1NC vs Milpitas TT

7/21/2019 1NC vs Milpitas TT

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/1achel, >4<:4<=, "Fostering Eroticism in 9cience Education to Promote Erotic ?enerosities forthe 5cean 5ther#, Education 9tudies@ A ournal of the American Educational 9tudiesAssociation, olume >@D, ;>:>, 744<, A(

+he ocean is ust one example of a natural environment descri&edthrough a whole host of femalespecic metaphors that serve tofurther guide the human perception of nature . %en)ere) ocean metahors were stirre) y creation stories an)

e@an)e) throu&h history. (alh Wal)o 7merson )escries the feminine rero)uctive owers of the ocean, which move an) shae the continents throu&h erosion an) heat the lan) from elow for Jcontinual

rero)uction of continentsJ <7merson !E!. EF?. 2e@ual metahors e@ist, where, for e@amle, ocean currents are consi)ere) owerful feminine suckin& henomena.A negative viewof the ocean as female occurs when natural disasters stem from theocean, depicting the ocean as an unrul' or destructive woman0 )t isclear that assigning feminine attri&utes to the ocean, as with natural environments in &eneral,

creates a n an thropocentric and patriarchal metaphor, where thenotion of dominating the ocean for human &enet results0 +hisdesire for domination positions the ocean as an 5therG the ocean5ther0 Homination of the ocean often occurs &ecause of theperception that the ocean is autonomous, independent, or withoutownership. or-ro=t comanies are ur- suin& the ri&hts to otain water y )rawin& it )own from the icecas of %reenlan) <(othfe)er $''?. +hese comanies are attemtin& to harness the

ocean to have water to sell. #s )eicte) in the movie +he Cove, tens of thousan)s of )olhins are hunte) each year for meat, for sort, or lo e sent to )olhin swim ro&rams, auariums, Koos, or laces like 2eaWorl). Lust recently, for e@amle, the %eor&ia #uarium has alie) for a fe)eral imort ermit to kee F elu&a whales in cativity for ree)in& research, e)ucation, an) entertainment <Barrin&er $'$?. +heyalie) for the ermit )esite =erce oosition from animal ri&hts activists who ar&ue that marine mammals are too intelli&ent an) social to e ket in cativity without aectin& their wellein&. With the)eveloment of auaculture. man&rove an) other natural coastal haitats are )estroye) to make room for =sh an) shrim farms </ow. #rsha). an) /im !!4 2asckumar !!4 Primavcra $''' aliela. Bowen, an)

Nork $''?. For centuries, people have &een tr'ing to dominate the ocean for

food sources, commerce, and trade routes.+he examples ofattempted ocean5ther domination a&ound0 Perhaps it is &ecausethe ocean is the worldIs greatest commons , or nonmonetiKe) natural an) )iverse cultural systems <Mueller $''F?. With the

e@cetion of the 7@clusive 7conomic Oone <77O?. the ocean is largel' unregulated and unassigned. +he 77O is

the territorial sea an) continental shelf within $'' nautical miles of a coastline that can e use) for the e@loration an) use of the various marine resources. +he U2 Coast %uar) is the law enforce- ment a&ency inthe Unite) 2tates that re&ulates this Kone. #ro@imately ninety ercent of the total ocean volume an) si@ty ercent of the surface of the ocean lies outsi)e of the 77O. +he Kone outsi)e of the 77O not restricte) ynational uris- )iction is suect to hi&h levels of e@loitation an) )e&ra)ation. Because the 77O are only ima&ine) lines an) re&ulation )oes not e@ist eyon) these or)ers <with the e@cetion of rivate sea-watchor&aniKations, who strive lo rotect =sheries?.nations in)ul&e their self-interests. +his free-for-all situation creates the ollutionan) over=shin& of many vast areas without any uestion. al

Plumwood <$''$? argues that anthropocentrism threatens human societ'and natural environments in general, in what she refers to asthe ecological crisis of reason. or Plumwoo). anthroocentrism. an) the 5theri6ingof nature, is a result of rationalist cultureand the su&se-uent failing to situate human societies withinecological categories and the natural environment ethicall' . 2he e@lains*Q +othe extent that we h'perseparate ourselves from nature and reduce

it conceptuall' in order to ustif' domination, we not onl' lose thea&ilit' to empathi6e and to see the nonhuman sphere in ethicalterms, &ut also get a false sense of our own character and locationthat includes an illusor' sense of autonom' . +he failure to see the nonhuman )omain in the richer terms aroriate to

ethics licenses suose)ly Rurely instrumentalR relationshis that )istort our ercetions an) enframin&s. imoverish our relations an) make us insensitive to )een)encies an) interconnectionsGwhich are thus in

turn a ru)ential haKar). <!? In other wor)s,through the anthropocentric mind frame, we positionourselves and nature as 5ther, and at detrimental risJ .*e limit oura&ilit' to clearl' see the relationship we have with the 5ther , inclu)in& its limitations,

what it rovi)es for us, a n) its ethical value. or Plumwoo). we are unale to see the ecolo&ical system we rely on. We )eny nature fervently as we nee) it for survival, on the very simlest of levels for asic humansustenance an) in the ful=llment of our caitalist society throu&h ro)uction. Plumwoo) <$''$? ar&ues for a cultural ara)i&m shift to a more iocentric view of humanityRs relation with the hysical worl).Contrastin& anthroocentrism. the iocentric view hol)s that humans have a lace within nature, an) all livin& ein&s have value re&ar)less of human use or oinion. #ccor)in& to +aylor <!F?. this viewoint oersan attitu)e that can au&ment our aroach to the commons in ways that are more thou&htful an) have an un)erlyin& resect for nature. Miller an) Airk <!!$? oer two sucate&ories of iocentric ethics as well*the comassionate ethic an) holoethic. +he comassionate ethic asks us to reco&niKe that the environment is vulnerale an) nee)s rotection from )e&ra)in& human interference. +hey ar&ue that humans areresonsile for reservin& Hthers without secial rivile&es. +he holoethic romotes an analo&y etween an or&anism an). say. an ocean, an) focuses on the interrelationshis of the livin& an) nonlivin&communities. Unlike the comassionate ethic, however, the holoethic looks eyon) in)ivi)ual or&anisms or secies. Miller an) Airk say. J9oloethic thinkin& wishes to reserve the scair)s an) )olhins not ecausethey are Rcute.R ut ecause lon&-run ecolo&ical )isaster mi&ht conceivaly follow their era)icationJ <$4"?. #l)o /eool)Rs <!4!? lan) ethic was early evi)ence of holocthical thinkin&. 9is ethic reositions humans

from conuerors of the lan) to citiKens of the lan).Q in community with it. /eool)Rs lan) ethic also ar&ues that reservation is morally &oo). 9e says. J# thin& is ri&ht when it ten)s to reserve the inte&rity,

staility, an) eauty of the iotic community. It is wron& when it ten)s otherwiseJ <!4!. $"$?. 8ot everyone i)entities as the conueror, ut our culture is e@emli=e) y mana&ers, those who make a)ministrative)ecisions aout the environment, an) &eneral consumers who make )ecisions throu&h consumtion. /eool) ar&ues for holocthical thinkin& to ecome a natural move as art of human evolution. We shoul) see

ourselves more ecolo&ically. It woul) e o ur ful=llment within the ecolo&ical niche to move from conueror to cooerator. which will etter allow us to reserve the iotic community0 Considerthe ocean specicall', which is onl' a small part of the larger naturalworld, &ut an apt example0 +he vastness of the ocean creates acondition where it is assumed that it is too large for humanit' to doan' irreversi&le damage 2chu& $''F?. 9owever, if we eectively challen&e the root metahors foun) in )e BeauvoirRs work an) amen) her work to inclu)e the

lan) ethic an) imortance of the ocean, there shoul) e a ara)i&m shift towar) iocentric holoethical thinkin&. #ccetin& the iocentric view, we reco&niKe that all marine secies have intrinsic value an) are artof a comle@ environment of interconnecte) or&anisms, oects, an) events. Ultimately, we can see throu&h these e@amles that root metahors such as atriarchy an) anthroocentrism. oth inSuential in )e

BeauvoirRs erotic ethic ecause they are incororate) lo free women from )omination, create a rift etween humans an) nature. *e should reect theassumption in )e BeauvoirRs erotic ethicthat we can dominate or disregard nature forexclusive human &enet, maintaining nature as 5ther as part of the



proect to free women0 )f we challenge patriarch' andanthropocentrism0 ) suspect we can &egin to cultivate an erotic ethicthat doesnIt support a choice regarding whether to protect andconserve nature, &ut rather see it as a responsi&ilit' as part of theproect0

5ur alternative is to em&race a holistic ethic our axiolog'is a collective undertaJing in which we reect thepatriarchal discourses which caused the crisis of ourworld and collectivel' reorient ourselves towards theEarthKheel, visting scholar of Environmental 9cience L 8CBerJele', %>=[Marti, !!3, +emle University Press, 6rom 9eroic to 9olistic 7thics,:htt*TTwww.temle.e)uTtemressTtitlesT!4Fre&.html, '0T'!T$'4, PD;

+he Menvironmental crisisM is, aove all, a crisis of perception 0 )t is a crisis

not onl' y virtue of what our culture sees , &ut y virtue of what it does not see.

#)rienne (ich has shown how Jlies, secrecy, an) silenceJ have een use) to eretuate the e@loitation of women. +he same may e sai) to aly to the e@loitation of all

of the natural worl) as well0 )f we are to transform the destructive consciousnessthat pervades our current culture, we must &reaJ through the lies,secrec', and silence0 +his is not an individual endeavor. olisticethics is a collective undertaJin g, not a solitar' tasJ0 It is a rocess of helin& one another

to iece to&ether the wi)er stories of which our l ives form a art. It means =llin& in the missin& links. It may mean aroachin& a woman on the street who is wearin& a furcoat an) askin& her if she is aware of how many animals )ie) to make her coat, an) if she is aware of how much suerin& the animals ha) to en)ure. #t the same time, itmeans un)erstan)in& the cultural conte@t that lea)s this woman to see &lamour where others see )eath. 2he is the ro)uct of a society that ros women of their own self-

ima&e an) then sells it ack to them in )istorte) form. 2he thinks that she is J)resse) to killJ we must let her know that others have een kille) for her to )ress.""Q )norder to engage in holistic ethics, we must also disengage frompatriarchal discourse 0 Patriarchal discourse creates dilemmas that itthen invites us to resolve. +hus, animal e@erimenters tyically invite us to answer the uestion, JWho woul) we save if we ha) to

choose etween our )rownin& )au&hter an) a )rownin& )o&VJ +he crisis scenario is designed to lead us to

&elieve that onl' one life can &e saved, and onl' at the otherIsexpense. His engaging from patriarchal discourse means that wemust refuse to dignif' these dualistic -uestions with a respon se. 7ven to

consi)er such uestions is to &ive suort an) vali)ity to the atriarchal worl) view."0 +he &est response to such-uestions is, perhaps, to pose a -uestion of our own . We mi&ht ask why the chil) is ill to

e&in with. Was it )ue to the hormones foun) in the meat she was fe), or was it erhas )ue to the consumtion of )ru&s that ha) rove) JsafeJ after testin& on animals*#n) why was the roverial )o& toute) y research scientists J)rownin&J to e&in withV 9a) someone thrown the )o& in the water <or, rather, the laoratory? in the

athetic elief that somehow, throu&h the )o&Rs )eath, a youn& chil)Rs life woul) e save)V #n) how and wh' did we developa culture in which death is seen as a medical failure, rather than as anatural part of lifeOQ #s we )isen&a&e from atriarchal )iscourse, we &egin to hear larger andfuller stories0 earing these &igger stories means learning to listento nature0 +he voice of women and the voice of nature have &eenmuted under patriarch'. Women an) nature arc consi)ere) oects un)er atriarchy, an) oects )o not seak, oects )o not feel, an)

oects have no nee)s0 5&ects exist onl' to serve the needs of others. But )esite our societyRs

refusal to listen, nature has &een increasingl' communicating her needs to us.

Nature is telling us in m'riad wa's that we cannot continue topoison her rivers, forests, and streams , that she is not invulnerale, an) that the violence an) ause must e

stoe). 8ature is seakin& to us. +he -uestion is whether we are willing or a&le to hear."F



Patriarchal thinJing is the root cause of all forms ofenvironmental domination the logic masculinit' ustiesand environmental destruction, capitalistic exploitationand endless warBirJeland, professor of sustaina&le development L

AucJland 80, .>=[Lanis, !!3, +emle University Press, 67cofeminism* /inkin& +heory an) Practice,:htt*TTwww.temle.e)uTtemressTtitlesT!4Fre&.html, '0T'0T$'4, PD;

What, then, are the imlications of the an)rocentric remiseV I have e@- laine) elsewhere how thisPatriarchal construction of realit' is implicated in the &ehaviors andattitudes that environmentalists cite as underl'ing causes of themodern crisis@ competitive individualism, human chauvinism,instrumentalism, hierarch', parochialism, and the addiction topower0$! But erhas more imortant is that the an)rocentric remise revents our uestionin& the

necessity of ower relationshis er sc. +hat is, ostensily genderneutral theoriesprotect the power structure &' concealing the ideological &asis ofexploitative relationships0 Militarism, colonialism, racism, classism, se@ism, caitalism, an)

other atholo&ical JismsJ of mo)ernity otain le&itimacy from the assumtion that ower relations an)hierarchy are inevitaly a art of human 2ociety )ue to ManRs Jinherent nature.J In other wor)s, if$anJind is &' nature autonomous, aggressive, and competitive <that is,

JmasculineM!, then ps'chological and ph'sical coercion or hierarchicalstructures are necessar' to manage con 2ict and maintain socialorder. /ikewise, cooerative relationshis, such as those foun) amon& women or trial cultures, are y

)e=nition unrealistic an) Utoian. In authoritarian aroaches, this essentialist conceptionof $an has &een used to ustif' hierarchical authorit', rules, and theapparatus to en force them. In more lieral aroaches, these same ualities are

sometimes revere), even if )istruste). i&eral theor' holds that $anIscompetitive, aggressive instincts should &e allowed free rein topursue is individual interests to the &enet of 9ociet'@ a social

construction of $an that usties capitalism. In short, the )ominant oliticali)eolo&ies, oth luralist an) centralist, share the same masculine archetye as reresentin& humanity,

althou&h it is use) to ustify )ierent means of )istriutin& ower. 8ow, if power relationsstem from prepolitical or universal truths a&out human nature, the&asis of power relations is removed from the realm of political andsocial de&ate0 *e cannot challenge the legitimating &asis of thepower structure &ecause we thinJ it cannot &e otherwise 0 +hus, sincepower relationships are preordained, militarism can &e ustied asunavoida&le or necessar', regardless of its patent irrationalit'. /ikewise,

if humans will always comete for a &reater share of resources, then the JrationalJ resonse to theenvironmental crisis woul) seem to e )o&-cat- )o& survivalism. +his creates a self-ful=llin& rohecy in

which nature an) community simly cannot survive. Ecofeminists have mounted achallenge to this Patriarchal essentialism, or the i)ea that so-calle) JmasculineJ

traits are the essence of human nature an) that ower structures are a necessary concomitant of humansci- ety. irst, of course, it woul) seem from human ein&sR relative hysical weakness that human

evolution must have )een)e) on cooeration in its early sta&es. 2econ), if women arc full'human, then it cannot &e argued that humans are innatel'aggressive, given the Patriarchal conception of women as passive. #n)

even if it is conce)e), for ar&umentRs sake, that the ower )rive is intrinsic to all humans, the maority ofhumans, women, have lar&ely een socialiKe) to suress it, so men can e too. #s 2allch has ointe) out,

an alternative model to $an exists, &ut has &een &acJgrounded 0D;



:



5ceans 5nl' Four

A0 )nterpretation +here are onl' four oceansN5AA %< <8#+IH8#/ HC7#8IC #8D #+MH2P97(IC #DMI8I2+(#+IH8, Lune

"th, $'4, 6+here is Hnly Hne %loal Hcean:htt*TToceanservice.noaa.&ovTfactsThowmanyoceans.html?While there is only one global ocean, the vast o)y of water that covers 0 ercent of the 7arth is&eo&rahically )ivi)e) into )istinct name) re&ions. +he oun)aries etween these re&ions have evolve)

over time for a variety of historical, cultural, &eo&rahical, an) scienti=c reasons. 9istorically, there are

four named oceans: the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Arctic.

B0 iolations0 +he develop4explore something that is notthe ocean

<! imits it functionall' narrows the topic &ecause itmaJes development4exploration of the actual ocean the

focus of the plan the alt is hundreds of a3s that are closeto or around the ocean

:! ?round denition locJs in core generics for the topic&' dening the Je' word of the topic

C! 5+)N? )998E for urisdiction, education and fairness0

http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/howmanyoceans.html

http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/howmanyoceans.html



)ts

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$erriam*e&ster %<< <M7((I#8 W7B2+7( DIC+IH8#(N, $', 6Its:,htt*TTwww.merriam-wester.comT)ictionaryTits?(N* of or relatin& to it or itself especially as possessor, agent, or object of an action &oin& to itskennelX a chil) rou) of its =rst )rawin&sX its =nal enactment into lawX

iolation@ +he a3 doesnIt increase the 8nited 9tatesFederal ?overnment%s development or Exploration of theEarths 5ceans

oting )ssue

Extra +@ the a3 garners advantages o3 of nongovernmental organi6ations exploring or developing the5cean and isn%t ust the 89F?%s exploration4development

?round@ the private sector is a huge piece of ground forthe Neg, as is state &ad arguments



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E-ualit'

+urn@ 5cean desalination destro's the environment and

Jills marine lifeF** > <oo) Water Watch is a nonro=t consumer or&aniKation that works to ensure clean water an) safe foo),

eruary $''!, 6Desalination* #n Hcean of Prolems:, as?

Ocean desalination endangers the environment and public health.Q While numers )o a &oo) oof illustratin& the ure =nancial cost of )esalination, they )o not accurately reSect the full e@ense. oo)

Water Watch foun) that additional costs borne by the public include damage to the

environment , danger to the public health and other external considerations .Q Hcean

desalination could contribute to global warming.Q Ironically, while desalination is supposed to

improve water shortages, its emissions could actually hasten the global warming that will

alter precipitation patterns and further strain existing water supplies +he &reenhouse &asollution from the in)ustrial seawater )esalination lants )warfs emissions from other water sulyotions such as conservation an) reuse. 2eawater )esalination in California, for e@amle, coul) consumenine times as much ener&y as surface water treatment an) 4 times as much ener&y as &roun)water

ro)uction.Q Ocean desalination threatens fisheries and marine environments.Q urther, on itsway into a lant, the ocean water brings with it billions of fish and other organisms that die in

the machin! ery "his results in millions of dollars of lost fishing revenue and a great loss of

marine life +hen, only a ortion of the ocean water that enters the lant actually reaches the consumer.Q

+he remainin& water en)s u as a hi&hly concentrate) solution that contains oth the salt from the oceanan) an array of chemicals from the in)ustrial rocess 5 which is release) ri&ht ack into the ocean, to@insan) all.

+echnical failures in desal plants means the plan doesn%tsolve$aliJ et al0 No Hate <#nees U. Malik, 2aleh #. #l-oKan, ah) #l-Muaili,Mohamma) #l-9ari, Lournal of ailure #nalysis an) Prevention, 8o Date,6reuent ailures of Motor 2haft in 2eawater Desalination Plant* 2ome Case2tu)ies:,htt*TTwww.research&ate.netTulicationT$E0030'$reuentailuresofMotor2haftin2eawaterDesalinationPlant2omeCase2tu)ies, as?"he failure of a shaft from a motor in a pump or a compressor has been a phenomenon of

common occurrence in seawater desalination plants "he origin of the problem in majority

of cases is either the inability of the material to withstand the level of dynamic stresses to

which shaft is subjected during operation and#or inade$uacy of the design "he shortcoming

in the design may be responsible for initiating locali%ed corrosion which ultimately leads to

failure of the component +he mo)e of failure of the shaft coul) e stress-relate)failure such as stress corrosion crackin&, mechanical fati&ue or corrosionfati&ue, an)Tor localiKe) corrosion such as crevice corrosion. +his aer)escries some recent case stu)ies relate) to shaft failures in seawater)esalination lants. "he case studies include shearing of a shaft in brine recycle pump in

which a combination of environment, design, and stresses played important role in failure In another case, in&ress of chlori)e insi)e the key slot was the main cause ofthe rolem. +he failure in a hi&h ressure seawater um in a 2W(H lantoccurre) )ue to crackin& in the mi))le of the shaft.



+urn@ Hesalination increases the costs forced oncommunities for clean water$c)nt're R <Min)y, /os #n&eles +imes, 4T'T'F, 6#ll that water, every )ro to )rink:,

htt*TTwww.latimes.comToinionTla-o-snow-mcintyre'ar'-story.htmlYa&eZ, as?

&any people m ista'enly consider ocean desalination a harmless way to get water togrowing cities without the effects associated with damming rivers and over!pumping

groundwater. "he truth is, desalination is one of the most harmful an) expensive water options

in California. When comare) to other availale strate&ies, ocean )esalination ust )oesnRt encil out.Q Consi)er that

ocean desalination is the most energy intensive way to get water +hatRs ri&ht -- it reuires more

ener&y to )esalinate a &allon of ocean water than it )oes to um water from 8orthern California over a mountain ran&e

all the way to 2outhern California. All of that energy means more greenhouse gases, which would

cause more problems for our snowpac' and groundwater, not to mention other resources (

Ocean desalination also re$uires that massive amounts of sea water, carryin& millions of =sh,

lankton an) other ocean life, must e sucke) u an) =ltere) every)ay -- with '' =sh mortality. +hose who care aout

the ocean know that these tyes of )iversions can )estroy miles of alrea)y stresse) coastal haitats. In fact, people

have been wor'ing for decades to stop power plants from this 'ind of water filtration(

Ocean desalination also fails the cost test It is the most expensive source of new water for

)alifornia, than's to the very high energy re$uirements *espite the claims thatdesalination will get less expensive as time goes on, you do not have to be an economist to

understand that + gasoline means that all forms of energy will be much more expensive in

the future, not cheaper.Q We shoul) also e aware that many of these )esalination lants woul) e owne) y

rivate comanies, inclu)in& susi)iaries of multinational cororations. +hat raises concerns aout transarency an)

accountaility.Q -ocally controlled water conservation , water recycling and brac'ish water

desalination are all far cheaper than ocean desalination. Coinci)entally, these otions are also less

ener&y- an) &reenhouse-&as intensive, an) less environmentally )ama&in&.Q Ocean desalination, $uite fran'ly,

is the ./0 of water We have etter otions. )ommunities need to decide whether they want their

water sources to generate massive amount of greenhouse gas, cost a fortune and destroy the

environment. I susect that in most cases, Californians woul) reect that oer.

5cean desal plants won%t even &e allowed to operateGcan%t pass environmental standardsF** > <oo) Water Watch is a nonro=t consumer or&aniKation that works to ensure clean water an) safe foo),


&any of the theoretical concerns associated with ocean desalination came true when "ampa

1ay commissioned the first and only large!scale seawater desal ination plant to come online for

)rinkin& water use in this country. In the !!'s, a series of oor mana&ement )ecisions over)rew lori)a1s &roun)watersystems, leavin& +ama Bay authorities fearful of water shorta&es. +o a))ress this risk, they )eci)e) to uil) 8orth#merica1s =rst an) lar&est ocean )esalination lant.Q In !!!, the West Coast (e&ional Water 2uly #uthority, which laterecame +ama Bay Water, chose 2W Water, //C,Q a con&lomerate of Posei)on Water (esources an) 2tone Wester, touil) the lant. Bankrutcies an) contract transfers rou&ht the oeration online for tests a year ehin) sche)ule.

"echnical failures followed and the plant could not meet environmental standards. +he

comany char&e) with construction of the lant )eclare) ankrutcy.E$ +he lant eventu- ally reoene), several lawsuitsan) years later, ut at a much hi&her cost of \EF million G nearly 44 ercent more than romise).E3 Due to the failure

of the rivate comanies to uhol) their en) of the ar&ain, the +ama Bay Water #uthority, a ulic utility, now oerates

the lant.E4Q "o this day, the plant has not produced water at its stated capacity and costs far

more than planned 2 even without factoring in any social or environmental costs, which have

yet to e uanti=e).



Hon%t &elieve the h'peGocean desalination will &arel'maJe a dent in the water scarcit' pro&lems communitiesface0F** > <oo) Water Watch is a nonro=t consumer or&aniKation that works to ensure clean water an) safe foo),


Industry sources tend to exaggerate the capacity, and thus the seeming promise, of oceandesalination While media and mar'eting focus on seawater desalination, most plants in the

/nited .tates neither use seawater as a source nor produce drin'ing water #ccor)in& to the8ational (esearch Council reort, the vast maority treat rackish water rather than seawater, an) half ofall e@istin& lants serve only small-scale in)ustrial uroses.44Q Moreover, in)ustry estimates inSate theromise of e@istin& lants to ro)uce water y inclu)in& lants that )o not actually ro)uce water in theirsurveys. +he Wan&nickT%WI estimate of )esalination in the Unite) 2tates, for e@amle, inclu)es lanne)lants that were never actually uilt, comlete) lants that never ro)uce) water, lants that no lon&eroerate, an) lants use) only for testin&. or e@amle, the Wan&nickT%WI survey inclu)e) a lar&e&overnment-uilt lant in Numa, #riKona, even thou&h it only ro)uce) water )urin& short test runs.4EQ

urthermore, many existing plants simply do not produce at their stated capacity, if they

produce water at all 3or ex! ample, in a survey of desalination facilities along the )alifornia

coast, the five plants listed as serving a municipal use were labeled as 4intermittent use,5

4decommissioned,5 4temporarily idle,5 4inactive5 and 4not 'nown54" Meanwhile, a comre-hensive survey reare) for the +e@as Water Develoment Boar) in $''E in)icate) that for three of thestate1s =ve lar&est )esalination lants that ro)uce )rinkin& water, the avera&e ro)uction was only half of the state) )esi&n caacity.40 #n) these lants are usin& surface or &roun)water, not seawater.4F#lthou&h the +e@as Water Develoment Boar) has een researchin& seawater )esalination otions foryears, its =rst roose) seawater roect is only ' the siKe of a full scale lant an), as of Decemer$''F, was still seekin& fun)in& aroval.4!Q 2o althou&h )esalination lants have now een uilt in everystate, this imressive statistic is temere) y a closer look at ro)uction caacity. 7ven with these inSate)

numers, the 6ational 7esearch )ouncil estimates that all 8,899 plants in the /nited .tates

including brac'ish plants and plants used only for industry; operating at their full capacity

could produce a measly 9 percent of the country<s water use.E'Q "o see the futility of this

technology, ta'e a loo' at )alifornia, the state with the most major proposed ocean

desalination plants If all of the proposed plants functioned at their full capacity, they would

increase the state<s desalination ability =9 times over >et, the additional water would only

cover ? percent of the state<s urban water use from @999.E Aee in min) that this calculation wasase) only on uran water use, which means )esalte) water woul) rovi)e an even smaller er- centa&eof the state1s total water use.

5cean desal failsGre-uires too much energ'Gcommunities won%t ump on &oard9chir&er 7 <Michael, /ive 2cience, "T$ET'0, 6Why Desalination DoesnRt Work <Net?:,

htt*TTwww.livescience.comT4E'-)esalination-work.html, as?

nergy is 'eyQ But even with membranes, large amounts of energy are needed to generate the

high pressure that forces the water through the filter Current metho)s reuire aout 4 kilowatt-hours

of ener&y to ro)uce ,''' &allons of )esalinate) seawater.Q # tyical #merican uses F' to '' &allons of water a )ay,accor)in& to the U.2. %eolo&ical 2urvey. +he entire country consumes aout 3$3 illion &allons er )ay of surface water

an) another F4.E illion &allons of &roun) water.Q If half of this water came from desalination, the

/nited .tates would need more than 899 extra electric power plants, each with a gigawatt of

capacity( *epending on local energy prices, 8,999 gallons of desalinated seawater can costaround +B or + Although that might not seem li'e much, it is still cheaper in many places

to pump water out of the ground or import it from somewhere else(



*ater scarcit'

No reason the plan is Je' to resolve international water

shortagesGinvestment is &ooming glo&all'Navigant <; <8avi&ant (esearch, market research an) consultin& team that rovi)es in-)eth

analysis of &loal clean technolo&y markets, "T$FT', 6Worl)wi)e Desalination Plant Investment to Douley $'":, htt*TTwww.navi&antresearch.comTnewsroomTworl)wi)e-)esalination-lant-investment-to-)oule-y-$'", as?

Water scarcity , population and economic growth, pollution, and urbani%ation are all placing

increased pressure on freshwater resources around the world. +he &a etween the suly offreshwater an) )eman) for water for in)ustrial, a&ricultural, an) )omestic use is &rowin& at a rai) ace.#t the same time, the cost of )esalination has come )own stea)ily, an) it is ecomin& a more aor)ale

means of meetin& the worl)1s &rowin& freshwater nee)s. #ccor)in& to a new reort from Pike (esearch, all

of these factors will contribute to strong growth in the desalination technology mar'e t over

the next several years, and the cleantech mar'et intelligence firm forecasts that global

desalination investment will double from +CB billion in @989 to +8?? billion per year by

@98?, representing cumulative spending of +C=C billion during that period .Q 6"hedesalination plant supplier mar'et is highly fragmented, despite a great deal of mergers and

ac$uisitions activity during the last decade,5 says managing director )lint Wheeloc' 4"he

top five suppliers captured only @DE of the mar'et from @99= to @99F. #n) as reverse osmosis<(H? is increasin&ly a)ote) as the maor )esalination technolo&y, the arriers to entry are ein& lowere).:Q In contrast, however, Wheelock notes that the market for key )esalination comonents is far moreconcentrate). or e@amle, more than "E of the market for (H memranes is controlle) y three lar&elayers. +he markets for hi&h-ressure ums an) ener&y recovery )evices are also uite concentrate).

Pike (esearch1s analysis in)icates that these competitive dynamics will be critically important as

the sta'es continue to increase in the rapidly!growing global desalination mar'et.Q Pike(esearch anticiates that the Mi))le 7astT8orth #frica re&ion will continue to e the &loal hu of)esalination lant construction, ut there will e si&ni=cant &rowth oortunities in other arts of the worl)

as well. +he =rm forecasts that, in $'", the top five mar'ets in terms of installed capacity will be

.audi Arabia, the /nited Arab mirates, the /nited .tates, )hina, and Israel Worldwide

desalination capacity will reach 8@? million cubic meters per day by @98?, up from =?

million in @989

+he presumption warming maJes water wars inevita&lecauses s'mptomfocus, this causes a selffulllingprophes'e'wood , programme assistant at the SuaJer 8nitedNations 5Tce in ?eneva speciali6es in human impactsof climate change, <:[2teven, $4 Luly, +homas (euters oun)ation, J+he Battle for Water - Waterscarcity lea)s to conSictV 8ot a fore&one conclusion,Jhtt*TTwww.trust.or&TalertnetTlo&sTthe-attle-for-waterTwater-scarcity-lea)s-to-conSict-not-a-fore&one-conclusionT, DHI 0T3T$'4, M7/;

+he i)ea that climate chan&e will inevitaly lea) to an increase in violentconSict over scarce natural resources is an increasin&ly common osition in ulic

)iscourse, ut is it necessarily trueV If any resource is suscetile to conSict, it iswater. Water is vital for )rinkin&, washin&, a&riculture an) in)ustry, an) a lar&e roortion of the worl)Rs

http://www.trust.org/alertnet/blogs/the-battle-for-water/water-scarcity-leads-to-conflict-not-a-foregone-conclusion/






freshwater is share) etween nations, with $4 maor river systems share) y two or more states an) !countries receivin& more than half their water from outsi)e their or)ers. #s climate chan&e aects &laciermelt an) )rou&ht atterns, many countries are likely to =n) )ecreasin& water resources creatin& rolems

for their &rowin& oulations an) economies. 9owever, the )iscourse that this situation willinevitaly lea) to Rwater conSictR, as countries try to secure as much of the )win)lin& resource

for themselves as they can, is rolematic in two maor ways. irstly, climatechan&e )oes not )rive olitical instaility, as 7) Davey claims, ut is only one of aconstellation of factors that can lea) to violent conSict. (ather than causin& conSict in

a reviously eaceful situation, climate chan&e can act as a Rtri&&erR or RmultilierR in situations where theasis for conSict alrea)y e@ists )ue to economic, social, cultural orhistorical factors. In actual fact, a team of aca)emics le) y #aron + Wolf foun) that the

numer of inci)ents of serious international conSict over water is very small5 ust seven in the last four )eca)es, an) =ve of those were in the alrea)y volatile Mi))le 7ast.

2econ)ly, y framin& the rolem in terms of conSict an) security, weare encoura&e) to look to the same framework for solutions. In more

)eveloe) countries that will e less aecte) y climate chan&e, this can inclu)e further securin& an)

militarisin& of or)ers to kee out refu&ees from climate-relate) conSicts. Countries threatene)y resource scarcity may elieve they nee) to act re-emtively to secure

resources from their RenemiesR. Instea) of assumin& the inevitaility of conSict , it isossile to see water scarcity as an oortunity for cooeration, with states

an) communities realisin& the mutual ene=t availale to them throu&h workin& to&ether rather thancometin&.

No impact to water wars people tend to cooperaterather than have wars over waterAllouche << 5 fellow at the Institute of Develoment 2tu)ies at Bri&hton, UA <Leremy, J+he

sustainaility an) resilience of &loal water an) foo) systems* Political analysis of the interlay etweensecurity, resource scarcity, olitical systems an) &loal tra)eJ oo) Policy, olume 3", 2ulement ?

At the same time, Ostrom<s wor' <!!'? shows how local people cooperate in times of

scarcity 7efuting Gardin<s <!"F? pessimistic Htragedy of the commons<, her publicationshave highlighted a variety of conditions under which collective action in resource

management operates effectively, such as when there are clear resource oun)aries an) relativesocio-economic homo&eneity amon& users. What seem to e emer&in&, in fact, is that &eo&rahical scalean) intensity of conSict are inversely relate). 9owever, water-relate) conSicts are cause) more y the wayin which water use is &overne) than y water scarcity <see for e@amle the on&oin& tensions etween

lan)owners an) oorer easants in the Chittoor District, In)ia, over the lowerin& of the water tale?. "he

outcome of local conflicts tends to reflect societal problems "he evidence that countries

engage in wars specifically over water is poor ut there is little )out that water conSicts arecommon at the inter-sector, inter-community, inter-farm an) inter- <an) intra-? househol) levels. #ccessan) control over water, olitical ower, an) social an) &en)er relations are the maor )rivers causin& watercrises, esecially at the local level <see for e@amle Mehta, $''E?. +he risks of water-relate) conSicts areat the level of human security. #s su&&este) y %leick <$''!?, these risk can e re)uce) if* <i? asic humannee)s for water are met as a way to ensure, if not asolute ustice, at least some semlance of euity, <ii?eective eace-keein& oerations at the Unite) 8ations are )eveloe) when resource )isutes cannot eresolve) locally, an) <iii? )ilomats have a etter un)erstan)in&s of the connections etween water an)conSict so that they can aly the tools in other conSict situations to re)uce water )isutes.

*ater wars are mostl' regional won%t escalateinternationall'Allouche << 5 fellow at the Institute of Develoment 2tu)ies at Bri&hton, UA <Leremy, J+he

sustainaility an) resilience of &loal water an) foo) systems* Political analysis of the interlay etweensecurity, resource scarcity, olitical systems an) &loal tra)eJ oo) Policy, olume 3", 2ulement ?



+his article has rovi)e) an overview of the current an) future challen&es in terms of &loal foo) an)

water systems. +he maor focus of the ar&ument has een on how resource scarcity is a contested

and subjective concept which cannot fully explain conflict , political instability or food

insecurity. +he olitics of ineuality an) allocation are much more imortant variales in e@lainin&

water an) foo) insecurity. +his is articularly true for conSicts. Although resource scarcity has been

lin'ed to international wars, the current data shows that most conflict over wate r an) foo)are much more local 1ut there again, although resource scarcity can be lin'ed to

malnutrition, hunger and water insecurity, in the majority of cases, water and food

insecurity are rarely about competition over resources but rather reflect the politics of

allocation an) ineuality. In this resect, war an) conSicts a&&ravate these insecurities not ust on theshort term ut also on the lon& term. #t the &loal level, foo) security has consi)eraly imrove) an)

rovi)es the means to a))ress these insecurities. "rade can certainly be seen as a way to address

access for countries that are under severe stress in terms of food and water and provides

logical grounds for $uestioning the various water and food wars scenarios. #lthou&h &loaltra)e an) technolo&ical innovation are key )rivers in rovi)in& stale an) resilient &loal systems, themost )estailiKin& &loal water-relate) threat is increasin& foo) rices an) hun&er. Hverall, )ecision-makers shoul) show &reater concern for the human ein&s who make their livin& in a&riculture, so thatthose at risk of livelihoo) an) foo)-security failures, esecially un)er anticiate) scenarios of climatechan&e, will e less )erive). Current )eates linke) to &loal foo) security an) climate fail to a))ress the

olitical )imension of resource scarcity which is rimarily linke) to the olitics of ineuality, &en)er an)ower.



9olvenc'

Hesalination is unfriendl' toward marine environments0Francis, <=<Aatie rancis, (esearch #nalysis for 2olution 2trate&ies, 6Desalination isnRtthe answer to CaliforniaRs water rolem:, $'3,htt*TT&reenoe)ia.comTarticleT)esalination-seawater-can-)o-more-harm-&oo)?5cean desalination plants are located ust o3 the coast , where theirintaJe pipes sucJ in &illions of sh, eggs, and other small organismsever' da', along with the seawater. Hnce these livin& or&anisms enter the machinery of

the )esalination lant, they are kille). +his reresents a hu&e loss of life an) coul) otentially )estroy

entire ecosystems0 Additionall', the high energ' levels needed to run theseplants ma' also contri&ute to environmental pro&lems0 +he

desalination process re-uires huge amounts of electricit' toseparate drinJa&le water from dissolved salts and other minerals.

Burnin& fossil fuels is the most common metho) of attainin& this ener&y, which, of course, contriutes

to air ollution an) the &reen house &as eect. In a))ition to the machines themselves, anotherserious environmental concern is the uality of the water ut ack into the ocean after the )rinkale water

is collecte). +his out2ow is called &rine &ecause of its extremel' highsalt content all of the nonsalt' water has &een removed!0 Not onl'does &rine have more salt than natural seawater, it also commonl'contains leftover chemicals and metals from the treatment process .

Components of &rine and their related environmental issues include@Chlorine@ interacts with preexisting chemical s to form carcinogensand mutagens 0 Acid s @ damage the tissues of organisms 0 Products

used for machiner' upJeep@ cause algal &looms and eventual loss ofox'gen in the area0 eav' metals@ accumulate at the &ottom of theocean where sea creatures ingest th em and eventuall' pass them tohumans , where the' could &e toxic0

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