallen, bij voorkeur in de wet geregeld, kan daarvan sprake zijn. In casu is de rechtsorde niet dermate geschaad dat zijn belangen opzij gezet mogen worden ten gunste van het vervolgingsbelang.

9

Nog eens Schalken:

'De grondslag van het nemo tenetur-beginsel ligt niet alleen verankerd in de vrees dat de verdachte al of niet onder (subjectieve) psychische druk tot zijn verklaring is gekomen, maar ook in de (objectiveerbare) eis van publiekrechtelijke ethiek die voorschrijft dat de overheid niet met opzet een situatie moet creëren waarin iemand tegen zijn wil tot een verklaring kan worden gebracht die hij anders zou hebben nagelaten. Die ethiek maakt geen verschil tussen fiscale en strafzaken, ook niet tussen mondelinge en schriftelijke verklaringen.'[3]

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Met conclusie dat artikel 6 lid 1 EVRM en artikel 29 Wetboek van Strafvordering zijn geschonden, waardoor verdachte een recht op een 'fair trial' is onthouden hetgeen ertoe dient te leiden dat uw Raad het arrest van het Hof vernietigt.

Hoge Raad:

5. Beoordeling van het middel

5.1

Blijkens het proces-verbaal van de terechtzitting in hoger beroep is aldaar namens de verdachte een verweer gevoerd dat het Hof in zijn bestreden arrest als volgt heeft samengevat en verworpen: (enz.; zie Hof; red.)

5.2

Voorzover het middel berust op de stelling dat het in het recht op een 'fair trial' als bedoeld in art. 6, eerste lid, EVRM besloten liggende recht van de verdachte om niet aan zijn eigen veroordeling behoeven mee te werken als een absoluut recht moet worden beschouwd dat prevaleert boven een wettelijke informatieplicht als de verdachte zich door het geven van die informatie zou belasten, kan het niet tot cassatie leiden. Uit de uitspraak van het EHRM in de zaak Saunders (EHRM 17 december 1996, zaak 43/1994/490/572 (NJ 1997, 699; red.)) moet immers worden afgeleid dat art. 6, eerste lid, EVRM zich niet verzet tegen het gebruik voor bewijs in een strafzaak van onder dwang door de verdachte afgegeven materiaal, zoals documenten, hetwelk onafhankelijk van de wil van de verdachte bestaat.

5.3

Uit het vorenoverwogene volgt dat de hiervoor onder 4 (zie Hof; red.) bedoelde vordering van de opsporingsambtenaar ex art. 19, eerste lid, WED tot het geven van inzage in de door bij H. BV in dienstbetrekking zijnde bemanningsleden in de periode van 8 november 1993 tot en met 19 december 1993 gebezigde registratiebladen, ook al zou er al sprake zijn geweest van een verdenking, niet in strijd is met het recht op een 'fair trial' als bedoeld in het eerste lid van art. 6 EVRM. Het Hof heeft het hiervoor onder 5.1 weergegeven verweer, wat er ook zij van 's Hofs overwegingen dienaangaande, derhalve terecht verworpen.

5.4

Voorzover het middel de klacht behelst dat art. 29 Sv is geschonden kan het evenmin tot cassatie leiden, aangezien het aan die bepaling ten grondslag liggende beginsel meebrengt dat een verdachte niet kan worden verplicht tot het afleggen van een verklaring waarvan niet gezegd kan worden dat zij in vrijheid is afgelegd en het in het onderhavige geval niet gaat om het afleggen van een verklaring of het desgevorderd verschaffen van schriftelijke inlichtingen door de verdachte omtrent zijn mogelijke betrokkenheid bij een strafbaar feit, maar om het afgeven van administratieve bescheiden.

5.5

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Het middel faalt derhalve in al zijn onderdelen.

6. Slotsom

Nu het middel niet tot cassatie kan leiden, terwijl de Hoge Raad ook geen grond aanwezig oordeelt waarop het bestreden arrest ambtshalve zou behoren te worden vernietigd, moet het beroep worden verworpen.

7. Beslissing

De Hoge Raad verwerpt het beroep.

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NJ 1999, 648: Afsluitformulier mestboekhouding; nemo-teneturbeginsel

Instantie: Hoge Raad (Strafkamer) Datum: 22 juni 1999

Magistraten:

Davids, Koster, Schipper

Zaaknr: 109512E

Conclusie:

A-G Machielse

LJN: ZD1495

Noot: - Roepnaam: -

Wetingang: Sv art. 29; EVRM art. 6; Reg. vaststelling afsluitformulieren 1995; Meststoffenwet art. 6; Besl. mestbank en mestboekhouding art. 4

Snel naar: EssentieVoorgaande uitspraakConclusie

EssentieNaar boven

1. De verplichting op grond van de Regeling vaststelling afsluitformulieren 1995 om het afsluitformulier mestboekhouding in te zenden is niet in strijd met het nemo-teneturbeginsel.

2. Voor de strafbaarheid van het niet inzenden van het afsluitformulier mestboekhouding is niet vereist dat komt vast te staan dat de verdachte gedurende het hele jaar producent van dierlijke meststoffen is geweest, noch dat gedurende dat hele jaar de referentiehoeveelheid meer dan 125 kg fosfaat per ha is geweest.

Voorgaande uitspraakNaar boven

Arrest op het beroep in cassatie tegen een vonnis van de Economische Politierechter in de Arrondissementsrechtbank te Almelo van 9 december 1997 in de strafzaak tegen T.F.M.B., te Deurningen, adv. mr. M.J.J.E. Stassen te Tilburg.

Economische Politierechter:

Bewezenverklaring

Bewezenverklaard is dat hij te Assen, als producent van dierlijke meststoffen van wie het bedrijf een referentiehoeveelheid heeft in — het jaar — 1995, van meer dan 125 kg fosfaat per hectare per jaar, niet het formulier zoals opgenomen in bijlage I behorende bij de Regeling Vaststelling afsluitformulieren 1995, te weten het afsluitformulier mestboekhouding 1995 (met mestnummer 047030674), vóór 1 februari 1996 heeft doen toekomen aan het Bureau Heffingen te Assen, immers was bedoeld formulier op 30 april 1996 nog niet door genoemd Bureau ontvangen.

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Uitspraak

De politierechter heeft de verdachte ter zake van 'overtreding van een voorschrift, gesteld bij een krachtens artikel 6 lid 1 van de Meststoffenwet' veroordeeld tot een geldboete van vijfhonderd gulden, subsidiair tien dagen hechtenis.

Cassatiemiddelen:

(…)

Tweede middel

Schending of verkeerde toepassing van het 'nemo tenetur' beginsel, aangezien niet naar behoren is gerespondeerd op het namens requirant voorgedragen verweer dat invulling van het formulier in strijd is met het recht van requirant om geen zelfaangifte te hoeven doen. Juist door het invullen van het Afsluitformulier brengt requirant zichzelf in een positie dat hij vervolgd kan worden. De beslissing is terzake onvoldoende gemotiveerd. Voorts is in de beslissing miskend dat de betrokken regeling onverbindend is.

(…)

Derde middel

Schending en verkeerde toepassing van de artt. 338, 339, 342, 343, 344 en 350 van het Wetboek van Strafvordering aangezien niet bewezen is dat requirant gedurende het gehele jaar 1995 producent is geweest zoals bepaald in de Regeling Vaststelling Afsluitformulieren 1995. De politierechter heeft verzuimd op dit zelfstandig verweer naar behoren en voldoende gemotiveerd te beslissen.

(…)

Hoge Raad:

4. Beoordeling van het tweede middel

4.1

Het middel klaagt dat 'niet naar behoren is gerespondeerd op het namens requirant voorgedragen verweer dat invulling van het formulier in strijd is met het recht van requirant om geen zelfaangifte te hoeven doen' althans 'dat in de beslissing op dat verweer is miskend dat de betrokken regeling onverbindend is'.

4.2

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Uit het proces-verbaal van de terechtzitting van de Economische Politierechter kan niet blijken dat een verweer als in het middel bedoeld is gevoerd, zodat het ervoor moet worden gehouden dat dat niet is geschied. Het middel mist dus in zoverre feitelijke grondslag.

4.3

Voorzover het middel strekt ten betoge dat de Regeling vaststelling afsluitfomulieren 1995, Stcrt. 251 (hierna: de Regeling) onverbindend is, is het volgende van belang.

4.4

Het gaat in deze zaak om een verdachte ten aanzien van wie is bewezenverklaard dat hij niet heeft voldaan aan zijn in de Regeling neergelegde verplichting tot tijdige inzending van het afsluitformulier mestboekhouding 1995.

Het middel betoogt dat degene die aan die verplichting voldoet zich daardoor aan het gevaar van strafrechtelijke vervolging blootstelt, ingeval dat formulier onjuiste gegevens blijkt te bevatten.

Het middel acht zulks in strijd met het zogenoemde nemo-teneturbeginsel en het verbindt daaraan de gevolgtrekking dat de Regeling onverbindend is.

4.5.1

Bij de beoordeling van die klacht moet worden vooropgesteld dat in het Nederlandse recht niet een onvoorwaardelijk recht of beginsel is verankerd dat een verdachte op generlei wijze kan worden verplicht tot het verlenen van medewerking aan het verkrijgen van voor hem mogelijk bezwarend bewijsmateriaal.

4.5.2

Wel brengt het aan art. 29 Sv ten grondslag liggende beginsel mee dat een verdachte niet kan worden verplicht tot het afleggen van een verklaring — het verschaffen van schriftelijke inlichtingen daaronder begrepen — omtrent zijn betrokkenheid bij een strafbaar feit, waarvan niet kan worden gezegd dat zij in vrijheid is afgelegd.

Voorts ligt in art. 6 EVRM besloten dat, indien ten aanzien van een verdachte sprake is van een 'criminal charge' in de zin van die bepaling, deze het recht heeft 'to remain silent' en 'not to incriminate oneself'.

4.6

Het middel berust kennelijk op de opvatting dat hetgeen hiervoor onder 4.5.2 is overwogen ook geldt voor degene die, zonder dat ten aanzien van hem sprake is van verdenking van enig strafbaar feit dan wel van een criminal charge, op grond van de Regeling verplicht is het Afsluitformulier mestboekhouding in te zenden. Die opvatting is onjuist. Dat op grond van de in dat Afsluitformulier vermelde gegevens mogelijk een verdenking ter zake van enig strafbaar feit kan rijzen doet daaraan niet af.

4.7

Het middel is dus tevergeefs voorgesteld.

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5. Beoordeling van het derde middel

5.1

Het middel klaagt dat 'niet bewezen is dat requirant gedurende het gehele jaar 1995 producent is geweest zoals bepaald in de Regeling vaststelling afsluitfomulieren 1995' en dat 'de Politierechter heeft verzuimd op dit zelfstandig verweer naar behoren en voldoende gemotiveerd te beslissen'.

5.2

De klacht dat de Economische Politierechter heeft verzuimd op het in het middel bedoelde verweer te beslissen faalt bij gebrek aan feitelijke grondslag, nu uit het proces-verbaal van de terechtzitting van de Economische Politierechter niet kan blijken dat dat verweer is gevoerd, zodat het ervoor moet worden gehouden dat dat niet is geschied.

5.3

Het middel berust overigens op een onjuist uitgangspunt. Zoals in de conclusie van het Openbaar Ministerie is uiteengezet is voor een veroordeling als de onderhavige niet vereist dat komt vast te staan dat de verdachte gedurende het gehele jaar 1995 producent van dierlijke meststoffen is geweest en evenmin dat gedurende dat gehele jaar de referentiehoeveelheid meer aan 125 kg fosfaat per ha is geweest.

Het Besluit mestbank en mestboekhouding (Meststoffenwet) van 25 maart 1987, Stb. 170, waarop de Regeling mede berust, bepaalt immers in art. 4, derde lid, dat de mestboekhouding betrekking heeft op een kalenderjaar terwijl, naar uit de Nota van Toelichting op dat Besluit volgt — behoudens het zich hier niet voordoende geval dat de productie gedurende het kalenderjaar is aangevangen — voor de vraag of een producent gehouden is aan de bij en krachtens dat Besluit gestelde verplichtingen te voldoen, de situatie op 1 januari van dat kalenderjaar beslissend is.

5.4

Het middel kan dus niet tot cassatie leiden.

6. Ambtshalve beoordeling van de bestreden uitspraak

De door de Economische Politierechter aan het bewezenverklaarde feit gegeven kwalificatie is onjuist.

Die kwalificatie dient te luiden: 'Overtreding van een voorschrift gesteld krachtens art. 6 lid 1 Meststoffenwet (oud)'. De Hoge Raad zal, met vernietiging van het bestreden vonnis in zoverre, de kwalificatie verbeteren.

7. Slotsom

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Nu de middelen niet tot cassatie kunnen leiden, terwijl de Hoge Raad geen andere dan de hiervoor onder 1 vermelde grond aanwezig oordeelt waarop de bestreden uitspraak ambtshalve zou behoren te worden vernietigd, moet als volgt worden beslist.

8. Beslissing

De Hoge Raad:

Vernietigt de bestreden uitspraak, doch uitsluitend voor wat betreft de aan het bewezenverklaarde feit gegeven kwalificatie;

Kwalificeert dat feit als hiervoor onder 6 is vermeld;

Verwerpt het beroep voor het overige.

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BNB 2002/27: Bij controleonderzoek weigeren inlichtingen te verstrekken en bescheiden over te leggen: gevolgen voor belastingheffing en boete

Instantie: Hoge Raad Datum: 27 juni 2001

Magistraten:

Zuurmond; Brunschot, van; Vliet, van; Lourens; Bavinck

Zaaknr: 35 889

Conclusie: - LJN: AB2314

Noot: M.W.C. Feteris Roepnaam: -

Wetingang: Art. 25, zesde lid, 27e, 29, eerste lid, en 47 AWR; art. 31, vijfde lid, Uitv.besch. OB 1968; art. 6 EVRM; art. 14 IVBPR

Snel naar: EssentieSamenvattingUitspraakConclusieNoot

EssentieNaar boven

Bij controleonderzoek weigeren inlichtingen te verstrekken en bescheiden over te leggen: gevolgen voor belastingheffing en boete

SamenvattingNaar boven

Tijdens een controleonderzoek weigerde belanghebbende het merendeel van de gevraagde informatie te verstrekken, waarna de Inspecteur een naheffingsaanslag oplegde met verhoging.

HR: De weigering om de gevraagde gegevens, inlichtingen en bescheiden te verstrekken kan belanghebbende niet rechtvaardigen met een beroep op de waarborgen van het EVRM en het IVBPR voorzover het de vaststelling van de belastingschuld betreft. Dat geldt in zoverre ook voor zijn verweer tegen omkering van de bewijslast.

Wat betreft de verhoging (boete) gelden de waarborgen van art. 6 EVRM. Gelet op het arrest-Saunders van het EHRM (BNB 1997/254) brengt dit mede dat een verplicht afgelegde verklaring niet mag worden gebruikt voor de boete-oplegging. Het ligt in de lijn hiervan om aan de weigering om een verklaring af te leggen geen nadelige gevolgen te verbinden voor de vaststelling van de boete, zoals omkering van de bewijslast. Het arrest-Saunders maakt echter een onderscheid tussen bewijsmateriaal dat wel en dat niet zijn bestaan dankt aan de wil van de beschuldigde. Art. 6 EVRM zou gelet op dit arrest er niet aan in de weg hebben gestaan bij de boete-oplegging rekening te houden met de voor het vaststellen van de belastingschuld opgevraagde bescheiden, waarvan het bestaan niet ter discussie stond. Er is dan geen reden aan de weigering van belanghebbende die bescheiden over te leggen het gevolg van omkering van de bewijslast te ontzeggen. Bovendien heeft belanghebbende niet voldaan aan zijn administratieplicht voor de omzetbelasting, hetgeen 's Hofs oordeel dat de bewijslast was omgekeerd, zelfstandig draagt.

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Indien een gedraging die volgens art. 29, eerste lid, AWR leidt tot omkering en verzwaring van de bewijslast, aan de belastingplichtige kan worden verweten zonder dat daarbij voorbij wordt gezien aan zijn rechten op grond van het EVRM en het IVBPR, zijn die bewijsrechtelijke gevolgen als zodanig niet in strijd met deze verdragen. [1]

UitspraakNaar boven

ARREST

gewezen op het beroep in cassatie van X te Z tegen de uitspraak van het Gerechtshof te 's-Hertogenbosch van 3 december 1999, nr. 97/20525, betreffende na te melden naheffingsaanslag in de omzetbelasting.

1. Aanslag, bezwaar en geding voor het Hof

Aan belanghebbende is over het tijdvak 1 januari 1992 tot en met 31 december 1995 een naheffingsaanslag in de omzetbelasting opgelegd ten bedrage van ƒ 11 835 aan enkelvoudige belasting met een verhoging van de nageheven belasting van honderd percent, van welke verhoging de Inspecteur tot op vijftig percent, ofwel ƒ 5917, kwijtschelding heeft verleend. Na door belanghebbende daartegen gemaakt bezwaar heeft de Inspecteur bij gezamenlijke uitspraak de naheffingsaanslag en de beschikking inzake de verhoging gehandhaafd.

Belanghebbende is tegen die uitspraak in beroep gekomen bij het Hof.

Het Hof heeft deze uitspraak bevestigd. De uitspraak van het Hof is aan dit arrest gehecht.

2. Geding in cassatie

Belanghebbende heeft tegen 's Hofs uitspraak beroep in cassatie ingesteld. Het beroepschrift in cassatie is aan dit arrest gehecht en maakt daarvan deel uit.

De Staatssecretaris van Financiën heeft een verweerschrift ingediend.

De Advocaat-Generaal P.J. Wattel heeft op 16 februari 2001 geconcludeerd tot gegrondverklaring van het beroep, voorzover het de boete betreft, en tot verwijzing van de zaak naar een ander gerechtshof.

3. Beoordeling van de middelen

-3.1. In cassatie kan van het volgende worden uitgegaan.

-3.1.1. Belanghebbende was in de jaren 1992 en 1993 als fiscaal en financieel adviseur betrokken bij de activiteiten van een organisatie welke is vervolgd in verband met het witwassen van op criminele wijze verkregen gelden en de financiering van drugstransporten. Eind 1993 spoorde de politie deze organisatie in samenwerking met de FIOD op, waarna een gerechtelijk vooronderzoek volgde. Ook belanghebbende werd aangehouden, omdat hij werd verdacht van deelneming aan een organisatie die tot oogmerk had het plegen van misdrijven, het medeplegen van het valselijk opmaken van een geschrift dat bestemd was om tot bewijs van enig feit te dienen en het medeplegen van het onjuist doen van bij de belastingwet voorziene aangiften. Na onderzoek werd de zaak van belanghebbende geseponeerd.

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-3.1.2. In verband met de bevindingen van voormeld strafrechtelijk onderzoek stelde de Inspecteur bij belanghebbende op 22 oktober 1996 een onderzoek in. Bij dat onderzoek was de FIOD niet betrokken. Direct na afloop van dat onderzoek verzochten de onderzoeksambtenaren met toepassing van artikel 47 van de Algemene wet inzake rijksbelastingen (tekst zoals luidend in het naheffingstijdvak; hierna: AWR) belanghebbende inlichtingen te verstrekken omtrent de aanschafprijs van het kantoormeubilair, inzage te geven in ontbrekende bank- en giroafschriften en in kasadministratie/ kasbescheiden en inzage te geven in stukken betreffende door familieleden van belanghebbendes partner verstrekte geldleningen zoals door belanghebbende gesteld. Verder verzocht de Inspecteur belanghebbende om een verklaring voor contante stortingen op zijn bankrekeningen. Daarna is er tussen belanghebbende en de Inspecteur mondeling en schriftelijk contact geweest. Belanghebbende heeft voldaan aan het verzoek van de Inspecteur inlichtingen te verstrekken omtrent de aanschafprijs van het kantoormeubilair. Voor het overige is aan het verzoek niet of niet volledig voldaan.

-3.1.3. Op 5 december 1996 zond de Inspecteur belanghebbende een exemplaar van het rapport, opgemaakt naar aanleiding van vorenvermeld onderzoek. In de aanhef van het rapport is vermeld dat 'onderzocht is de aanvaardbaarheid van de aangiften inkomstenbelasting 1991 t/m 1995 en omzetbelasting over het tijdvak 01-09-91 t/m 31-12-1995'. In het rapport zijn de voorgenomen omzetbelastingcorrecties gemotiveerd en zijn eveneens de beweegredenen om belanghebbende een boete op te leggen, uiteengezet.

-3.2. 's Hofs oordeel dat bij het op 22 oktober 1996 ingestelde onderzoek alleen de aanvaardbaarheid van aangiften werd onderzocht en dat derhalve bij dat onderzoek sprake was van een controle-onderzoek en niet van een opsporingsonderzoek naar mogelijk door belanghebbende gepleegde strafbare feiten, is van feitelijke aard. Het is voorts niet onbegrijpelijk, ook niet in het licht van de omstandigheid dat de betrokken ambtenaren tijdens het onderzoek kennis droegen van belanghebbendes strafdossier. Anders dan waarvan middel I kennelijk uitgaat, behoefde het Hof uit het door belanghebbende aangevoerde, te weten dat hij in de loop van het onderzoek dat onderzoek is gaan ervaren als een opsporingsonderzoek, vooral toen belanghebbendes strafdossier ter tafel kwam, niet de conclusie te trekken dat jegens belanghebbende toen reeds een handeling is verricht waaraan deze in redelijkheid de verwachting heeft kunnen ontlenen dat de Inspecteur een verhoging zou opleggen. Middel I is derhalve ongegrond.

-3.3. Middel II komt erop neer dat doordat de Inspecteur van belanghebbende heeft gevergd dat deze gegevens en inlichtingen zou verstrekken, en aan het niet verstrekken daarvan een voor belanghebbende nadelig gevolg is verbonden, tekort is gedaan aan de waarborgen welke belanghebbende kon ontlenen aan het EVRM en het IVBPR.

Het Hof heeft - in cassatie onbestreden - geoordeeld dat de door de Inspecteur met toepassing van artikel 47 AWR gevraagde gegevens, inlichtingen en bescheiden van belang konden zijn voor de belastingheffing ten aanzien van belanghebbende. De weigering om door middel van verstrekking van de gevraagde gegevens, inlichtingen en bescheiden mee te werken aan het vaststellen van zijn belastingschuld kan belanghebbende niet rechtvaardigen met een beroep op evenbedoelde verdragen. Dit geldt, voorzover het die vaststelling betreft, ook voor het verweer tegen de consequenties die de artikelen 25, lid 6, en 29, lid 1, AWR verbinden aan het niet voldoen aan de ingevolge artikel 47 AWR geldende verplichting.

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-3.4. Voorzover het betreft de in de naheffingaanslag begrepen verhoging (boete) dient de vaststelling c.q. het kwijtscheldingsbesluit en de toetsing daarvan te voldoen aan de eisen die artikel 6, lid 1, EVRM stelt in geval van een 'criminal charge'. Daartoe behoren de eerbiediging van het recht van de beschuldigde om te zwijgen en van diens recht om zichzelf niet te behoeven incrimineren (vgl. het arrest van het Europese Hof voor de rechten van de mens (EHRM) van 17 december 1996, Saunders v. UK, BNB 1997/254; hierna: het arrest Saunders). Gelet op het arrest Saunders brengt het een en ander in een geval als het onderhavige, waarin een belastingplichtige aan het EVRM niet het recht kan ontlenen zich te onttrekken aan de verplichting gegevens, inlichtingen en bescheiden te verstrekken, mee dat een verklaring die de betrokkene heeft afgelegd ter voldoening aan die verplichting, niet mag worden gebruikt ten behoeve van de boete-oplegging. Dit betekent dat de verklaring die belanghebbende tegenover de Inspecteur heeft afgelegd over de aanschafprijs van het kantoormeubilair, door het Hof buiten beschouwing moest worden gelaten bij de beoordeling van de grondslag voor de boete-oplegging.

Het ligt in de lijn van het voorgaande om met het in artikel 6, lid 1, EVRM begrepen recht voor de beschuldigde om te zwijgen en om zichzelf niet te behoeven incrimineren, tevens in die zin rekening te houden dat voorzover een belanghebbende, ofschoon hij tot het afleggen van een verklaring kon worden verplicht, heeft geweigerd te voldoen aan de verplichting een van hem gevorderde verklaring af te leggen, in het kader van de vaststelling en toetsing van een boete aan die weigering als zodanig geen voor hem nadelig gevolg mag worden verbonden. Hieruit volgt dat het Hof aan zijn oordeel met betrekking tot de toepasselijkheid in het onderhavige geval van artikel 29, lid 1, AWR, neerkomende op een omkering en verzwaring van de bewijslast, voor wat betreft de boete-oplegging niet mocht doen bijdragen dat belanghebbende had geweigerd een verklaring te geven voor contante stortingen op zijn bankrekening.

-3.5. Het hiervóór in 3.4 overwogene kan evenwel niet tot cassatie leiden. Gelet op het arrest Saunders, waarin door het EHRM onderscheid wordt gemaakt tussen (bewijs)materiaal dat wel en dat niet zijn bestaan dankt aan de wil van de beschuldigde, zou artikel 6, lid 1, EVRM niet eraan in de weg hebben gestaan dat ook in het kader van de beoordeling van de boete-oplegging rekening was gehouden met de door de Inspecteur ten behoeve van de vaststelling van de belastingschuld opgevraagde bescheiden, indien deze door belanghebbende zouden zijn verstrekt. Derhalve bestaat er geen reden aan de weigering van belanghebbende om die bescheiden - uit 's Hofs uitspraak en de stukken van het geding blijkt niet dat belanghebbende het bestaan daarvan heeft ontkend - te verstrekken voor de boete-oplegging het gevolg te ontzeggen dat artikel 29, lid 1, AWR aan het niet naleven van de verplichtingen ingevolge artikel 47 AWR verbindt. Het Hof heeft bovendien - in cassatie onbestreden - geoordeeld dat belanghebbende niet volledig heeft voldaan aan zijn administratieverplichting. Laatstbedoeld oordeel draagt zelfstandig 's Hofs oordeel dat artikel 29, lid 1, AWR in dit geval van toepassing is. Indien aan een belastingplichtige, zonder dat daarbij voorbij wordt gezien aan de rechten die deze aan het EVRM of het IVBPR kan ontlenen, de gedraging kan worden verweten die tot de toepasselijkheid van artikel 29, lid 1, AWR leidt, kan de door laatstbedoelde bepaling bewerkstelligde omkering en verzwaring van de bewijslast als zodanig niet worden beschouwd als strijdig met het EVRM of het IVBPR. Middel II faalt mitsdien eveneens.

4. Proceskosten

De Hoge Raad acht geen termen aanwezig voor een veroordeling in de proceskosten.

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5. Beslissing

De Hoge Raad verklaart het beroep ongegrond.

HOF 's-Hertogenbosch, Vijfde Enkelv. belastingk., 3 december 1999 (Nr. 97/20525)

Uitspraak

op het beroep enz.;

1. (...)

4. Overwegingen omtrent het geschil

-4.1. Belanghebbende heeft ter zitting zich er ondermeer over beklaagd dat de ambtenaren die bij hem op 22 oktober 1996 een onderzoek instelden, hem bij de aanvang van het onderzoek niet erop hebben gewezen dat zij tijdens dat onderzoek gebruik gingen maken van het strafdossier van belanghebbende en verklaard dat zijn grieven onder punt 4 van zijn pleitnota, samengevat, zo moeten worden verstaan. In dat verband heeft hij verklaard dat hij de door de ambtenaren onderzochte bescheiden niet ter inzage zou hebben gegeven indien een mededeling als vorenbedoeld aan belanghebbende zou zijn gedaan. Belanghebbende heeft in de van hem afkomstige stukken en ter zitting meer in het algemeen nog geformuleerd dat bij het op 22 oktober 1996 bij hem ingestelde onderzoek sprake was van een opsporingsonderzoek, dat hem dat niet is medegedeeld, dat in verband daarmee is gehandeld in strijd met artikel 29, leden 1 en 2 Sv, met het EVRM en met het IVBPR en dat de Inspecteur in strijd met algehele beginselen van behoorlijk bestuur heeft gehandeld, met name in strijd met het zorgvuldigheidsbeginsel.

-4.2. De Inspecteur heeft in de van hem afkomstige stukken en ter zitting met nadruk gesteld dat bij het op 22 oktober 1996 ingestelde onderzoek sprake was van een controle-onderzoek en niet van een opsporingsonderzoek. In verband daarmee heeft hij ter zitting nog aangevoerd dat bij een opsporingsonderzoek ambtenaren van de Fiod betrokken plegen te zijn en dat dat bij belanghebbende niet het geval was.

-4.3. Het Hof heeft geen reden aan het door de Inspecteur gestelde en aangevoerde als vermeld in 4.2 te twijfelen. Aannemelijk is dat bij bedoeld onderzoek alleen de aanvaardbaarheid van aangiften werd onderzocht en dat derhalve bij dat onderzoek sprake was van een controle-onderzoek als evenbedoeld en niet van een opsporingsonderzoek naar mogelijk door belanghebbende gepleegde strafbare feiten. Er zijn geen feiten en/of omstandigheden gesteld of gebleken welke erop wijzen dat dit anders is. Mogelijkerwijs is belanghebbende, zoals hij ter zitting heeft verklaard, in de loop van het onderzoek dat onderzoek als een opsporingsonderzoek gaan ervaren, vooral toen belanghebbendes strafdossier ter tafel kwam. Dat op zichzelf maakt het onderzoek evenwel nog niet tot een opsporingsonderzoek als vorenbedoeld.

-4.4. In de onderhavige naheffingsaanslag is een fiscale boete begrepen. De Hoge Raad heeft in zijn arrest van 13 december 1995 (Nr. 30 058), ondermeer gepubliceerd in BNB 1996/144*, beslist dat 'het bepaalde in artikel 29 van het Wetboek van Strafvordering niet geldt voor strafvervolgingen in de vorm van een fiscale boete' en dat bij strafvervolgingen als evenbedoeld 'in artikel 6 EVRM niet de eis valt te lezen dat een cautie als hiervóór bedoeld moet worden gegeven.'.

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-4.5. Niet aannemelijk is geworden dat belanghebbende tijdens het onderzoek van 22 oktober 1996 is verplicht tot het afleggen van verklaringen waarvan niet gezegd kan worden dat zij in vrijheid zijn afgelegd. In dit verband merkt het Hof op dat belanghebbende ter zitting heeft verklaard dat hij het beantwoorden van verdere vragen heeft gestaakt toen hij het onderzoek als een opsporingsonderzoek was gaan ervaren.

-4.6. Gelet op het 4.3 t/m 4.5 vermelde is niet aannemelijk geworden dat tijdens het onderzoek van 22 oktober 1996 is gehandeld in strijd met artikel 29 Sv, in strijd met het aan aan die bepaling ten grondslag liggende beginsel als verwoord in 4.5, of in strijd met het EVRM. Ook van schending van het IVBPR is geen sprake. Ten aanzien van de grief van belanghebbende dat hem bij de aanvang van het onderzoek niet is medegedeeld dat tijdens het onderzoek gebruik zou worden gemaakt van zijn strafdossier, in verband waarmee hij heeft aangevoerd dat hij de bescheiden niet ter inzage zou hebben gegeven indien die mededeling was gedaan, merkt het Hof op dat artikel 29 Sv niet ziet op het afgeven van administratieve bescheiden. Het Hof verwijst in dit verband naar het arrest (r.o. 5.4) van de Hoge Raad (Strafkamer) van 21 oktober 1997 (Nr. 105652 E), gepubliceerd in NJ 1998, 173.

Ook het EVRM en het IVBPR baten belanghebbende hier niet. Verder vermag het Hof niet in te zien dat tijdens het onderzoek is gehandeld in strijd met een algemeen beginsel van behoorlijk bestuur, met name het zorgvuldigheidsbeginsel.

-4.7. Belanghebbende heeft in zijn beroepschrift met betrekking tot het opleggen en later vernietigen van naheffingsaanslagen in de omzetbelasting met verhoging, een en ander als vermeld in (...), aangevoerd dat sprake is 'van hetzelfde dossier (hetzelfde feitencomplex)' en uit dat opleggen en later vernietigen de conclusie getrokken dat hem 'blijkbaar geen verwijt kon worden gemaakt en dat deze feiten derhalve als afgedaan moeten worden bestaan'. Aldus heeft hij een beroep gedaan op het in art. 68 Sr neergelegde ne bis in idem beginsel. Het Hof ziet evenwel niet in dat in dit verband sprake is van schending van dat beginsel. De in (...) vermelde aanslagen zien immers op aan (onderdelen van) voormelde organisatie opgelegde naheffingsaanslagen terwijl het bij de onderhavige naheffingsaanslag gaat om een aan belanghebbende opgelegde naheffingsaanslag. In zijn pleitnota heeft belanghebbende aangevoerd dat 'de opgetreden opsporingshandeling van de controlerende c.q. aanslagregelende ambtenaar als een hernieuwde strafrechtelijke jegens' hem 'heeft te gelden', daar hij 'immers in 1993 ook voor dezelfde feiten werd vervolgd volgens het commune strafrecht'.

Belanghebbende verliest hier evenwel uit het oog dat het bij de aanvankelijke vervolging in 1993, gelet op het daaromtrent in (...) vermelde, ging om een verdenking van door belanghebbende in verband met voormelde organisatie begane strafbare feiten, terwijl de onderhavige naheffingsaanslag een belastingaangelegenheid van belanghebbende zelf betreft. Anders dan belanghebbende van oordeel is, is derhalve ook in dit verband geen sprake van schending van het ne bis in idem beginsel.

-4.8.1. De Inspecteur was bevoegd om belanghebbende naar aanleiding van de bevindingen van het onderzoek van 22 oktober 1996 te vragen gegevens en inlichtingen te verstrekken en bescheiden beschikbaar te stellen, een en ander met toepassing van artikel 47 Awr. Dit heeft de Inspecteur gedaan. Het Hof verwijst in dit verband naar het in (...) vermelde. In zijn antwoord bij brief van 11 november 1996 is belanghebbende alleen op het gevraagde met betrekking tot het kantoormeubilair volledig ingegaan doch heeft belanghebbende voor het overige niet dan wel niet volledig aan het door de

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Inspecteur gevraagde voldaan. Bij brief van 26 november 1996 heeft de Inspecteur belanghebbende hierop gewezen. Bij brief van 4 december 1996 (in de aanhef van de brief is abusievelijk vermeld '4 november 1996') heeft belanghebbende de Inspecteur te kennen gegeven verder niet aan het gevraagde te zullen voldoen. Vervolgens is, nadat belanghebbende op 5 december 1996 een exemplaar van het in (...) bedoelde rapport werd opgestuurd, de onderhavige naheffingsaanslag opgelegd.

-4.8.2. Gelet op het daaromtrent in 4.8.1 vermelde heeft belanghebbende, doordat hij in ieder geval niet volledig aan het door de Inspecteur verlangde heeft voldaan, gehandeld in strijd met art. 47 Awr. Het Hof merkt hierbij op dat aannemelijk is dat de door de Inspecteur gevraagde gegevens, inlichtingen en bescheiden van belang konden zijn voor de belastingheffing ten aanzien van belanghebbende c.q. van belang konden zijn voor de vaststelling van feiten welke invloed konden uitoefenen op de belastingheffing ten aanzien van belanghebbende. In dit verband is voorts aannemelijk dat tijdens het onderzoek van 22 oktober 1996 niet de gegevens en bescheiden voorhanden waren waarom de onderzoeksambtenaren direct na afloop van het onderzoek hebben gevraagd.

-4.9.1. De Inspecteur heeft in zijn vertoogschrift gesteld dat belanghebbende voor zichzelf in zijn adviespraktijk geen kasadministratie voerde terwijl de transacties van belanghebbende voor 90% contant werden afgewikkeld. Een en ander is door belanghebbende in zijn pleitnota en ter zitting niet dan wel onvoldoende weersproken zodat het Hof daarvan als vaststaand uitgaat. In dit verband merkt het Hof nog op dat belanghebbende in zijn pleitnota heeft opgemerkt 'dat de frequentie en omvang van de kasstromen niet van dien aard zijn dat het noodzakelijk zou zijn aan te tekenen dat de kasontvangsten gelijk waren aan de kasonttrekkingen.'.

-4.9.2. Zeker indien transacties voor 90% contant worden afgewikkeld, is het naar 's Hofs oordeel noodzakelijk om een deugdelijke kasadministratie te voeren, ook al is de omzet bescheiden. Eerst dan kan sprake zijn van het op zodanig duidelijke en overzichtelijke wijze houden van aantekeningen dat aan de hand daarvan de door de ondernemer over een bepaald tijdvak verschuldigde belasting kan worden vastgesteld. Dat is een in artikel 31, lid 5, van de Uitvoeringsbeschikking omzetbelasting 1968 neergelegde verplichting, opgelegd krachtens artikel 34 van de Wet op de omzetbelasting 1968. Nu hij geen kasadministratie heeft gevoerd, heeft belanghebbende in zijn geval zeker niet volledig aan die verplichting voldaan.

-4.10. Het in 4.8.2 vermelde leidt ertoe dat artikel 29, lid 1 Awr van toepassing is. Dit geldt ingevolge artikel 36 van de Wet op de omzetbelasting 1968 ook voor het in 4.9.2 vermelde.

-4.11. Artikel 29, lid 1, Awr bepaalt, voor zover hier van belang, dat de rechter het beroep afwijst indien niet volledig is voldaan aan de verplichtingen ingevolge artikel 47 Awr tenzij gebleken is dat en in hoeverre de uitspraak of de belastingaanslag onjuist is.

-4.12. Niet gebleken is dat de bestreden uitspraak of de onderhavige naheffingsaanslag op het punt van de omzetcorrectie onjuist is. Het Hof handhaaft die correctie. Ook is niet gebleken dat de bestreden uitspraak of de onderhavige naheffingaanslag onjuist is op het punt van de correctie inzake de kleine ondernemersregeling (art. 25 van de Wet op de omzetbelasting 1968). Integendeel, gebleken is dat die correctie juist is, aangezien ingevolge lid 4 van dat artikel 25 een belastingvermindering niet wordt toegepast 'indien de ondernemer in het desbetreffende kalenderjaar niet voldoet aan hetgeen (...)

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krachtens artikel 34 (...) is voorgeschreven én vaststaat dat belanghebbende, gelet op het daaromtrent in 4.9.2 vermelde, daaraan niet heeft voldaan. Ook die correctie wordt gehandhaafd. Belanghebbende heeft ter zitting nog verklaard dat zijn beroep ook de opgelegde verhoging betreft. Hij heeft evenwel tegen die verhoging op zichzelf geen zelfstandige grieven aangevoerd, andere dan die inzake de 'cautie'. Het Hof handhaaft ook de na kwijtschelding resterende verhoging.

-4.13. Ter zitting heeft belanghebbende zijn grief met betrekking tot de invordering van het bedrag van de onderhavige naheffingsaanslag (punt 7 van zijn pleitnota) ingetrokken.

-4.14. Gelet op al het vorenstaande moet de bestreden uitspraak worden bevestigd.

Proceskosten

Het Hof acht geen termen aanwezig voor een veroordeling in de proceskosten als bedoeld in artikel 5a van de Wet administratieve rechtspraak belastingzaken.

5. Beslissing

Het Hof bevestigt de bestreden uitspraak.

Uit het beroepschrift in cassatie van belanghebbende:

Ik, X eiser van cassatie dient hierbij de navolgende middelen in:

MIDDEL I

Het recht is geschonden en/of er is blijk gegeven van een onjuiste rechtsopvatting. In het bijzonder is het geldende recht zoals vervat is in o.a. het arrest van de Hoge Raad: HR 24 november 1987, NJ 1988, 593, HR 31 oktober 1989, NJ 1990, 200 en in verband hiermee EHRM 21 februari 1984, CEDH-A/73, NJ 1988, 937, geschonden, nu het Hof ten onrechte oordeelt dat geen sprake is geweest van een strafvervolging en aldus geen strijdigheid is opgetreden met het geldende EVRM- en IVBPR-verdragsrecht, althans heeft het Hof blijk gegeven van een onjuiste rechtsopvatting.

Toelichting

Het Hof heeft de stelling dat tijdens het boekenonderzoek feitelijk sprake was van een vervolgingshandeling niet geaccepteerd door slechts af te gaan op de mededeling van de inspecteur dat zij een controle-onderzoek hebben verricht en er aldus geen sprake kon zijn van een opsporingsonderzoek, onder andere mede gelet op de mededeling van de inspecteur dat er geen Fiod-medewerkers aanwezig waren. Aldoende heeft het Hof blijk gegeven van een onjuiste rechtsopvatting. Immers, of en wanneer sprake is van een vervolging wordt door de Hoge Raad bepaald aan de hand van het zogenoemde beïnvloedingscriterium en het verwachtingscriterium.

Ik kon, gegeven mijn kennis van het fiscale recht, op grond van de gedragingen van de controlerende ambtenaren - het hanteren van het strafdossier tijdens hun vermeende controlehandelingen - in redelijkheid tot de verwachting komen dat zij van plan waren een strafvervolging (het opleggen van een fiscale boete; zie in dit verband o.a. HR 24 november 1987, NJ 1988, 617 en HR 19 juni 1985, NJ 1986, 104, m.nt. E.A.A., BNB 1986, 29, m.nt. J.P. Scheltens) in te stellen. Het feit dat formeel sprake zou zijn van een

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controlerende boekenonderzoek en de mededeling dat er geen Fiod-medewerkers aanwezig waren doet er niets aan af. Door laatstgenoemde argumenten te doen prevaleren heeft het Hof bovendien een verkeerde maatstaf voor de beoordeling of aldus sprake was van een vervolgingshandeling - die de waarborg en van het verdragsrecht in werking doen treden - aangelegd. Mitsdien is het uitspraak van het Hof onvoldoende met redenen omkleed.

MIDDEL II

Het recht is geschonden, waarvan niet-naleving vernietigbaarheid van het onderzoek ter terechtzitting met zich meebrengt, hetgeen betekent dat de uitspraak van het Hof niet in stand kan blijven.

Toelichting

Nu op basis van hetgeen is gesteld onder middel I en de daarbij behorende toelichting, moet worden vastgesteld dat de opgetreden vervolging mij volledig recht geeft op de waarborgen van het EVRM en het IVBPR - en aldus vanaf het moment van het constateren van de vervolgingshandeling van de controlerende ambtenaren c.q. de inspecteur - ik geen medewerking hoefde te verlenen aan het vermeende boekenonderzoek. Doordat het Hof de inspecteur bevoegd verklaart in het hanteren van de formeelrechtelijke bevoegdheden (o.a. het opleggen van de informatieverplichting ex artikel 47 Awr), legt het een verkeerde maatstaf aan voor de beoordeling van het gerechtigd zijn tot het hanteren van betreffende bevoegdheden, en aldus geeft het Hof blijk van een onjuiste rechtsopvatting. Dit brengt vernietigbaarheid van het onderzoek ter terechtzitting met zich mee, hetgeen betekent dat de uitspraak van het Hof niet in stand kan blijven.

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BNB 2004/225: Onrechtmatig verkregen bewijs? Inlichtingenplicht ondanks ingestelde strafvervolging. Zogenoemd 'Saunders-materiaal'

Instantie: Hoge Raad Datum: 27 februari 2004

Magistraten:

Pos; Zuurmond; Monné; Amersfoort, Van; Maanen, Van

Zaaknr: 37 465

Conclusie:

A-G mr. Wattel

LJN: AF5556

Noot: J.W. Zwemmer Roepnaam: -

Wetingang: Art. 47 AWR en art. 6 EVRM

Snel naar: EssentieSamenvattingUitspraakConclusieNoot

EssentieNaar boven

Onrechtmatig verkregen bewijs? Inlichtingenplicht ondanks ingestelde strafvervolging. Zogenoemd 'Saunders-materiaal'

SamenvattingNaar boven

Bij een huiszoeking bij belanghebbende in verband met een strafrechtelijk onderzoek naar beursfraude is belastend materiaal gevonden. Belanghebbende is strafrechtelijk vervolgd. Daarnaast heeft de Inspecteur het belastbare inkomen en het vermogen zeer aanzienlijk hoger vastgesteld dan was aangegeven. De Inspecteur heeft in de bezwaarfase nadere informatie gevraagd, die belanghebbende met een beroep op zijn zwijgrecht heeft geweigerd te verstrekken. De Inspecteur heeft vervolgens met toepassing van de omkering van de bewijslast het bezwaar afgewezen. Het Hof heeft het beroep ongegrond verklaard.

Belanghebbende beroept zich erop dat de huiszoeking onrechtmatig was omdat aan de rechter-commissaris die het verlof tot huiszoeking heeft gegeven bepaalde informatie was onthouden, zodat het bewijsmateriaal onrechtmatig zou zijn verkregen, en bestrijdt de omkering van de bewijslast met een beroep op zijn zwijgrecht.

HR: Wat betreft het gebruik van onrechtmatig verkregen bewijsmiddelen is beslissend of het niet-verstrekken van bepaalde informatie aan de rechter-commissaris zozeer indruist tegen hetgeen van een behoorlijk handelende overheid mag worden verwacht, dat het bij een huiszoeking gevonden materiaal niet mag worden gebruikt. In het oordeel van het Hof dat de rechter-commissaris niet is misleid en dat niet zonder meer aannemelijk is dat de huiszoeking bij het verstrekken van die informatie achterwege zou zijn gebleven, ligt evenwel besloten dat het niet-verstrekken van de informatie naar dat criterium niet tot bewijsuitsluiting leidt.

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De omstandigheid dat ten tijde van de vragen van de Inspecteur een strafvervolging tegen belanghebbende was ingesteld, onthief hem niet van de in art. 47 AWR neergelegde, voor een ieder geldende verplichtingen tot informatieverstrekking te zijnen aanzien. De vraag of van aldus verkregen gegevens gebruik mag worden gemaakt in een strafzaak of bij het opleggen van een verhoging of boete, komt in deze belastingzaak - waarin geen boete kon worden opgelegd - niet aan de orde. Indien belanghebbende de gegevens had verstrekt, zou die vraag in de aanhangige strafprocedure moeten worden beantwoord. Het arrest EHRM, BNB 2002/26* (J.B. tegen Zwitserland), doet hieraan niet af.

In deze zaak kan in het midden blijven of, zoals het Hof heeft geoordeeld, de van belanghebbende gevraagde informatie 'onafhankelijk van zijn wil bestond' zoals bedoeld in de zaak Saunders (EHRM, BNB 1997/254*).

UitspraakNaar boven

ARREST

gewezen op het beroep in cassatie van X, wonende te Z, tegen de uitspraak van het Gerechtshof te Amsterdam van 30 mei 2001, nr. P 98/5430, betreffende na te melden aanslag in de vermogensbelasting.

1. Aanslag, bezwaar en geding voor het Hof

Aan belanghebbende is voor het jaar 1995 een aanslag in de vermogensbelasting opgelegd naar een vermogen van f 5 834 000, welke aanslag, na daartegen gemaakt bezwaar, bij uitspraak van de Inspecteur is gehandhaafd.

Belanghebbende is tegen die uitspraak in beroep gekomen bij het Hof.

Het Hof heeft de uitspraak van de Inspecteur bevestigd. De uitspraak van het Hof is aan dit arrest gehecht.

2. Geding in cassatie

Belanghebbende heeft tegen de uitspraak van het Hof beroep in cassatie ingesteld. Het beroepschrift in cassatie is aan dit arrest gehecht en maakt daarvan deel uit.

De Staatssecretaris van Financiën heeft een verweerschrift ingediend.

Belanghebbende heeft een conclusie van repliek ingediend.

De Staatssecretaris heeft een conclusie van dupliek ingediend.

De Advocaat-Generaal P.J. Wattel heeft op 30 januari 2003 geconcludeerd tot ongegrondverklaring van het beroep.

Belanghebbende heeft schriftelijk op de conclusie gereageerd.

3. Beoordeling van de middelen

-3.1. In cassatie kan van het volgende worden uitgegaan.

-3.1.1. Bij de door belanghebbende bestreden aanslag, waarvan het aanslagbiljet is gedagtekend 31 december 1997, heeft de Inspecteur ten opzichte van het door

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belanghebbende aangegeven vermogen een correctie toegepast van f 5 000 000 op de grond dat hem uit 'strafrechtelijk onderzoek inzake vermeende beursfraude' gebleken was dat de aangifte inkomstenbelasting 1994/vermogensbelasting 1995 niet juist was opgesteld.

-3.1.2. Nadat belanghebbende bezwaar had gemaakt, heeft de Inspecteur (na een abusievelijk verzonden bericht van andere strekking) op 2 april 1998 bericht dat het bezwaarschrift na het afronden van het strafrechtelijke onderzoek in behandeling zou worden genomen. Belanghebbende heeft daarop beroep ingesteld tegen de weigering van de Inspecteur om uitspraak op zijn bezwaar te doen. De Inspecteur heeft uitstel gevraagd van de behandeling van het beroep teneinde uitspraak op het bezwaar te kunnen doen. Bij brief van 8 oktober 1998 heeft het Hof dat uitstel verleend tot 15 december 1998 en de Inspecteur daarbij te verstaan gegeven dat hij vóór die datum uitspraak diende te doen.

-3.1.3. Bij brief van 28 oktober 1998 heeft de Inspecteur de gemachtigde van belanghebbende vragen gesteld naar aanleiding van het bezwaarschrift; onder meer vroeg hij bepaalde bescheiden te verstrekken betreffende een bankrekening in Zwitserland. Op die vragen heeft de gemachtigde aanvankelijk niet gereageerd en vervolgens geantwoord, zakelijk weergegeven, dat belanghebbende een zwijgrecht had en niet gehouden was om belastende bescheiden te verstrekken nu tegen hem een strafrechtelijk onderzoek gaande was.

-3.1.4. Bij de uitspraak op het bezwaar heeft de Inspecteur de aanslag op grond van artikel 25, lid 6, in verbinding met artikel 47 van de Algemene wet inzake rijksbelastingen (hierna: AWR) gehandhaafd. Daarbij heeft de Inspecteur onder meer overwogen dat bepaalde gegevens erop wijzen dat belanghebbende een Zwitserse bankrekening had waarop vermogensbestanddelen voorkomen die niet in zijn aangifte zijn opgenomen, en dat belanghebbende heeft geweigerd inlichtingen te verstrekken en vragen te beantwoorden.

-3.2.1. Middel I bestrijdt de verwerping door het Hof van de stelling van belanghebbende dat de Inspecteur gebruik maakt van onrechtmatig verkregen bewijs. Bedoeld bewijs is een op 26 februari 1992 gedateerde machtiging van belanghebbende aan zijn echtgenote inzake een rekening van belanghebbende bij een Zwitserse bank. Die machtiging is aangetroffen bij een huiszoeking in zijn woning. Voor het Hof heeft belanghebbende gesteld dat de officier van justitie bij het vorderen van het gerechtelijk vooronderzoek in het kader waarvan de huiszoeking heeft plaatsgevonden, de rechter-commissaris heeft misleid door hem niet op de hoogte te stellen van twee onderzoeken, die in 1995 en 1996 zijn verricht door het controlebureau van de Amsterdamse Effectenbeurs AEX. Het Hof heeft die stelling verworpen op de grond dat de enkele omstandigheid dat de rechter-commissaris niet is bekendgemaakt met de resultaten van deze twee onderzoeken, niet voldoende is voor het oordeel dat de rechter misleid werd toen het Openbaar Ministerie in oktober 1997 aan hem verlof tot huiszoeking verzocht. Naar het oordeel van het Hof is niet zonder meer aannemelijk dat na kennisname van het resultaat van deze onderzoeken het verlof tot huiszoeking achterwege zou zijn gebleven.

-3.2.2. Volgens het middel miskent het Hof met deze overweging dat niet beslissend is of de rechter is misleid. De officier van justitie heeft bij de voorlichting aan de rechter-commissaris onzorgvuldig gehandeld door hem 'essentiële en disconfirmerende' informatie te onthouden. Die omstandigheid brengt mee dat de handelwijze van het

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Openbaar Ministerie zozeer indruist tegen hetgeen van een behoorlijk handelende overheid kan worden verwacht, dat het gebruik van daardoor verkregen bewijsmiddelen ontoelaatbaar moet worden geacht, aldus het middel.

-3.2.3. Het middel gaat terecht ervan uit dat te dezen beslissend is of het niet-verstrekken van de hier bedoelde informatie aan de rechter-commissaris zozeer indruist tegen hetgeen van een behoorlijk handelende overheid mag worden verwacht dat de bij de huiszoeking aangetroffen machtiging in de belastingprocedure niet als bewijs mag worden gebruikt. In het oordeel van het Hof dat de rechter-commissaris niet is misleid en dat niet zonder meer aannemelijk is dat de huiszoeking bij het verstrekken van die informatie achterwege zou zijn gebleven, ligt evenwel besloten dat het niet-verstrekken van die informatie naar dat criterium niet tot bewijsuitsluiting leidt. Voorzover het middel bedoelt te betogen dat het Hof de handelwijze van het Openbaar Ministerie niet aan dit criterium heeft getoetst, mist het derhalve feitelijke grondslag.

-3.2.4. Ook voor het overige kan het middel niet tot cassatie leiden. Bedoeld oordeel geeft geen blijk van een onjuiste rechtsopvatting en kan, als verweven met waarderingen van feitelijke aard, voor het overige in cassatie niet op juistheid worden getoetst. Het is ook niet onbegrijpelijk en behoefde geen nadere motivering. Aan dit een en ander doet niet af dat inmiddels de Rechtbank te Amsterdam in de strafzaak tegen belanghebbende de handelwijze van het Openbaar Ministerie als 'zeer onzorgvuldig' heeft gekwalificeerd, reeds omdat de belastingrechter zelfstandig dient te beoordelen welke gevolgen in de belastingprocedure dienen te worden verbonden aan eventuele onzorgvuldigheden bij de verkrijging van bewijs in een strafrechtelijk onderzoek. Overigens heeft de Rechtbank in de strafzaak uitdrukkelijk in het midden gelaten of het verstrekken van de in het middel bedoelde onderzoeksrapporten tot een andere beslissing op de vordering tot openen van een gerechtelijk vooronderzoek zou hebben geleid en geoordeeld dat 'niet aannemelijk [is] geworden dat er sprake is geweest van opzettelijke benadeling van de verdachte'.

-3.3.1. Middel IV bestrijdt het oordeel van het Hof in 5.5 van zijn uitspraak dat artikel 6 van het Verdrag tot bescherming van de rechten van de mens en de fundamentele vrijheden (hierna: EVRM) en de jurisprudentie van het Europese Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens (hierna: EHRM) belanghebbende niet bevrijden van zijn verplichting om de door de Inspecteur gevraagde afschriften van de Zwitserse bankrekening, die immers bestaan buiten de wil van belanghebbende om, en waarvan aannemelijk is dat hij daarover de beschikking heeft, ter inzage te verstrekken aan de Inspecteur in verband met de heffing van de inkomsten- en vermogensbelasting te zijnen aanzien.

-3.3.2. In de eerste plaats heeft het Hof volgens het middel miskend dat belanghebbende - nu eenmaal een strafvervolging tegen hem was ingesteld - niet gehouden was bij te dragen aan de beschuldiging tegen hem door gedwongen verstrekking van belastende bescheiden, ongeacht of deze buiten zijn wil bestonden. In de tweede plaats heeft het Hof, door gewicht te hechten aan de omstandigheid dat de Inspecteur heeft verklaard dat de vragen uitsluitend zijn gesteld in het belang van de belastingheffing, en het kader van artikel 47 AWR niet te buiten gingen, volgens het middel miskend dat het zwijgrecht van belanghebbende betrekking heeft op elke vraag die kan leiden tot vervolgvragen gericht op zelfbeschuldiging.

-3.3.3. Voorzover het middel uitgaat van de veronderstelling dat het Hof blijkens de bestreden overweging van oordeel is dat in deze zaak sprake is van een strafvervolging in de zin van artikel 6 EVRM, berust het op een onjuiste lezing van de uitspraak. Dat het

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Hof het verweer van belanghebbende met de in 3.3.1 hiervoor samengevatte motivering heeft verworpen, impliceert geenszins dat het de vooronderstelling van dat verweer onderschrijft. Voor het overige wordt het volgende overwogen.

-3.3.4. De omstandigheid dat ten tijde van de vragen van de Inspecteur een strafvervolging tegen belanghebbende was ingesteld, onthief hem niet van de in artikel 47 AWR neergelegde, voor een ieder geldende verplichtingen tot informatieverstrekking ten behoeve van de belastingheffing te zijnen aanzien. De vraag of, en zo ja in hoeverre, van aldus verkregen gegevens gebruik mag worden gemaakt in een strafzaak of bij het opleggen van een verhoging of boete, is in de onderhavige belastingprocedure niet aan de orde. Die vraag komt pas aan de orde bij 'the determination of a criminal charge' in de zin van artikel 6 EVRM tegen de betrokkene. Indien belanghebbende de gevraagde informatie had verstrekt, zou die vraag in de aanhangige strafzaak beantwoord hebben moeten worden. In de onderhavige belastingprocedure is geen sprake noch sprake geweest van een strafsanctie in deze zin - onder de toepasselijke wetgeving kon geen boete worden opgelegd -, terwijl de uit artikel 29 (oud) in verbinding met artikel 47 AWR voortvloeiende omkering en verzwaring van de bewijslast geen strafsanctie vormen, maar een dwangmiddel van administratiefrechtelijke aard dat is gericht op het bevorderen van juiste en volledige aangiften (vgl. HR 8 juli 1998, nr. 32 417, BNB 1998/326) of, in een geval als het onderhavige, op het bevorderen van medewerking van de belastingplichtige bij het onderzoek door de inspecteur naar de feiten die van belang zijn voor een juiste belastingheffing te zijnen aanzien.

-3.3.5. Aan hetgeen hiervoor is overwogen, doet niet af dat het EHRM in zijn arrest van 3 mei 2001, J.B. tegen Zwitserland, BNB 2002/26, heeft geoordeeld dat in die zaak het uit artikel 6 EVRM voortvloeiende recht zichzelf niet te behoeven incrimineren was geschonden doordat 'it appears that the authorities were attempting to compel the applicant to submit documents which would have provided information as to his income in view of the assessment of his taxes', terwijl J.B. 'could not exclude that any additional income which transpired from these documents from untaxed sources could have constituted the offence of tax evasion' (§ 66). In die zaak ging het immers - anders dan in de onderhavige -(mede) om 'the determination of a criminal charge' tegen de betrokkene: volgens het Hof was sprake van een procedure die 'served the various purposes of establishing the taxes due by the applicant and, if the conditions herefor were met, of imposing a supplementary tax and a fine for tax evasion on him' (§ 47) en was niet de vraag aan de orde of een staat een belastingplichtige kan verplichten informatie te geven met het enkele doel een juiste belastingheffing te verzekeren (§ 63 slot). Mede gelet op de in de conclusie van de Advocaat-Generaal onder 5.12 vermelde rechtspraak over die bevoegdheid van de staten, wettigen deze overwegingen niet de gevolgtrekking dat de algemene verplichting van belastingplichtigen tot het verstrekken van informatie alleen geldt als aan de betrokkene tevoren de garantie wordt gegeven dat die informatie niet zal worden gebruikt als bewijsmiddel in een strafvervolging tegen hem. Met het opleggen van die verplichting wordt immers geen afbreuk gedaan aan de rechten die de belastingplichtige tegen wie een strafvervolging is of (mogelijk) zal worden ingesteld, aan het EVRM kan ontlenen, met name niet aan het recht om zichzelf niet te behoeven incrimineren. Met het voldoen aan die verplichting wordt geen afstand gedaan van een beroep op dat recht tegenover de rechter die bevoegd is ter zake van de 'cri minal charge', indien informatie, verstrekt ter voldoening aan die verplichting, aan die rechter zou worden gepresenteerd.

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-3.3.6. In de onderhavige zaak kan derhalve in het midden blijven of, zoals het Hof heeft geoordeeld en het middel bestrijdt, de van belanghebbende gevraagde informatie 'onafhankelijk van zijn wil bestond', zoals bedoeld in de zaak Saunders (EHRM 17 december 1996, BNB 1997/254). Artikel 6 EVRM verzet zich niet tegen de door het Hof aan de artikelen 29, lid 1 (oud), en 47 AWR gegeven toepassing. Het middel kan niet tot cassatie leiden.

-3.4. Voorzover de middelen II en III voortbouwen op de middelen I en IV, vinden zij hun weerlegging in hetgeen hiervoor is overwogen. Ook voor het overige kunnen zij niet tot cassatie leiden. Zulks behoeft, gezien artikel 81 van de Wet op de rechterlijke organisatie, geen nadere motivering nu deze middelen in zoverre niet nopen tot beantwoording van rechtsvragen in het belang van de rechtseenheid of de rechtsontwikkeling.

4. Proceskosten

De Hoge Raad acht geen termen aanwezig voor een veroordeling in de proceskosten.

5. Beslissing

De Hoge Raad verklaart het beroep ongegrond.

HOF Amsterdam, Derde Meerv. belastingk., 30 mei 2001 (Nr. 98/5430)

Uitspraak

op het beroep enz.;

1. (...)

5. Beoordeling van het geschil

-5.1. Belanghebbende stelt dat de inspecteur bij het opleggen van de aanslag het zorgvuldigheids- en het motiveringsbeginsel zoals neergelegd in de artikelen 3:2, 4:16 en 4:17 van de Algemene wet bestuursrecht heeft geschonden. De inspecteur heeft dit ontkend en verder opgemerkt dat de artikelen 4:16 en 4:17 inmiddels zijn vervallen. Het Hof zal de stelling van belanghebbende niet behandelen. Ook al zou de stelling, die trouwens uitsluitend betrekking heeft op de aanslagregeling, juist zijn, dan volgt daaruit nog niet dat de bestreden uitspraak moet worden vernietigd en dat de aanslag moet worden verminderd. Overigens is niet gesteld of gebleken dat belanghebbende door de gewraakte handelwijze van de inspecteur geschaad is in zijn processuele positie.

-5.2. De inspecteur stelt dat belanghebbende rekeningen aanhield bij in Zwitserland gevestigde vennootschappen, die niet verantwoord zijn in de aangifte inkomstenbelasting 1994/vermogensbelasting 1995. Hij verwijst naar de bij de huiszoeking in de woning van belanghebbende gevonden machtiging van hem aan zijn echtgenote van 26 februari 1992 inzake een rekening bij F AG in Zwitserland. Hij verwijst voor zijn stellingname voorts naar de verklaring van B dat belanghebbende een tegoed aanhield bij G AG, eveneens gevestigd in Zwitserland, en naar het proces-verbaal van de officier van justitie, volgens welk een anonieme tipgever verklaard heeft dat belanghebbende vermogen heeft ondergebracht in Zwitserland. Belanghebbende ontkent dat B de waarheid heeft gesproken en stelt dat zijn collega's zich niet meer kunnen herinneren dat hij tijdens een etentje gesproken zou hebben over een rekening van hem bij G AG. Het

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Hof heeft echter onvoldoende aanleiding te twijfelen aan de juistheid van de verklaring van B. Belanghebbende erkent noch ontkent dat hij de bedoelde bankrekening en het tegoed in 1994 en op 1 januari 1995 had.

Vorenstaande overwegingen voeren het Hof tot de conclusie dat het aannemelijk is dat belanghebbende in die tijd niet alleen rekeninghouder was bij F AG maar ook een tegoed had bij G AG.

-5.3. Belanghebbende stelt dat de rechter-commissaris, die indertijd verlof heeft verleend tot huiszoeking in zijn woning, misleid is geweest door een bewust onvolledige voorstelling van zaken, zodat op strafvorderlijk onrechtmatige wijze informatie is vergaard door het Openbaar Ministerie en de inspecteur geen gebruik behoort te maken van de toen gevonden machtiging aan belanghebbende aan zijn echtgenote van 26 februari 1992 inzake een bankrekening bij F AG. Volgens hem had de rechter op de hoogte moeten zijn gesteld van de resultaten van twee onderzoeken, verricht door het controlebureau van de Amsterdamse Effectenbeurs AEX in 1995 en 1996. Het eerste onderzoek betreft mogelijke vergoedingen van het effectenhuis H aan belanghebbende in de tijd dat hij nog fondsen van J beheerde. Het tweede onderzoek gaat over transacties in effecten in het beursfonds K door A BV in het eerste halfjaar van 1996. De inspecteur betwist dat de rechter is misleid. Het Hof is van oordeel dat de enkele omstandigheid dat de rechter-commissaris niet bekend is gemaakt met de resultaten van deze twee onderzoeken niet voldoende is voor het oordeel dat de rechter misleid werd toen het Openbaar Ministerie in oktober 1997 aan hem verlof tot huiszoeking verzocht. Het Hof acht niet zonder meer aannemelijk dat na kennisname van het resultaat van deze onderzoeken het verlof tot huiszoeking achterwege zou zijn gebleven. De stelling van belanghebbende dat de inspecteur gebruik maakt van onrechtmatig verkregen bewijs wordt dan ook verworpen.

-5.4. Vaststaat dat de inspecteur aan belanghebbende bij brief van 28 oktober 1998 om inlichtingen, in het bijzonder om afschriften van een bankrekening, heeft verzocht naar aanleiding van zijn bezwaarschrift, dat hij belanghebbende op 13 november 1998 gerappelleerd heeft en hem tot slot bij brief van 26 november 1998 peremptoir heeft gesteld, maar dat belanghebbende volhard heeft in zijn weigering om aan het verzoek tegemoet te komen. Het Hof is met de inspecteur van oordeel dat belanghebbende gehouden was op grond van artikel 47 van de AWR om de gevraagde bankafschriften over te leggen. De stelling van belanghebbende dat de inspecteur reeds over de gevraagde informatie beschikte, althans kon beschikken, omdat bij huiszoeking op het bedrijfsadres van A BV beslag was gelegd op computers en databestanden, wordt verworpen, reeds omdat niet aannemelijk is dat op het bedrijfsadres volledige gegevens over het privé-vermogen van belanghebbende aanwezig waren. Omdat belanghebbende niet voldaan heeft aan zijn informatieplicht zoals bedoeld in dat artikel 47, heeft de inspecteur het bezwaar tegen de aanslag terecht op de voet van artikel 25, zesde lid, van de AWR afgewezen. Artikel 29, tweede lid, van de AWR brengt mee dat het nu aan belanghebbende is om overtuigend aan te tonen dat de uitspraak op bezwaar onjuist is. In dit bewijs is belanghebbende niet geslaagd.

-5.5. Belanghebbende verweert zich tegen vorenstaande conclusie met de stelling dat tegen hem vanaf oktober 1997 een strafrechtelijk onderzoek is ingesteld en dat hij als verdachte het zwijgrecht heeft en ook niet gehouden was om de vragen van de inspecteur te beantwoorden. Hij beroept zich op artikel 6 van het Verdrag tot bescherming van de rechten van de mens en de fundamentele vrijheden alsmede op

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jurisprudentie van het Europees Hof voor de Rechten van de Mens (de arresten Funke en Saunders). Belanghebbende ziet hier naar het oordeel van het Hof over het hoofd dat het Verdrag en de jurisprudentie van dat Europese Hof hem niet bevrijden van zijn verplichting om de bankafschriften van F AG, die immers bestaan buiten de wil van hem als verdachte om en waarvan aannemelijk is dat hij daarover de beschikking heeft, ter inzage te verstrekken aan de inspecteur in verband met de heffing van de inkomsten- en vermogensbelasting te zijnen aanzien. Het Hof verwerpt ook de stelling van belanghebbende dat de inspecteur hem vragen heeft gesteld met het oog op het lopende strafrechtelijke onderzoek tegen hem. Deze stelling heeft belanghebbende niet aannemelijk gemaakt; de vragen van de inspecteur zijn naar het oordeel van het Hof gesteld in het belang van de belastingheffing en gingen het kader van artikel 47 van de AWR niet te buiten. Het vorenstaande klemt te meer nu de inspecteur de afdoening van het bezwaarschrift aanvankelijk wilde aanhouden tot het strafrechtelijke onderzoek was afgerond, doch juist belanghebbende heeft aangedrongen op afdoening door middel van het indienen van een beroepschrift inzake een fictieve uitspraak. Het Hof heeft vervolgens in dat kader bij brief van 8 oktober 1998 de inspecteur aangespoord voor een bepaalde datum uitspraak te doen. Ook dit impliceert dat deze van zijn voor de bezwaarfase geldende bevoegdheden gebruik kon maken.

-5.6. Belanghebbende verweert zich tevens tegen de conclusie in 5.4 met de stelling dat de inspecteur in oktober en november van 1998 niet meer bevoegd was tot het inwinnen van inlichtingen op grond van artikel 47 van de AWR. Hij had immers op 14 april 1998 beroep aangetekend bij het Hof tegen de weigering van de inspecteur om uitspraak op het bezwaar te doen. Ook deze stelling kan belanghebbende niet baten. Zoals de Hoge Raad heeft overwogen in zijn arrest van 25 juli 2000, nr. 34 872, was de wettelijke termijn die in artikel 25, eerste lid, van de AWR is gesteld op een jaar na ontvangst van het bezwaarschrift nog niet verstreken. Dit houdt in dat hoofdstuk VIII, tweede afdeling, van de AWR van toepassing is gebleven, ondanks het beroep van belanghebbende, tot en met de dag waarop de inspecteur uitspraak deed. Mede gelet op de brief van het Hof van 8 oktober 1998 kon belanghebbende er redelijkerwijs niet op vertrouwen dat hij beantwoording van vragen achterwege kon laten.

-5.7. Belanghebbende stelt verder dat de aanslag naar willekeur is vastgesteld. De inspecteur ontkent dit en betoogt dat hij een redelijke schatting heeft gemaakt van het inkomen en het vermogen dat belanghebbende niet heeft aangegeven. Hij schat het vermogen van belanghebbende op 1 januari 1995 op ruim vijf miljoen gulden, gezien het aangegeven vermogen en het proces-verbaal van de officier van justitie inzake de verklaring van de tipgever, genoemd onder 2.3. Hij vermoedt dat dit vermogen in tien jaar is verdiend. De inspecteur wijst er verder op dat op de rekening van belanghebbende bij G AG, die hij kennelijk benutte voor de afwikkeling van effectentransacties, volgens de verklaring van B in 1995 een bedrag van ten minste anderhalf miljoen gulden stond. Het Hof is van oordeel dat de schatting door de inspecteur van het vermogen, gelet op de uitlating van de tipgever alsmede van B, weliswaar hoog, maar niet onredelijk hoog is. Daarvan uitgaande kan zijn schatting van de niet-aangegeven inkomsten, waaronder inkomsten uit arbeid en uit verogen zijn te vatten, evenmin willekeurig worden genoemd.

-5.8. Belanghebbende heeft aanvankelijk aangeboden zijn stellingen te bewijzen door middel van kennelijk nader te noemen getuigen. Hij heeft echter geen getuigen opgeroepen of ter zittingen meegenomen. Ter zitting op 7 februari 2001 erkende de gemachtigde niet meer van zins te zijn om getuigen op te roepen of mee te nemen. Het

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Hof leidt daaruit af dat belanghebbende zijn bewijsaanbod heeft ingetrokken. Het Hof heeft zelf geen behoefte om getuigen in deze zaak op te roepen.

-5.9. Belanghebbende stelt uiterst subsidiair dat als hij wordt aangemerkt als een lid van een criminele organisatie in de zin van artikel 140 van het Wetboek van Strafrecht, het in Zwitserland gevestigde G AG als een vaste inrichting of vaste vertegenwoordiger van deze organisatie (onderneming) heeft te gelden. Hij trekt daaruit de conclusie dat hij recht heeft op aftrek ter voorkoming van dubbele belasting. De inspecteur betwist dat belanghebbende recht heeft op deze aftrek. Het Hof is van oordeel dat belanghebbende geen bewijs heeft geproduceerd voor zijn stelling dat G AG een vaste inrichting of vaste vertegenwoordiger is van een hier te lande gevestigde onderneming waarvan hij zelf kennelijk vennoot zou zijn.

-5.10. Vorenstaande overweging brengen het Hof tot de slotsom dat belanghebbende niet overtuigend heeft aangetoond dat de bestreden uitspraak onjuist is of de aanslag te hoog is vastgesteld.

6. Proceskosten

Het Hof acht geen termen aanwezig voor een veroordeling in de proceskosten als bedoeld in artikel 5a van de WARB. Dit wordt niet anders nu de aanslag pas bij de uitspraak op het bezwaarschrift is gemotiveerd, daar naar het oordeel van het Hof tijdens de behandeling van het bezwaarschrift voldoende gelegenheid voor overleg is geboden.

7. Beslissing

Het Hof verklaart het beroep ongegrond.

Uit het beroepschrift in cassatie van belanghebbende:

Aan het beroep in cassatie liggen de navolgende cassatiemiddelen ten grondslag.

MIDDEL I

Het recht is geschonden en/of er zijn vormen verzuimd waarvan niet naleving nietigheid medebrengt. In het bijzonder het bepaalde in artikel 17 van de Wet Administratieve Rechtspraak in Belastingzaken (hierna: WARB), doordat het Hof ten onrechte heeft geoordeeld dat er geen sprake is van het gebruik van onrechtmatig verkregen bewijs.

Toelichting

In zijn oordeel miskent het Hof het belang dat een rechter-commissaris juist en volledig geïnformeerd dient te worden, van een zo zwaarwegend maatschappelijk betekenis is dat het niet verstrekken van disconfirmerende informatie door het Openbaar Ministerie aan de rechter-commissaris belast met het openen van een gerechtelijk vooronderzoek, tot de conclusie dient te leiden dat er sprake is van een handelen op een wijze welke zozeer indruist tegen datgene wat van een behoorlijk handelende overheid verwacht mag worden.

Medio 1997 werd tegen belanghebbende door de rechter-commissaris een gerechtelijk vooronderzoek geopend, omdat hij verdacht werd van met name misbruik van voorwetenschap en frontrunning.

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Uit rechtsoverweging 5.3 blijkt dat het Hof in elk geval als vaststaand feit heeft aangemerkt de stelling van belanghebbende dat de rechter-commissaris, die indertijd verlof heeft verleend tot huiszoeking in zijn woning, noch door de officier van justitie zelf, noch door onder zijn verantwoordelijkheid opererende ambtenaren anderszins van het bestaan en het resultaat van de twee onderzoeken naar onregelmatigheden verricht door het controlebureau van de Amsterdamse Effectenbeurs AEX op de hoogte was gesteld. Het Hof is van oordeel, dat de enkele omstandigheid dat de rechter-commissaris niet bekend is gemaakt met de resultaten van voornoemde onderzoeken, niet voldoende is voor het oordeel dat de rechter-commissaris misleid werd toen het Openbaar Ministerie aan hem verlof tot huiszoeking verzocht. Dit oordeel van het Hof getuigt van een onjuiste rechtsopvatting, omdat het Hof een onjuiste toetsingsmaatstaf gehanteerd heeft. Niet misleiding, doch handelen op een wijze welke zozeer indruist tegen datgene wat van een behoorlijk handelende overheid verwacht mag worden is het criterium waaraan het handelen van het Openbaar Ministerie getoetst moet worden. Op grond van huidige maatschappelijke opvattingen is van handelen op een wijze welke zozeer indruist tegen datgene wat van een behoorlijk handelende overheid verwacht mag worden zonder meer sprake, indien de rechter-commissaris belast met de behandeling van het verzoek tot het openen van een gerechtelijk vooronderzoek onzorgvuldig wordt voorgelicht. Onzorgvuldige voorlichting doet zich in elk geval voor indien de rechter-commissaris essentiële en disconfirmerende informatie wordt onthouden, welke een duidelijk ander licht op het vermeend strafbaar gedrag van een verdachte had kunnen werpen. Daarbij is van belang dat de rechter-commissaris binnen ons strafvorderlijk systeem een waarborg functie vervult met betrekking tot de belangen van een verdachte, teneinde te voorkomen dat op lichtvaardige wijze ernstige inbreuken worden gemaakt op het prive-leven van een verdachte. I mmers, alvorens een gerechtelijk vooronderzoek te openen (hetgeen tevens de bevoegdheid tot een huiszoeking met zich meebrengt) dient de rechter-commissaris over alle relevante informatie te beschikken, teneinde te kunnen beoordelen en te verifiëren of er sprake is van een redelijk vermoeden van schuld van het plegen van een strafbaar feit, welke het openen van een gerechtelijk vooronderzoek rechtvaardigt.

In dit kader is van belang dat het niet verstrekken van de rapporten van het controlebureau van de AEX aan de rechter-commissaris als ernstig nalatig handelen dient te worden gekarakteriseerd, welke ook in het algemeen schadelijk is voor de strafrechtspleging. Immers de resultaten van deze onderzoeken hadden het Openbaar Ministerie moeten nopen tot uiterste behoedzaamheid, aangezien deze onderzoeken waren verricht door een ter zake deskundig orgaan.

In rechtsoverweging 5.3 komt het Hof tot het oordeel dat niet zonder meer aannemelijk is, dat na kennisname van het resultaat van de onderzoeken van de AEX, het verlof tot huiszoeking achterwege zou zijn gebleven. In dit marginaal anticiperend oordeel hanteert het hof een onjuiste maatstaf, is het oordeel niet deugdelijk gemotiveerd en aldus onbegrijpelijk. Het Hof verzuimd namelijk om aan te geven op grond waarvan de rechter-commissaris desalniettemin het gerechtelijk vooronderzoek zou behoren te openen die tot de onrechtmatige huiszoeking heeft geleid. Immers, het resultaat van de onderzoeken van het controlebureau bevatte disconfirmerende conclusies, zodat daaruit veeleer de verwachting gerechtvaardigd is dat de rechter-commissaris, indien hij juist en volledig geïnformeerd zou zijn geweest het gerechtelijk vooronderzoek tegen belanghebbende niet zou hebben geopend en er dus geen toestemming tot huiszoeking

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verleend zou zijn, omdat de huiszoeking geen enkel strafvorderlijk belang gediend kon zijn.

Uit rechtsoverweging 5.3 blijkt verder dat het Hof tevens tekort geschoten is in zijn onderzoeksplicht. Het Hof heeft verzuimd nader te onderzoeken of de betrokken rechter-commissaris in de onderhavige kwestie, met in achtneming van alle hem destijds anderszins ter beschikking staande informatie, indien hij over de achtergehouden disconfirmerende informatie had beschikt tot een andere beslissing op het verzoek tot het openen van een gerechtelijk vooronderzoek en dus het instellen van een huiszoeking zou zijn gekomen.

Conclusie

Van handelen op een wijze welke indruist tegen datgene wat van een behoorlijk handelende overheid verwacht mag worden is in elk geval sprake indien een rechter-commissaris onvolledig en onjuist geïnformeerd wordt, met name als het gaat om een zo ingrijpende maatregel als het openen van een gerechtelijk vooronderzoek, aangezien het een wezenlijk onderdeel van ons strafvorderlijk systeem is dat een rechter-commissaris juist en volledig geïnformeerd wordt. Het Hof heeft als toetsingsmaatstaf misleiding gehanteerd en derhalve een onjuiste toetsingsmaatstaf gehanteerd in de beoordeling of de huiszoeking rechtmatig was. Verder heeft het Hof geen concreet inzicht gegeven in de gevolgde gedachtegang, de argumenten en overwegingen die hebben geleid tot de conclusie dat aannemelijk is dat het verlof tot huiszoeking desalniettemin zou zijn verleend, indien de rechter-commissaris wel degelijk over alle informatie beschikt zou hebben. Het oordeel van het Hof geeft derhalve blijk van een onjuiste rechtsopvatting en kan tevens, als niet naar de eis der wet met redenen omkleed, niet in stand blijven.

MIDDEL II

Het recht is geschonden en/of er zijn vormen verzuimd waarvan niet naleving nietigheid medebrengt.

In het bijzonder het bepaalde in de artikelen 47 en 29 van de Algemene wet inzake rijksbelastingen (hierna: Awr) juncto artikel 17 van de WARB, doordat het Hof ten onrechte althans op gronden die deze beslissing niet kunnen dragen, heeft vastgesteld dat belanghebbende niet aan zijn informatieplicht zoals bedoeld in voornoemd artikel heeft voldaan en aldus ten onrechte de bewijslast heeft verzwaard.

Toelichting

In rechtsoverweging 5.4 (tweede volzin) komt het Hof tot het oordeel dat belanghebbende op grond van artikel 47, lid 1, aanhef en onderdeel b, van de Awr (inzageverplichting) gehouden was om de gevraagde bankafschriften (onderdeel 1 van de vragenbrief van de inspecteur van 28 oktober 1998 aan de gemachtigde) over te leggen. Het Hof gaat er kennelijk vanuit dat de bankafschriften bestonden en dat belanghebbende over die bankafschriften beschikte.

Echter, het bestaan van de gewraakte bankafschriften is tijdens de procedure voor het Hof niet komen vast te staan en berust dus klaarblijkelijk op een niet vaststaande veronderstelling van de inspecteur. Het Hof heeft echter verzuimd in concreto en voldoende inzichtelijk aan te geven op grond van welke bevindingen het Hof tot de

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conclusies is gekomen dat het aannemelijk is dat de bankafschriften daadwerkelijk bestonden.

Belanghebbende heeft verklaard eenvoudigweg niet aan het verzoek van de inspecteur te kunnen voldoen omdat hij niet over de vermeende bankafschriften beschikte. Dit is uitdrukkelijk te kennen gegeven in de pleitnota van 7 februari 2001, waarin tevens werd betoogd dat indien belanghebbende wel degelijk over de gevraagde bankafschriften zou hebben beschikt, deze ongetwijfeld tijdens de huiszoekingen op zijn woonadres en/of kantooradres zouden zijn aangetroffen.

In de derde volzin van rechtsoverweging 5.4 verwerpt het Hof voorts de stelling van belanghebbende dat de inspecteur reeds over de nadere informatie betreffende overzicht aandelentransacties van belanghebbende en zijn familieleden beschikte, althans kon beschikken, omdat bij huiszoeking op het bedrijfsadres van A BV beslaat was gelegd op computers en databestanden, reeds omdat niet aannemelijk is dat op het bedrijfsadres volledige gegevens over het privé vermogen van belanghebbende aanwezig waren.

Onderdeel 4 van de vragenbrief van de inspecteur van 28 oktober 1998 aan de gemachtigde luidt als volgt:

'Verder verzoek ik u mij een overzicht te verstrekken van de aandelentransacties in 1994 van X en welke hij namens familieleden heeft verricht. Ik verzoek u daarbij aan te geven of deze transacties zijn gemeld bij de liaison-officer, wanneer er sprake is van 1 daags transacties, wanneer er sprake is van een aankoop- en verkooptransactie voordat er gesetteld is en wanneer er gehandeld is met het effectenkantoor A (tussenrekening en/of eigen positie).'.

Uit de vraagstelling blijkt dat de inspecteur informatie wenst met betrekking tot transacties welke plaatsvonden via de rekeningen bij A. Aangezien artikel 47 van de Awr niet van toepassing is op informatie waarover de inspecteur reeds bezit, heeft belanghebbende door te verwijzen naar de databestanden op de in beslag genomen computers bij A voldoende aan zijn medewerkingverplichting van artikel 47, lid 1, aanhef en onderdeel a, van de Awr voldaan.

Echter, het Hof is het kennelijk gezien de zinsnede 'omdat niet aannemelijk is dat op het bedrijfsadres volledige gegevens over het privé vermogen van belanghebbende aanwezig waren' met de inspecteur eens dat nadere gegevens over het privé vermogen (bedoeld zal zijn andere effectenrekeningen) van belanghebbende bestaat. Het antwoord op een dergelijke speculatieve vraag zou neerkomen op het vragen naar een verklaring van belanghebbende die niet onder de reikwijdte van artikel 47 lid 1, aanhef en onderdeel a, van de Awr valt.

Conclusie

Het hof heeft artikel 47 Awr, lid 1, aanhef en onderdeel b, te stringent uitgelegd. Wat niet is, kan ook niet ter inzage worden verstrekt, ofwel indien er geen verplichting is, dan kan deze ook niet worden overtreden. Voorts heeft het Hof de vragen van de inspecteur ten onrechte aangemerkt als een verzoek om informatie ingevolge artikel 47 van de Awr. De uitspraak van het Hof is gebaseerd op de stelling van de inspecteur dat belanghebbende daadwerkelijk over de gewraakte bankafschriften en informatie betreffende andere effectenrekeningen beschikte. Het Hof heeft echter verzuimd, dan wel voldoende gemotiveerd aan te geven op grond van welke bewijsmiddelen het Hof tot zo'n

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verregaande conclusie is gekomen. Verder miskent het Hof miskent dat het bewijs dat iets niet bestaat moeilijk te leveren is, en tot het onmogelijke kan belanghebbende niet worden verplicht. De verzwaring van de bewijslast ingevolge artikel 29 Awr is derhalve een disproportionele beslissing, omdat bepaalde vermoedens slechts als vaststaand kunnen worden aangemerkt indien die vermoedens op een redelijke - niet speculatieve - grondslag berusten. 's Hofs uitspraak getuigt van een onjuiste rechtsopvatting en is tevens niet naar de eis der wet met redenen omkleed en kan dus niet in stand blijven. Verwijzing moet volgen.

MIDDEL III

Het recht is geschonden en/of er zijn vormen verzuimd waarvan niet naleving nietigheid medebrengt.

In het bijzonder het bepaalde in artikel 3:4 van de Algemene wet bestuursrecht en artikel 17 WARB, doordat het Hof ten onrechte althans onvoldoende gemotiveerd heeft geoordeeld dat er geen sprake is van een willekeurig opgelegde aanslag.

Toelichting

Ingeval van verzwaring van de bewijslast is de inspecteur gehouden een redelijke schatting van het belastbaar vermogen te maken met een minimale onderbouwing. Het zorgvuldigheidsbeginsel (waarvan het niet willekeurig mogen opleggen van een aanslag een pendant is) vereist echter dat de hoogte van een correctie gebaseerd is op betrouwbare gegevens en/of redelijke vermoedens. Daarvan kan geen sprake zijn indien gebruik gemaakt wordt van anonieme verklaringen, omdat het gebruik van dergelijke verklaringen in strijd is met de beginselen van behoorlijk procesrecht. Verder vereist het fundamentele beginsel van een behoorlijke rechtspleging dat een rechter zijn beslissing slechts mag baseren op feiten die juist en volledig zijn.

Het Hof is het kennelijk wel met belanghebbende eens dat er slechts sprake is van één anonieme tipgever en dat deze tipgever D is, aangezien het Hof in zijn uitspraak niet de meervoudsvorm van het woord tipgever gebruikt en het Hof niet verder is ingegaan op de stelling van belanghebbende dat de anonieme tipgever D is. In dit verband is verder van belang dat de inspecteur op de zitting van 2 februari 2000 niet heeft bevestigd, noch ontkend heeft dat de anonieme tipgever D is.

Belanghebbende heeft gesteld dat de verklaringen van D niet deugdelijk en betrouwbaar zijn om als basis voor de schatting van de correctie van het belastbaar vermogen te dienen. Uit het proces-verbaal van het getuigenverhoor d.d. 3 april 2000 blijkt dat D voornoemde stelling van belanghebbende onderschrijft, omdat hij op 3 april 2000 uitdrukkelijk heeft verklaard dat zijn eerdere tegenover de FIOD afgelegde verklaringen slechts gebaseerd waren op hypothesen, veronderstellingen en theoretische beschouwingen, waarbij bepaalde hypothesen en halve zekerheden in bepaalde denkpatronen zijn ingepast.

Uit de hoogte van de correctie blijkt echter dat de inspecteur zich door niets anders heeft laten leiden dan het door D genoemde bedrag. Het materiële zorgvuldigheidsbeginsel van artikel 3:4 Awb schrijft voor dat overheidsoptreden op redelijke en zorgvuldige wijze dient plaats te vinden. Daarbij mag van het bestuursorgaan verwacht worden dat informatie verkregen van een anonieme tipgever wordt nagetrokken en dat getracht wordt het motief voor het vrijwillig verstrekken van voor een derde belastende informatie

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te achterhalen. Een en ander klemt des te meer als het door de tipgever veronderstelde vermoeden dat belanghebbende - door gebruik te maken van voorwetenschap die werd verkregen in zijn hoedanigheid van directeur of aandeelhouder van A BV, buitenlands vermogen heeft weten op te bouwen - niet bevestigd wordt door het materiaal uit het strafrechtelijk onderzoek.

Het Hof hecht eveneens geloof aan de verklaring van B, maar acht deze niet zodanig betrouwbaar dat het door D genoemde bedrag dient te prevaleren boven het door B genoemde bedrag. Het Hof hecht kennelijk meer geloof aan de verklaring van D, zonder evenwel voldoende gemotiveerd kenbaar te maken op grond van welk criterium de betrouwbaarheid van de inhoud van de verklaringen van D zijn getoetst, zodat het Hof tot het oordeel kon komen dat aan de verklaring van D meer waarde gehecht moest worden dan aan de verklaring van B. Het Hof oordeelt in de zesde volzin van rechtsoverweging 5.7 dat de inspecteur in zijn schatting van het vermogen mocht uitgaan van de uitlatingen van de tipgever alsmede B. Met ander[e] woorden het Hof is van mening dat de uitlatingen van de tipgever en B de niet onredelijk hoge schatting rechtvaardigen. Het Hof miskent echter dat van een redelijke schatting geen sprake kan zijn indien wordt aangesloten bij de verklaringen van een tipgever die uitdrukkelijk te kennen heeft gegeven dat zijn verklaringen gebaseerd zijn op hypothesen en dergelijke. Een en ander klemt des te meer als de gronden waarop de tipgever zijn verklaring heeft gebaseerd speculatief van aard zijn en er disconfirmerende informatie - met name de verklaring van B - voorhanden is die de hypothesen van de tipgever niet bevestigen.

In rechtsoverweging 5.7 zesde volzin, oordeelt het Hof dat de schatting door de inspecteur van het vermogen weliswaar hoog, maar niet onredelijk hoog is. Vervolgens oordeelt het Hof in de laatste volzin van rechtsoverweging 5.7 dat daarvan uitgaande de schatting van de inspecteur van de niet-aangegeven inkomsten evenmin willekeurig kan worden genoemd.

Het Hof is kennelijk van mening dat een schatting van de correctie ten bedrage van f 5 000 000 absoluut en zelfstandig bezien aan de hoge kant is, maar niet onredelijk hoog is. De motivering van het Hof dat er geen sprake is van een willekeurige aanslag is echter innerlijk tegenstrijdig. Het Hof is kennelijk van mening dat een niet onredelijk hoge schatting redelijk kan zijn. Met een dergelijk oordeel miskent het Hof echter dat niet onredelijk hoog te hoog is, immers 'niet onredelijk hoog' is een gradatie van hoog en niet een gradatie van redelijk. Met andere woorden hoog is hoog ook al is die niet onredelijk. Derhalve is er geen sprake van een deugdelijk onderbouwde correctie, zodat er sprake is van een willekeurig opgelegde aanslag.

Conclusie

Het Hof heeft ten onrechte geoordeeld dat de inspecteur in alle redelijkheid aansluiting mocht zoeken bij de verklaring van het door D genoemde bedrag. Het Hof is verder zonder nadere motivering voorbij gegaan aan de stelling van belanghebbende dat de verklaring van B en niet de verklaring van D als aanknopingspunt moest dienen voor de hoogte van de correctie van niet aangegeven vermogen. Het Hof heeft tevens verzuimd duidelijk en inzichtelijk aan te geven op grond van welk criterium de betrouwbaarheid van de inhoud van de verklaringen van D zijn getoetst, zodat het Hof tot het oordeel kon komen dat aan de verklaring van D meer waarde gehecht moest worden dan aan de verklaring van B. De door het Hof gebezigde bewijsconstructie is niet verenigbaar met de

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beginselen van behoorlijk procesrecht en is tevens niet naar de eis der wet met redenen omkleed en kan dus niet in stand blijven. Verwijzing moet volgen.

MIDDEL IV

Het recht is geschonden en/of er zijn vormen verzuimd waarvan niet naleving nietigheid medebrengt.

In het bijzonder het bepaalde in artikel 6 van het Europees Verdrag tot bescherming van de rechten van de mens en burgerlijke vrijheden, doordat het Hof heeft geoordeeld dat de waarborgen van artikel 6 EVRM belanghebbende niet bevrijden van zijn verplichting om de bankafschriften van F AG ter inzage te verstrekken.

Toelichting

In de 3e volzin van rechtsoverweging 5.5 overweegt het Hof met betrekking tot de waarborgen van artikel 6 EVRM als volgt:

'Belanghebbende ziet hier naar het oordeel van het Hof over het hoofd dat het Verdrag en de jurisprudentie van het Europese Hof hem niet bevrijden van zijn verplichting om de bankafschriften van F AG, die immers bestaan buiten de wil van hem als verdachte om en waarvan aannemelijk is dat hij daarover beschikking heeft, ter inzake te verstrekken (...)'.

Het Hof is het kennelijk met belanghebbende eens dat op grond van de specifieke feiten en omstandigheden in de onderhavige kwestie sprake is van strafvervolging in de zin van artikel 6 EVRM, zodat een beroep op de waarborgen van 6 EVRM mogelijk is. Immers, indien het vorengaande anders zou zijn geweest, dan had het Hof belanghebbende's beroep op de waarborgen van artikel 6 EVRM - aangezien er geen bestuurlijke boete in het geding is - eenvoudig kunnen afdoen met de stelling dat de onderhavige kwestie slechts de vaststelling van de enkelvoudige belasting betreft, waarop artikel 6 EVRM niet van toepassing is.

Het Hof miskent in zijn oordeel echter dat belanghebbende zich als een 'person charged with a criminal offence' op grond van het Funke-arrest te allen tijde mag beroepen op het recht niet bij dragen aan de beschuldiging te zijnen laste, met name niet door gedwongen verstrekking van belastende bescheiden. Het Hof heeft in zijn oordeel de reikwijdte van het recht op vrijwaring van zelfincriminatie van artikel 6 EVRM ten onrechte beperkt. De door het Hof gegeven motivering dat de waarborgen van artikel 6 EVRM belanghebbende niet bevrijden van zijn verplichting om de bankafschriften van F AG, die immers bestaan buiten de wil van hem als verdachte om en waarvan aannemelijk is dat hij daarover de beschikking heeft ter inzage te verstrekken, is slechts van belang indien er nog geen sprake is van een situatie dat een persoon 'criminal charged' is.

Tevens verwerpt het Hof in de 4e volzin van r.o. 5.5 de stelling van belanghebbende dat de inspecteur hem de vragen tevens heeft gesteld met het oog op het lopende strafrechtelijk onderzoek tegen hem. Het Hof oordeelt - op grond van het enkele feit dat de inspecteur ter zitting aldus verklaard heeft - dat de vragen uitsluitend gesteld zijn in het kader van de belastingheffing en het kader van artikel 47 Awr niet te buiten gingen. Het Hof miskent echter dat de waarborgen van artikel 6 EVRM van toepassing behoren te zijn tegenover een ieder die een aangifteverplichting van strafbare feiten heeft en dat het

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zwijgrecht betrekking heeft op elke vraag die kan leiden tot vervolgvragen gericht op zelfbeschuldiging.

Conclusie

De beperkingen van de waarborgen van artikel 6 EVRM op grond van het Saunders-arrest, betreft slechts het gebruik in een strafprocedure van materiaal vergaard tijdens het administratief onderzoek, dus de fase waarin nog geen sprake is van 'criminal charged'. Het Hof miskent dat belanghebbende zich als een 'person charged with a criminal offence' op grond van het Funke-arrest mocht beroepen op het recht niet bij dragen aan de beschuldiging te zijnen laste, met name niet door gedwongen verstrekking van belastende bescheiden. Artikel 6 EVRM dient te prevaleren boven artikel 47 Awr, derhalve is verzwaring van de bewijslast ingevolge artikel 29 Awr in geval van samenloop van een strafrechtelijke en fiscale procedure disproportioneel. Verwijzing moet volgen.

Proceskostenveroordeling

Mocht belanghebbende geheel dan wel gedeeltelijk in het gelijk worden gesteld dan verzoek ik Uw Raad de belastingdienst te veroordelen in de proceskosten.

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NJ 2007, 39: Bedrijfsafvalwaterrapportage en nemo teneturbeginsel.

Instantie: Hoge Raad (Strafkamer) Datum: 19 september 2006

Magistraten:

Mrs. W.J.M. Davids, G.J.M. Corstens, J.P. Balkema, A.J.A. van Dorst, J.W. Ilsink

Zaaknr: 00895/05E

Conclusie:

A-G Knigge

LJN: AV1141

Noot: J.M. Reijntjes Roepnaam: -

Wetingang: Sv art. 29; EVRM art. 6 lid 1; WVOW art. 30a

Snel naar: EssentieSamenvattingVoorgaande uitspraakConclusieNoot

EssentieNaar boven

1. Art. 1a, 1e WED moet wat betreft de periode 1 januari 2001 tot 1 juli 2002 worden gelezen met verbetering van de misslag dat deze bepaling verwees naar art. 26 Wet verontereiniging oppervlaktewateren in plaats van naar art. 30a van die wet.

2. De door het bedrijf verzamelde Bedrijfsafvalrapportage (BAWR- gegevens) mocht voor het bewijs worden gebruikt nu de betrouwbaarheid daarvan niet gemotiveerd is betwist door de verdediging.

3. Het verweer dat het gebruik van de BAWR-gegevens voor het bewijs in strijd zou zijn met het nemo teneturbeginsel is terecht verworpen. De gegevens zijn ten behoeve van toezicht op de naleving van de vergunningvoorschriften verzameld en verstrekt, terwijl er toen geen sprake was van een verdenking. Het latere gebruik van deze gegevens voor het bewijs valt buiten bereik van art. 6 EVRM.

SamenvattingNaar boven

In het Nederlands recht is niet een onvoorwaardelijk recht of beginsel verankerd dat een verdachte op geen enkele wijze kan worden verplicht tot het verlenen van medewerking aan het verkrijgen van voor hem mogelijk belastend bewijsmateriaal. Wel brengt het aan art. 29 Sv ten grondslag liggende beginsel mee dat een verdachte niet kan worden verplicht tot het afleggen van een verklaring — het verschaffen van schriftelijke inlichtingen daaronder begrepen — omtrent zijn betrokkenheid bij een strafbaar feit, waarvan niet gezegd kan worden dat zij in vrijheid is afgelegd.

Voorts ligt in art. 6 EVRM besloten dat, indien ten aanzien van een verdachte sprake is van een ‘criminal charge’, deze het recht heeft ‘to remain silent’ en ‘not to incriminate oneself’.

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Het voorgaande geldt niet voor degene die, zonder dat ten aanzien van hem sprake is van verdenking van enig strafbaar feit dan wel van een criminal charge, op grond van een strafrechtelijk gesanctioneerd vergunningsvoorschrift verplicht is gegevens te verstrekken. Dat op grond van die gegevens mogelijk een verdenking ter zake van enig strafbaar feit kan rijzen, doet daaraan niet af (vgl. HR NJ 1999, 648). In casu heeft het Hof vastgesteld dat de BAWR-gegevens door verdachte zijn verstrekt toen nog geen sprake was van een verdenking of ‘criminal charge’ ex art. 6 EVRM. Dat oordeel is niet onjuist. Dat verdachte de BAWR gegevens zelf heeft verstrekt, doet daaraan niet af. De desbetreffende vergunningvoorschriften, die daartoe verplichten, zijn gesteld met het oog op het uit te oefenen toezicht op de naleving van de Wet verontreiniging oppervlaktewateren en de krachtens die wet gegeven vergunningvoorschriften.

De belangen die genoemde wet beoogt te beschermen, rechtvaardigen dat toezicht en de wijze waarop het wordt uitgeoefend, en het gebruik van aldus verkregen gegevens bij de vaststelling van een inbreuk daarop. Art. 6 EVRM verzet zich daartegen niet. Ook het gebruik van die BAWR-gegevens als bewijsmateriaal in verdachtes strafzaak is niet in strijd met het in art. 6 lid 1 EVRM besloten liggende recht van verdachte om niet aan zijn eigen veroordeling te behoeven meewerken. Deze gegevens vallen immers buiten het bereik van het recht dat een verdachte kan ontlenen aan art. 29 Sv en art. 6 EVRM om te weigeren informatie en opheldering aan de overheid te verschaffen die in een strafzaak tot bewijs tegen hem kunnen dienen (Saunders tegen het Verenigd Koninkrijk, EHRM 17 december 1996, no 43/1994/490/572, NJ 1997, 699, rov. 68 en 69).

's Hofs verwerping van het gevoerde betoog getuigt dus niet van een onjuiste rechtsopvatting en is toereikend gemotiveerd.

Voorgaande uitspraakNaar boven

Arrest

op het beroep in cassatie tegen een arrest van het Gerechtshof te Arnhem, Economische Kamer, van 15 november 2004, nummer 21/006155–03, in de strafzaak tegen S. Adv. mr. C. Waling te 's-Gravenhage.

Hof:

De uitspraak

1.1

Het Hof heeft in hoger beroep de verdachte ter zake van 'overtreding van een voorschrift gesteld bij artikel 30a van de Wet verontreiniging oppervlaktewateren, opzettelijk begaan, door een rechtspersoon, meermalen gepleegd' veroordeeld tot een geldboete van tachtigduizend euro, waarvan dertigduizend euro voorwaardelijk met een proeftijd van twee jaren.

1.2

De aanvulling op het verkorte arrest als bedoeld in art. 365a, tweede lid, Sv is aan dit arrest gehecht en maakt daarvan deel uit.

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Cassatiemiddel:

(zie 3.1; red.)

Hoge Raad:

3. Beoordeling van het eerste middel

3.1

Het middel bevat de klacht dat het Hof ten onrechte het bewezenverklaarde feit strafbaar heeft geacht.

3.2

Ten laste van de verdachte is bewezenverklaard dat:

'zij op tijdstippen in of omstreeks de periode 1 januari 2001 tot en met 5 juli 2001 in de gemeente Zutphen, terwijl aan S., door of namens de staatssecretaris van Verkeer en Waterstaat op 31 januari 2000, onder nummer ANKV 1029 en van kracht geworden op 26 maart 2000, een vergunning op grond van de Wet verontreiniging oppervlaktewateren was verleend, opzettelijk, zich telkens heeft gedragen in strijd met een of meer aan voornoemde vergunning in artikel 5.4 verbonden voorschriften, aangezien

het effluent van de afvalwaterzuivering (ONO/zandfilter) van de stoffen zink en koper meermalen meer dan de gemiddelde concentratie per etmaal voor zink van 1,75 mg/l en voor koper van 0,25 mg/l bevatte en

de totaalvracht aan zink en koper meermalen gemiddeld meer dan 480 gram per etmaal bedroeg en

de spuistroom uit de bandgieterij aan zink en koper meermalen gemiddeld meer dan 540 gram per etmaal bedroeg en

de totale afvalwaterstroom aan zink en koper meermalen gemiddeld meer dan 1300 gram per etmaal bedroeg.'

3.3

De bestreden uitspraak houdt ten aanzien van de strafbaarheid van het bewezenverklaarde, voor zover voor de beoordeling van het middel van belang, het volgende in:

'Vóór 1 januari 2001 stond in artikel 26 van de Wet verontreiniging oppervlaktewateren het volgende vermeld:

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'Een gedraging in strijd met een aan een vergunning verbonden voorschrift, is verboden.'

Bij wet van 16 maart 2000, staatsblad nr. 135, zijn de artikelen 24 tot en met 26 van de Wet verontreiniging oppervlaktewateren vernummerd tot 29 tot en met 30a. Deze wet is op 1 januari 2001 in werking getreden.

De wetgever heeft echter nagelaten om deze wetswijziging terstond door te voeren in artikel 1a van de Wet op de economische delicten.

Het hof heeft kennis genomen van het feit dat in de Nota van wijziging op het voorstel tot wijziging van de Wet verontreiniging oppervlaktewateren van 30 augustus 2001 (nr. 27.615, staatsblad nr. 5) in artikel III staat dat in de Wet op de economische delicten in artikel 1a, ten eerste, de zinsnede 'Wet verontreiniging oppervlaktewateren, de artikelen 1, eerste, derde en vierde lid, 1b, 2a, 2c, tweede lid, 5, eerste lid, en 26' vervangen dient te worden door 'Wet verontreiniging oppervlaktewateren, de artikelen 1, eerste, derde en vierde lid, 1b, 2a, 2c, tweede lid, 5, eerste lid, en 30a'.

Op 1 juli 2002 is de Wet betreffende de strafbaarstelling van artikel 30a in artikel 1a van de Wet op de economische delicten in werking getreden.

Het hof is van oordeel, gelet op de strekking van de bepalingen, het feit dat de tekst van artikel 26 (oud) en artikel 30a van de Wet verontreiniging oppervlaktewateren volledig identiek zijn, dat in het onderhavige geval sprake is geweest van een kennelijke omissie aan de kant van de wetgever, en dat de wetgever hetgeen strafbaar was gesteld in artikel 26 van de Wet verontreiniging oppervlaktewateren steeds strafbaar heeft willen laten blijven. Blijkens voornoemd kamerstuk lag het in de bedoeling van de wetgever om de omissie te herstellen. Naar het oordeel van het hof dient het ervoor te worden gehouden dat een overtreding van artikel 26 of 30a van de Wet verontreiniging oppervlaktewateren steeds strafbaar is geweest.

Het bewezenverklaarde levert dus louter strafbare feiten op.'

3.4

Het middel faalt omdat de hiervoor onder 3.3 weergegeven overweging van het Hof juist is (vgl. HR 30 augustus 2005, NJ 2005, 540).

4. Beoordeling van het tweede middel

4.1

Het middel strekt kennelijk ertoe te betogen dat het Hof onvoldoende gemotiveerd heeft beslist op het verweer dat de voor het bewijs gebruikte bedrijfsafvalwaterrapportage (hierna: BAWR) in strijd met de aanwijzing bemonstering en analyse milieudelicten van het College van Procureurs-Generaal van 24 november 1999, Stcrt. 1999, 248, p. 36 (hierna: de Aanwijzing) is tot stand gekomen en op het verweer aangaande de betrouwbaarheid van die rapportage.

4.2.1

Blijkens de aan het proces-verbaal van de terechtzitting in hoger beroep gehechte pleitnota heeft de raadsman van de verdachte onder meer het volgende aangevoerd:

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'Kernbezwaar S.

7.

Het bezwaar van S. tegen het vonnis van de economische politierechter richt zich met name op het als enig bewijsmiddel hanteren van de eigen metingen en analyses van S. voor de bewezenverklaring van de ten laste gelegde feiten in de periode 1 januari 2000 tot en met 5 juli 2001 (de datum waarop de cautieverlening plaatsvond).

Dit is niet alleen in strijd met het 'nemo tenetur'-beginsel, maar ook met de eigen uitdrukkelijke stellingname van de officier van justitie in de brief aan RWS d.d. 21 juni 2001 (bijlage 10 bij het proces-verbaal van 15 januari 2001).

'Ik wijs u erop dat enkel de constatering door het bestuur, onvoldoende bewijs oplevert. U zult dus zelf — al dan niet in samenwerking met de toezichthouder — de overtreding(en) moeten vaststellen.'

Voor wat betreft de eventuele verbeurte van bestuursrechtelijke dwangsommen (ingevolge de last onder dwangsom van 16 mei 2002 c.q. het op 2 maart 2004 op verzoek van de Staat (RWS) betekende dwangbevel, waartegen S. verzet aantekende en waarover thans bij de civiele kamer van de rechtbank Arnhem geprocedeerd wordt tussen S. en de Staat) stelt de Staat (RWS) zich eveneens nadrukkelijk op het standpunt dat overtredingen van de last onder dwangsom of vergunningvoorschriften uitsluitend gebaseerd kunnen/zullen zijn op de door de Staat (RWS) zelf geconstateerde overtredingen, gebaseerd op de analyseresultaten van door de Staat (RWS) zelf genomen monsters (zie punt 3.15 conclusie van antwoord in oppositie van de Staat d.d. 2 juni 2004). Dit standpunt strookt ook met artikel 18.2, lid 1 Wm: Het bestuursorgaan dat bevoegd is een vergunning krachtens artikel 8.1 voor een inrichting te verlenen, dan wel ingevolge artikel 8.41, 2e lid, onder a., het orgaan is waaraan de melding is gericht, heeft tot taak:

a.

zorg te dragen voor de bestuursrechtelijke handhaving van de op grond van de betrokken wetten voor degene die de inrichting drijft, geldende voorschriften;

b.

gegevens over de inrichting, die met het oog op de uitoefening van de taak als bedoeld onder a. van belang zijn, te verzamelen en te registreren;

c.

... ...

Zie ook Afdeling bestuursrechtspraak Raad van State 30 juni 1995, AB 1996, 61 met noot prof. Michiels. De annotator concludeert uit de overwegingen van de Afdeling dat een registratieverplichting voor de vergunninghouder niet zover mag gaan dat deze verplicht wordt om overtredingen zelf te constateren en aan het bevoegd gezag te melden. Rapportage mag wel, maar het bevoegd gezag moet vervolgens zèlf constateren. De gerapporteerde handelingen/feiten leveren geen overtredingen op, zie in dezelfde zin AB 1996, 61; AB 1995, 190; AB 2000 99.

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Het is op zijn zachtst gezegd opmerkelijk, dat de strafrechter voor de vergunninghouder/verdachte verzamelde feiten en gegevens wel toelaat als bewijsmiddel, waar dat volgens de officier van justitie in deze zaak niet kan en waar dat bij bestuursrechtelijke handhaving volgens vaste rechtspraak van de Afdeling bestuursrechtspraak van de Raad van State niet toelaatbaar is.

(…)

9.

S. dient te worden vrijgesproken, omdat het ten laste gelegde feit niet wettig en overtuigend kan worden bewezen.

S. voert een (bewijs)verweer, bestaande uit de volgende onderdelen:

1.

De meetresultaten van RWS mogen niet als wettig bewijsmiddel worden aangemerkt, omdat zij niet betrouwbaar en onvoldoende representatief zijn, terwijl bovendien controle achteraf niet mogelijk blijkt te zijn. De monsternemingen en monsteranalyses voldoen niet aan de in redelijkheid daaraan te stellen eisen (de Aanwijzing bemonstering en analyse milieudelicten).

2.

Door S. zelf verkregen (belastende) meetresultaten en monsteranalyses, die zijn overgelegd aan RWS op grond van voorschrift 5.9 horende bij de WVO-vergunning, mogen niet gebruikt worden als bewijsmateriaal in de onderhavige strafprocedure (Hoge Raad 22 juni 1999, NJ 1999, 648 en nemo tenetur-beginsel).

(…)

11.

Toelichting: 1. Betrouwbaarheid, representativiteit en controle achteraf

Het milieustrafrecht is gericht op technisch bewijs. Technisch bewijs kan worden verkregen aan de hand van monsternemingen en -analyses. Voor de correcte wijze van bemonstering en analyse gelden richtlijnen. Niet alleen het volgen van een analysevoorschrift is uiteindelijk doorslaggevend voor de betrouwbaarheid van de resultaten van een milieumeting, maar daarnaast veelal zaken die zich nauwelijks laten beschrijven, zoals: de wijze van monsterneming, de uitkomst van de analyse, de kwaliteit van het personeel en de onderzoekslaboratoria.

(…)

13.

Op 1 januari 2000 is de 'Aanwijzing bemonstering en analyse milieudelicten' in werking getreden. (…) De Aanwijzing heeft tot doel procedurele en zorgvuldigheidswaarborgen op te stellen die leiden tot een optimale bewijswaarde van monsters bij de opsporing en vervolging van milieudelicten. Daarbij moet: a) inzichtelijk zijn hóe de bemonstering en monsteranalyse heeft plaatsgevonden, en b) daarnaast ook achteraf het resultaat controleerbaar zijn (contra-analyse).

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14.

Voor het verkrijgen van voldoende betrouwbaar technisch bewijs, moet aan deze voorwaarden zijn voldaan. Basiseis is dat bemonstering op zo zorgvuldig mogelijke wijze plaatsvindt (artikel 3.1). Het proces-verbaal van de heer Moll voldoet hier niet aan, zodat de resultaten niet wettig zijn verkregen en bovenal onbetrouwbaar zijn. S. bestrijdt ook de juistheid c.q. uitkomst van de analyses (de analyseresultaten). Dit wordt toegelicht:

*

Uit het proces-verbaal moet in ieder geval blijken op welke wijze de monsterneming en monsteranalyse hebben plaatsgevonden. Hoe, waar en wanneer zijn welke monsters door wie getrokken? Daarnaast moet blijken dat de monsters zijn verzegeld, op correcte wijze zijn overgedragen, geconserveerd en gehomogeniseerd. Dit alles blijkt niet uit het proces-verbaal van de heer Moll!

*

Het proces-verbaal van de heer Moll spreekt enkel en alleen over meetresultaten zonder dat op enige wijze kan worden vastgesteld hoe deze resultaten zijn verkregen.

*

Een proces-verbaal van monsterneming alsmede het verslag van het laboratoriumonderzoek met de analyseresultaten ontbreken. Het proces-verbaal bevat enkel en alleen (als bijlage 6) kale onderzoeksresultaten. S. kan deze resultaten niet verifiëren. Op basis hiervan kan geen strafrechterlijke beoordeling (veroordeling) plaatsvinden. Ook uit de bij de brief van de heer Moll aan het Parket d.d. 30 september 2003 gevoegde overzichten en uitdraaien blijkt niet dat de voorschriften van de Aanwijzing correct zijn nageleefd, processen-verbaal van monsterneming ontbreken en controle achteraf is onmogelijk.

(…)

19.

Een vergelijk tussen de bedrijfsafvalwaterrapportage (BAWR) van S. en de analyseresultaten van RWS, laat zien dat op dagen dat zowel door S. als door RWS kennelijk monsters zijn getrokken, er grote en onverklaarbare verschillen in de (toets)waarden bestaan. De heer Kuijper heeft de heer Moll hierop gewezen, doch geen verklaring gekregen. Het proces verbaal biedt geen enkele verklaring of uitleg. Steekproefsgewijs kan dit verschil worden aangetoond aan de hand van de meting en analyse door S. en die van RWS.

(…)

Daarnaast staat de betrouwbaarheid van de uit deze documenten blijkende informatie niet buiten discussie. Voor deze betrouwbaarheid geldt nou juist de genoemde Aanwijzing met voorschriften en waarborgen met het oog op zorgvuldigheid, representativiteit en controle achteraf. De BAWR-gegevens zijn niet volgens deze Aanwijzing tot stand gekomen.

(…)'

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4.2.2

Het proces-verbaal van de terechtzitting in hoger beroep houdt in dat de raadsman van de verdachte aldaar, in aanvulling op de pleitnota voor zover hier van belang, heeft aangevoerd:

'De eigen monstercontrole in het bedrijf geschiedt zorgvuldig, maar niet zo zorgvuldig zoals dat in een officieel laboratorium gebeurt, met alle voorwaarden van dien. Voorts zou ik nog willen opmerken dat in de Aanwijzing staat vermeld dat een contramonster wordt aanbevolen. Het gaat hier immers om een toezichtsfase. Ik meen dat de advocaat-generaal wel erg soepel met de Aanwijzing omgaat. Bij ontbreken van een wettelijke regeling heeft het College van Procureurs-Generaal het nodig geacht een Aanwijzing te maken en het kan niet zo zijn dat deze Aanwijzing zo gemakkelijk aan de kant kan worden geschoven.'

4.2.3

Het Hof heeft in de bestreden uitspraak hieromtrent als volgt overwogen en beslist:

'Namens verdachte is — kort weergegeven — ter terechtzitting aangevoerd dat de meetresultaten van Rijkswaterstaat niet als wettig bewijsmiddel mogen worden aangemerkt, daar zij niet betrouwbaar en onvoldoende representatief zijn, terwijl bovendien controle achteraf niet mogelijk blijkt te zijn. Hierbij is nog aangevoerd dat de monsternemingen en monsteranalyse niet voldoen aan de in redelijkheid daaraan te stellen eisen, te weten de Aanwijzing bemonstering en analyse milieudelicten (…).

Het hof overweegt hieromtrent het volgende.

Met de verdediging is het hof van oordeel dat de door Rijkswaterstaat gegenereerde analyseresultaten niet als bewijs kunnen dienen.

Het hof heeft op grond van het dossier onvoldoende inzicht kunnen verkrijgen in de wijze van monsterneming. Verbalisant Moll heeft gesteld dat hij bij het verkrijgen van de analyseresultaten toepassing heeft gegeven aan de Aanwijzing bemonstering, doch het dossier geeft hier geen blijk van. Verbalisant heeft telkenmale nagelaten om een verslag van de monsterneming en de analyse op te maken, zodat een controle door het hof niet mogelijk is.

Evenmin heeft verdachte naar het oordeel van het hof een mogelijkheid op contra-expertise gehad.

Het hof baseert zich hierbij onder meer op het proces-verbaal van 15 januari 2002 waarin niet is vermeld dat aan verdachte is aangeboden een contra-analyse te laten verrichten van een door Rijkswaterstaat genomen monster. Eerst in het proces-verbaal van 19 mei 2003 is vermeld dat bij de cautieverlening de analyse van contramonsters is aangeboden en dat verdachte dit aanbod heeft afgeslagen.

Verdachte betwist dit en er is grond om aan te nemen dat de verbalisant ziet op de mogelijkheid dat verdachte zelf een monster had kunnen nemen en laten analyseren. Dit is echter geen contra-expertise.

Het hof zal derhalve de meetresultaten van Rijkswaterstaat uitsluiten van het bewijs.'

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4.3

In het oordeel van het Hof ligt besloten dat de BAWR, die door de verdachte zelf is aangeleverd, is tot stand gekomen krachtens de aan de verdachte verleende vergunning. De WVO en de daarop gebaseerde regelgeving bevatten geen regels met betrekking tot de te hanteren onderzoeksmethode in het kader van het toezicht op de naleving van de in art. 30a WVO gegeven voorschriften en de opsporing van overtredingen. De Aanwijzing, die dergelijke regels wel bevat, heeft wat betreft het nemen van monsters in het kader van het bestuurlijk toezicht slechts het karakter van een advies. De WVO staat er daarom niet aan in de weg dat bij een vervolging en veroordeling ter zake van overtreding van art. 30a WVO wordt uitgegaan van de resultaten van een in het kader van het bestuurlijk toezicht door het bedrijf zelf verzamelde gegevens, ook al zou daarbij niet zijn gehandeld overeenkomstig de in de Aanwijzing (voor de opsporing dwingend) gegeven regels. Het Hof heeft in het kader van de bewijsvoering daarom gebruik mogen maken van de BAWR-gegevens.

De daartegen gerichte eerste klacht van het middel gaat niet op.

4.4.1

Bij de beoordeling van de tweede klacht van het middel moet worden vooropgesteld dat het is voorbehouden aan de rechter die over de feiten oordeelt om, binnen de door de wet getrokken grenzen, van het beschikbare materiaal datgene tot het bewijs te bezigen hetwelk hem uit een oogpunt van betrouwbaarheid daartoe dienstig voorkomt en datgene terzijde te stellen wat hij voor het bewijs van geen waarde acht. Deze beslissing behoeft, behoudens bijzondere gevallen, geen motivering.

4.4.2

Gelet op hetgeen hiervoor is weergegeven onder 4.2.1 en 4.2.2 is ter terechtzitting in hoger beroep niet een voldoende duidelijk geformuleerd standpunt ingenomen ten aanzien van de betrouwbaarheid van de BAWR-gegevens dat door het Hof beargumenteerd diende te worden weerlegd. Het aangevoerde houdt niet in waarom de genoemde gegevens niet betrouwbaar zijn. De enkele stelling dat die gegevens niet volgens de Aanwijzing tot stand zijn gekomen, is daartoe onvoldoende, mede gelet op hetgeen hiervoor onder 4.3 is overwogen (vgl. HR 30 oktober 2001, NJ 2002, 149).

4.4.3

Opmerking verdient nog dat het gebruik van de BAWR-gegevens voor het bewijs ook zonder nadere motivering niet onbegrijpelijk is. Door de verdediging is niet aangevoerd dat de meetresultaten en bemonsteringsanalyses door de verdachte niet zijn verzameld conform de eisen die zijn gesteld in de vergunningsvoorschriften dan wel dat daaraan anderszins gebreken kleven. Bovendien is de door de verdachte gebruikte meetapparatuur gecontroleerd door medewerkers van Rijkswaterstaat. Van een bijzonder geval als bedoeld onder 4.4.1, is daarom geen sprake.

4.4.4

Ook de tweede klacht van het middel faalt.

(…)

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6. Beoordeling van het vierde middel

6.1

Het middel klaagt erover dat het gebruik voor het bewijs van door de verdachte aan Rijkswaterstaat verstrekte gegevens in strijd is met het door art. 6 EVRM gewaarborgde recht om zichzelf niet te belasten. De afwijzing van het Hof van de stelling dat die gegevens niet mogen worden gebruikt als bewijsmateriaal in de strafprocedure, is onbegrijpelijk, althans ontoereikend gemotiveerd, aldus de toelichting op het middel.

6.2

Blijkens de aan het proces-verbaal van de terechtzitting in hoger beroep gehechte pleitnota heeft de raadsman onder meer aangevoerd hetgeen hiervoor onder 4.2.1 is weergegeven. Voorts heeft de raadsman blijkens die pleitnota het volgende aangevoerd:

'22.

Toelichting: 2. Hoge Raad 22 juni 1999 (NJ 1999, 648) en nemo tenetur-beginsel

Op grond van de WVO-vergunning (artikel 5.9 en bijlage 4 behorende bij de vergunning) is S. verplicht zich te onderwerpen aan continue debietmeting en bemonstering, waarbij ook de analyseresultaten van haar eigen bedrijfsafvalwatervoorziening moet worden gerapporteerd aan RWS. Deze bemonstering en rapportages vinden plaats in het kader van de (bestuursrechtelijke) controle op en handhaving van de WVO-vergunning. Indien en voor zover aan de hand van deze BAWR-gegevens van S. zelf overtredingen/overschrijdingen worden geconstateerd, kunnen en mogen deze niet in het strafrechtelijk traject als bewijsmiddel fungeren en niet tot bewijs dienen.

23.

Nemo tenetur-beginsel

Uitgangspunt is dat de verdachte de toepassing van dwangmiddelen moet gedogen, maar nooit gedwongen kan worden actief aan het onderzoek of zijn veroordeling mee te werken. Het nemo tenetur-beginsel is niet verankerd in artikel 29 Strafvordering, maar volgt rechtstreeks uit artikel 6 EVRM.

In het arrest Funke EHRM van 25 februari 1993 NJ 1993, 485 werd het nemo teneturbeginsel onder het bereik van artikel 6, lid 1 EVRM gebracht, te weten het 'fair trial' beginsel.'

6.3

Het bestreden arrest houdt, voor zover voor de beoordeling van het middel van belang, in:

'Daarnaast heeft de verdediging nog aangevoerd dat de door verdachte zelf verkregen (belastende) meetresultaten en monsteranalyses, die zijn overgelegd aan Rijkswaterstaat op grond van voorschrift 5.9 behorende bij de op grond van de Wet Verontreiniging oppervlaktewateren verleende vergunning niet mogen worden gebruikt als

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bewijsmateriaal in de onderhavige strafprocedure. De verdediging beroept zich hierbij op het nemo tenetur-beginsel (…).

Het hof stelt voorop dat in het Nederlandse recht niet een onvoorwaardelijk recht of beginsel is verankerd dat een verdachte op generlei wijze kan worden verplicht tot het verlenen van medewerking aan het verkrijgen van voor hem mogelijk bezwarend bewijsmateriaal. Wel brengt het aan artikel 29 van het Wetboek van Strafvordering ten grondslag liggend beginsel mee dat een verdachte niet kan worden verplicht tot het afleggen van een verklaring — het verschaffen van schriftelijke inlichtingen daaronder begrepen — omtrent zijn betrokkenheid bij een strafbaar feit, waarvan niet kan worden gezegd dat zij in vrijheid is afgelegd.

Voorts ligt in artikel 6 van het Europees verdrag voor de rechten van de mens besloten dat, indien ten aanzien van een verdachte sprake is van een 'criminal charge' in de zin van die bepaling, deze het recht heeft 'to remain silent' en 'not to incriminate oneself'.

Het betoog van de verdediging berust kennelijk op de opvatting dat het hiervoor overwogene ook geldt voor degene die, zonder dat ten aanzien van hem sprake is van een verdenking van enig strafbaar feit dan wel van een criminal charge, op grond van de voorschriften 5.9 behorende bij de op grond van de Wet Verontreiniging oppervlaktewateren verleende vergunning verplicht is om zich te onderwerpen aan debietmeting en bemonstering, waarbij de analyseresultaten van de eigen bedrijfsafvalvoorziening dient te worden gerapporteerd aan Rijkswaterstaat. Deze opvatting is naar het oordeel van het hof echter onjuist. Dat de op grond van de in de rapporten van verdachte vermelde gegevens mogelijk een verdenking ter zake van enig strafbaar feit kan rijzen doet daaraan niet af.

Het hof verwerpt derhalve dit verweer.'

6.4

In cassatie moet van het volgende worden uitgegaan. Aan de verdachte is door de Staatssecretaris van Verkeer en Waterstaat een vergunning verleend als bedoeld in art. 1, eerste lid, WVO voor het lozen van afvalwater op de Geldersche IJssel. Aan die vergunning zijn voorwaarden verbonden die zijn neergelegd in de vergunningsvoorschriften. In art. 5.4 van die vergunningsvoorschriften zijn 'Lozingseisen' geformuleerd die onder meer betrekking hebben op de maximaal toelaatbare concentraties koper en zink in het afvalwater en de maximaal toelaatbare hoeveelheid te verwerken afvalwater. Voorts bevatten de vergunningsvoorschriften bepalingen met betrekking tot controle en rapportage (art. 5.9 en bijlage 4). Op grond daarvan dient het bedrijf te zorgen voor de aanwezigheid van bemonsteringsapparatuur, met behulp waarvan continu monsters worden verzameld. Het bedrijf dient de monsters regelmatig te (laten) analyseren op de aanwezige concentraties koper en zink en daarover per kwartaal te rapporteren aan Rijkswaterstaat. Deze BAWR-gegevens zijn tot bewijs gebruikt in de onderhavige strafprocedure.

6.5.1

Bij de beoordeling van het middel moet worden vooropgesteld dat in het Nederlandse recht niet een onvoorwaardelijk recht of beginsel is verankerd dat een verdachte op geen enkele wijze kan worden verplicht tot het verlenen van medewerking aan het verkrijgen van voor hem mogelijk bezwarend bewijsmateriaal. Wel brengt het aan art. 29 Sv ten

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grondslag liggende beginsel mee dat een verdachte niet kan worden verplicht tot het afleggen van een verklaring — het verschaffen van schriftelijke inlichtingen daaronder begrepen — omtrent zijn betrokkenheid bij een strafbaar feit, waarvan niet kan worden gezegd dat zij in vrijheid is afgelegd.

Voorts ligt in art. 6 EVRM besloten dat, indien ten aanzien van een verdachte sprake is van een 'criminal charge' in de zin van die bepaling, deze het recht heeft 'to remain silent' en 'not to incriminate oneself'.

Het voorgaande geldt niet voor degene die, zonder dat ten aanzien van hem sprake is van verdenking van enig strafbaar feit dan wel van een criminal charge, op grond van een strafrechtelijk gesanctioneerd vergunningsvoorschrift verplicht is gegevens te verstrekken. Dat op grond van die gegevens mogelijk een verdenking ter zake van enig strafbaar feit kan rijzen, doet daaraan niet af (vgl. HR 22 juni 1999, NJ 1999, 648).

6.5.2

Blijkens zijn hiervoor onder 6.3 weergegeven overwegingen heeft het Hof vastgesteld dat de BAWR-gegevens door de verdachte zijn verzameld en verstrekt toen jegens haar nog geen sprake was van een verdenking of van een 'criminal charge' in de zin van art. 6 EVRM. Dat oordeel geeft geen blijk van een onjuiste rechtsopvatting en is niet onbegrijpelijk. De omstandigheid dat de verdachte de BAWR-gegevens zelf heeft verzameld en verstrekt, doet daaraan niet af. De desbetreffende vergunningsvoorschriften, die daartoe verplichten, zijn gesteld met het oog op het uit te oefenen toezicht op de naleving van de WVO en de krachtens die wet gegeven vergunningsvoorschriften.

De belangen die genoemde wet beoogt te beschermen, rechtvaardigen dat toezicht en de wijze waarop het wordt uitgeoefend, alsmede het gebruik van aldus verkregen gegevens bij de vaststelling van een inbreuk daarop.

Art. 6 EVRM verzet zich daartegen niet. Ook het gebruik van die BAWR-gegevens als bewijsmateriaal in de strafzaak van de verdachte is niet in strijd met het in art. 6, eerste lid, EVRM besloten liggende recht van de verdachte om niet aan zijn eigen veroordeling te behoeven meewerken. Deze gegevens vallen immers buiten het bereik van het recht dat een verdachte kan ontlenen aan art. 29 Sv en art. 6 EVRM om te weigeren informatie en opheldering aan de overheid te verschaffen die in een strafzaak tot bewijs tegen hem kunnen dienen (Saunders tegen het Verenigd Koninkrijk, EHRM 17 december 1996, no 43/1994/490/572, NJ 1997, 699, rov. 68 en 69).

6.6

's Hofs verwerping van het hiervoor onder 6.2 weergegeven betoog getuigt dus niet van een onjuiste rechtsopvatting en is toereikend gemotiveerd.

6.7

Het middel faalt.

7. Slotsom

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Nu de middelen niet tot cassatie kunnen leiden, terwijl de Hoge Raad ook geen grond aanwezig oordeelt waarop de bestreden uitspraak ambtshalve zou behoren te worden vernietigd, moet het beroep worden verworpen.

8. Beslissing

De Hoge Raad verwerpt het beroep.

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